S PE C IAL C OU RT FOR S I ER R A LEON E

TRIAL CHAMBER I Before: Hon. Justice Pierre Boutet, Presiding Judge

Hon. Justice Benjamin Mutanga Itoe Hon. Justice Bankole Thompson

Registrar:

Herman von Hebel

Date: 2 March 2009

PROSECUTOR Against ISSA HASSAN SESAY MORRIS KALLON AUGUSTINE GBAO (Case No. SCSL-04-15-T)

Public Document

JUDGEMENT

Office of the Prosecutor: Defence Counsel for Issa Hassan Sesay: Pete Harrison Vincent Wagona Charles Hardaway Reginald Fynn

Wayne Jordash Sareta Ashraph

Elisabeth Baumgartner Rgine Gachoud Amira Hudroge Bridget Osho

Defence Counsel for Morris Kallon: Charles Taku Kennedy Ogeto

Court Appointed Counsel for Augustine Gbao: John Cammegh Scott Martin

SPECIAL COURT FOR SIERRA LEONE

OUTLINE I. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................................ 1

II. CONTEXT........................................................................................................................................................... 3

III. APPLICABLE LAW....................................................................................................................................... 16

IV. CHALLENGES TO THE FORM OF THE INDICTMENT ...................................................................105

V. EVALUATION OF EVIDENCE...................................................................................................................162

VI. FACTUAL AND LEGAL FINDINGS ........................................................................................................214 1. THE RUF ORGANISATION AND THE AFRC/RUF RELATIONSHIP..................................................................214 2. FINDINGS ON THE GENERAL REQUIREMENTS ................................................................................................297 3. CRIMES IN BO DISTRICT.................................................................................................................................310 4. CRIMES IN KENEMA DISTRICT .......................................................................................................................323 5. CRIMES IN KONO DISTRICT............................................................................................................................348 6. CRIMES IN KAILAHUN DISTRICT ....................................................................................................................412 7. CRIMES IN KOINADUGU AND BOMBALI DISTRICTS .......................................................................................446 8. CRIMES IN FREETOWN AND THE WESTERN AREA .........................................................................................450 9. CRIMES IN PORT LOKO DISTRICT...................................................................................................................481 10. CHILD SOLDIERS ..........................................................................................................................................482 11. ATTACKS DIRECTED AGAINST UNAMSIL PERSONNEL (COUNTS 15 TO 18) .............................................519

VII. RESPONSIBILITY OF THE ACCUSED.................................................................................................579 1. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS ..........................................................................................................................579 2. BO DISTRICT FROM 1 JUNE 1997 TO 30 JUNE 1997 .......................................................................................580 3. KENEMA DISTRICT FROM 25 MAY 1997 TO 19 FEBRUARY 1998 ..................................................................603 4. KONO DISTRICT FROM 14 FEBRUARY 1998 TO JANUARY 2000.....................................................................607 5. KAILAHUN DISTRICT FROM 30 NOVEMBER 1996 TO 15 SEPTEMBER 2000 ...................................................634 6. KOINADUGU DISTRICT FROM 14 FEBRUARY 1998 TO 30 SEPTEMBER 1998..................................................639 7. BOMBALI DISTRICT FROM 1 MAY 1998 TO 30 NOVEMBER 1998 ..................................................................640 8. FREETOWN AND THE WESTERN AREA FROM 6 JANUARY 1999 TO 28 FEBRUARY 1999 ...............................641 9. PORT LOKO DISTRICT FROM FEBRUARY 1999 TO APRIL 1999......................................................................650 10. CONSCRIPTION, ENLISTMENT AND USE OF CHILD SOLDIERS (COUNT 12) ..................................................651 11. ATTACKS ON UNAMSIL PERSONNEL (COUNTS 15 TO 18) .........................................................................654

VIII. CUMULATIVE CONVICTIONS ............................................................................................................672

IX. DISPOSITION...............................................................................................................................................677 1. SESAY.............................................................................................................................................................677 2. KALLON..........................................................................................................................................................680 3. GBAO..............................................................................................................................................................684

X. DISSENTING OPINION OF JUSTICE PIERRE G. BOUTET...............................................................688

XI. SEPARATE CONCURRING OPINION OF JUSTICE BANKOLE THOMPSON FILED PURSUANT TO ARTICLE 18 OF THE STATUTE ......................................................................................697

ANNEX A: LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ........................................................................................................733

ANNEX B: PROCEDURAL HISTORY ...........................................................................................................737

ANNEX C: INDICTMENT.................................................................................................................................782

ANNEX D: JUDICIALLY NOTICED FACTS................................................................................................801

ANNEX E: TABLE OF AUTHORITIES.......................................................................................................... 805

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DETAILED CONTENTS

I. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................................ 1

II. CONTEXT........................................................................................................................................................... 3 1. THE POLITICAL CONTEXT OF THE CONFLICT IN SIERRA LEONE........................................................................ 3 2. THE ARMED CONFLICT FROM 1991 TO 1996 ..................................................................................................... 4 3. AFRC/RUF JUNTA PERIOD (MAY 1997 TO FEBRUARY 1998) .......................................................................... 7 4. THE ARMED CONFLICT FROM 1998 TO 2001 ................................................................................................... 10 5. THE CONFLICT AREAS ..................................................................................................................................... 14

III. APPLICABLE LAW....................................................................................................................................... 16 1. INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................................................. 16 2. JURISDICTION ................................................................................................................................................... 17

2.1. Greatest Responsibility ........................................................................................................................... 17 2.2. Lom Amnesty.......................................................................................................................................... 18 2.3. Violations of International Humanitarian Law and Sierra Leonean Law............................................. 18 2.4. Serious Violations ............................................................................................................................... 23

3. LAW ON THE CRIMES CHARGED ...................................................................................................................... 24 3.1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................................. 24 3.2. General Requirements............................................................................................................................. 25

3.2.1. Article 2: Crimes against Humanity.................................................................................................................. 25 3.2.2. Article 3: War Crimes........................................................................................................................................ 32 3.2.3. Article 4: Other Serious Violations of International Humanitarian Law ......................................................... 38

3.3. Specific Offences ..................................................................................................................................... 39 3.3.1. Acts of Terrorism (Count 1) .............................................................................................................................. 39 3.3.2. Collective Punishments (Count 2)..................................................................................................................... 42 3.3.3. Extermination (Count 3).................................................................................................................................... 43 3.3.4. Murder (Counts 4 and 16) ................................................................................................................................. 45 3.3.5. Violence to Life, Health and Physical or Mental Well-Being of Persons, in Particular Murder (Counts 5 and 17) ................................................................................................................................................................................ 47 3.3.6. Rape (Count 6)................................................................................................................................................... 48 3.3.7. Sexual Slavery and any other Form of Sexual Violence (Count 7).................................................................. 50 3.3.8. Other Inhumane Acts (Counts 8 and 11)........................................................................................................... 53 3.3.9. Outrages Upon Personal Dignity (Count 9) ...................................................................................................... 56 3.3.10. Violence to Life, Health and Physical or Mental Well-Being of Persons, in Particular Mutilation (Count 10)...................................................................................................................................................................................... 57 3.3.11. Conscripting or Enlisting Children under the Age of 15 into Armed Forces or Groups or Using Them to Participate Actively in Hostilities (Count 12) ............................................................................................................. 59 3.3.12. Enslavement (Count 13) .................................................................................................................................. 62 3.3.13. Pillage (Count 14)............................................................................................................................................ 64 3.3.14. Intentionally Directing Attacks Against Personnel Involved in a Peacekeeping Mission (Count 15) .......... 67 3.3.15. Taking of Hostages (Count 18) ....................................................................................................................... 76

4. LAW ON THE MODES OF LIABILITY CHARGED................................................................................................. 79 4.1. Responsibility under Article 6(1) of the Statute...................................................................................... 81

4.1.1. Committing ........................................................................................................................................................ 81 4.1.2. Committing through Participation in a Joint Criminal Enterprise.................................................................... 81 4.1.3. Planning ............................................................................................................................................................. 86 4.1.4. Instigating .......................................................................................................................................................... 87 4.1.5. Ordering ............................................................................................................................................................. 87 4.1.6. Aiding and Abetting .......................................................................................................................................... 88

4.2. Responsibility under Article 6(3) of the Statute...................................................................................... 90 4.2.1. Superior-Subordinate Relationship ................................................................................................................... 92 4.2.2. Mental Element: the Superior Knew or Had Reason to Know....................................................................... 100 4.2.3. Necessary and Reasonable Measures .............................................................................................................. 102

IV. CHALLENGES TO THE FORM OF THE INDICTMENT ...................................................................105 1. GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF PLEADING..............................................................................................................105

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1.1. The Degree of Specificity Required in relation to Allegations pursuant to Article 6(1).....................107 1.2. The Degree of Specificity Required in relation to Allegations pursuant to Article 6(3) .....................108 1.3. Exceptions to the Specificity Requirements ..........................................................................................108 1.4. Curing a Defective Indictment ..............................................................................................................110

2. SUBMISSIONS OF THE PARTIES .......................................................................................................................114 3. ANALYSIS.......................................................................................................................................................115

3.1. Challenges to the Sufficiency of the Prosecutions Pleading of the Alleged Joint Criminal Enterprise......................................................................................................................................................................115

3.1.1. Submissions of the Parties............................................................................................................................... 115 3.1.2. The Principles of Pleading Applicable to Joint Criminal Enterprise as a Mode of Liability......................... 119 3.1.3. The Divisibility of a Joint Criminal Enterprise............................................................................................... 120 3.1.4. The Pleading of the Joint Criminal Enterprise in the Indictment ................................................................... 121 3.1.5. Conclusions on the Pleading of Joint Criminal Enterprise ............................................................................. 135

3.2. The Pleading of the Material Facts and Modes of Liability Underlying the Accuseds Responsibility Pursuant to Articles 6(1) and 6(3), Other than for Participation in a Joint Criminal Enterprise.............135

3.2.1. The Degree of Specificity Required in Respect of Allegations of Personal Commission under Article 6(1).................................................................................................................................................................................... 135 3.2.2. The Degree of Specificity Required in Respect of Allegations Pursuant to the Remaining Modes of Liability Under Article 6(1)...................................................................................................................................................... 137 3.2.3. The Pleading of the Different Modes of Responsibility under Article 6(1)................................................... 138 3.2.4. The Degree of Specificity Required in the Indictment in respect of Allegations of Superior Responsibility under Article 6(3)....................................................................................................................................................... 139

3.3. Defence Objections to the Pleading of Other Material Facts..............................................................141 3.3.1. Whether the Pleading of Criminal Acts and Events in the Indictment is Exhaustive .................................... 141 3.3.2. The Pleading of Locations in the Indictment .................................................................................................. 144 3.3.3. The Pleading of Timeframes in the Indictment............................................................................................... 146

3.4. Other Discrete Objections to the Indictment Raised by the Accused ..................................................149 3.4.1. Kallons Opportunity to Enter a Plea to the Amended Indictment................................................................. 149 3.4.2. Kallons Argument regarding conduct charged under Common Article 3 and Additional Protocol II......... 150 3.4.3. The Pleading of the Chapeau Requirements for Crimes Against Humanity.................................................. 153 3.4.4. The Pleading of Counts 1 and 2 ...................................................................................................................... 154 3.4.5. The Pleading of Count 7 and the Rule Against Duplicity .............................................................................. 155 3.4.6. The Pleading of Count 8 and the Rule Against Redundancy of Counts......................................................... 156 3.4.7. The Pleading of Counts 8 and 9 ...................................................................................................................... 158

3.5. Conclusions on the Sufficiency of the Indictment.................................................................................160 V. EVALUATION OF EVIDENCE...................................................................................................................162

1. INTRODUCTION...............................................................................................................................................162 1.1. Admission of Relevant Evidence.......................................................................................................162 1.2. Presumption of Innocence and Standard of Proof ...............................................................................162 1.3. The Privilege against Self-Incrimination and Testimony of the Accused ............................................163 1.4. A Reasoned Opinion in Writing ............................................................................................................163

2. EVIDENCE OF WITNESSES ..............................................................................................................................166 2.1. Credibility and Reliability of Oral Testimony ......................................................................................166 2.2. Inconsistencies.......................................................................................................................................167 2.3. Identification Evidence..........................................................................................................................168 2.4. Hearsay Evidence..................................................................................................................................169 2.5. Accomplice Evidence.............................................................................................................................170 2.6. Circumstantial Evidence .......................................................................................................................170 2.7. Corroboration .......................................................................................................................................171 2.8. Alibi .......................................................................................................................................................171 2.9. Measures to Protect Witnesses .............................................................................................................172 2.10. Names and Spellings of Locations ......................................................................................................173 2.11. Nicknames............................................................................................................................................173 2.12. Timeframes ..........................................................................................................................................173 2.13. Expert Evidence...................................................................................................................................174

3. DOCUMENTARY EVIDENCE ............................................................................................................................175 4. JUDICIAL NOTICE AND AGREED FACTS .........................................................................................................177 5. CREDIBILITY ANALYSIS .................................................................................................................................177

5.1. Witness Incentives.............................................................................................................................178 5.2. Concerns about certain categories of Defence witnesses ....................................................................179 5.3. Victim Witnesses....................................................................................................................................181

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5.4. Expert Witnesses ...................................................................................................................................182 5.5. Insider Witnesses...................................................................................................................................183

5.5.1. Prosecution Witnesses ..................................................................................................................................... 184 5.5.2. Defence Witnesses........................................................................................................................................... 190

5.6. Former Child Soldiers...........................................................................................................................193 5.6.1. TF1-141............................................................................................................................................................ 194 5.6.2. TF1-263............................................................................................................................................................ 195 5.6.3. TF1-117............................................................................................................................................................ 195 5.6.4. TF1-314............................................................................................................................................................ 196

5.7. Other witnesses......................................................................................................................................197 5.7.1. TF1-108............................................................................................................................................................ 197 5.7.2. TF1-113............................................................................................................................................................ 198 5.7.3. TF1-093............................................................................................................................................................ 199

5.8. Testimony of the Accused......................................................................................................................200 5.8.1. Issa Sesay ......................................................................................................................................................... 200 5.8.2. Morris Kallon................................................................................................................................................... 201

5.9. Kallons Alibi ........................................................................................................................................202 5.9.1. Procedural History ........................................................................................................................................... 202 5.9.2. Alibi: Kallons Submissions............................................................................................................................ 203 5.9.3. Alibi: Prosecutions Submissions.................................................................................................................... 209 5.9.4. Alibi: Findings ................................................................................................................................................. 209 5.9.5. Conclusion on Kallons Alibi .......................................................................................................................... 213

VI. FACTUAL AND LEGAL FINDINGS ........................................................................................................214 1. THE RUF ORGANISATION AND THE AFRC/RUF RELATIONSHIP..................................................................214

1.1. Overview of the RUF Organisation ......................................................................................................214 1.1.1. Introduction...................................................................................................................................................... 214 1.1.2. The RUF Ideology ........................................................................................................................................... 215 1.1.3. The Operational Command Structure.............................................................................................................. 217 1.1.4. The RUF Security Units .................................................................................................................................. 223 1.1.5. Discipline within the RUF............................................................................................................................... 231 1.1.6. Communications within the RUF.................................................................................................................... 234

1.2. The RUF from 1991 to November 1996 ...............................................................................................236 1.2.1. Military Structure and Operations................................................................................................................... 236 1.2.2. The Role of the Accused ................................................................................................................................. 239

1.3. The RUF from November 1996 to May 1997 .......................................................................................241 1.3.1. Military Structure and Operations................................................................................................................... 241 1.3.2. The Role of the Accused ................................................................................................................................. 243

1.4. The RUF during the Junta Government (May 1997 to February 1998)..............................................243 1.4.1. The AFRC Coup .............................................................................................................................................. 243 1.4.2. The RUF and the AFRC Form an Alliance..................................................................................................... 244 1.4.3. The Junta Government in Freetown ................................................................................................................ 247 1.4.4. The Junta Government in Bo, Kenema and Kailahun Districts...................................................................... 250 1.4.5. The Role of the Accused ................................................................................................................................. 252

1.5. The Intervention (February 1998) ........................................................................................................253 1.5.1. Withdrawal from Freetown ............................................................................................................................. 254 1.5.2. Masiaka: Operation Pay Yourself ................................................................................................................... 255 1.5.3. Makeni: The plan to attack Kono .................................................................................................................... 256 1.5.4. SAJ Musa breaks away from the AFRC/RUF ................................................................................................ 257

1.6. The AFRC/RUF in Kono and Kailahun Districts (March to November 1998) ...................................257 1.6.1. The AFRC/RUF Attack Kono ......................................................................................................................... 257 1.6.2. The RUF Arrest Johnny Paul Koroma in Buedu ............................................................................................ 259 1.6.3. AFRC/RUF Command Structure in Kono District ......................................................................................... 261 1.6.4. The AFRC/RUF After ECOMOG Recapture Koidu ...................................................................................... 262 1.6.5. The AFRC and RUF Split ............................................................................................................................... 263 1.6.6. RUF Headquarters in Buedu ........................................................................................................................... 264 1.6.7. Superman Joins SAJ Musa in Koinadugu District.......................................................................................... 265 1.6.8. Role of the Accused......................................................................................................................................... 266

1.7. The AFRC/RUF in Bombali and Koinadugu Districts (May to November 1998)...............................270 1.7.1. Gullits AFRC Force Moves to Rosos ............................................................................................................ 270 1.7.2. The AFRC, RUF and STF under SAJ Musa in Koinadugu District............................................................... 272 1.7.3. SAJ Musa joins the AFRC at Major Eddie Town........................................................................................... 273 1.7.4. SAJ Musa Plans for an AFRC Attack on Freetown........................................................................................ 273

1.8. The Attack on Freetown (December 1998 to January 1999) ...............................................................275 1.8.1. RUF Plan to Attack Kono................................................................................................................................ 275

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1.8.2. The RUF Recapture Kono and Makeni........................................................................................................... 277 1.8.3. Gullit Assumes Command After the Death of SAJ Musa .............................................................................. 278 1.8.4. The AFRC Fighters Attack Freetown ............................................................................................................. 279 1.8.5. The AFRC Retreat From Freetown................................................................................................................. 281 1.8.6. RUF Support for the Attack on Freetown ....................................................................................................... 283 1.8.7. The AFRC and the RUF Meet at Waterloo..................................................................................................... 284 1.8.8. Role of the Accused......................................................................................................................................... 285

1.9. The RUF from February 1999 to September 2000...............................................................................287 1.9.1. RUF Infighting in Makeni ............................................................................................................................... 287 1.9.2. Sesay returns to Makeni and Bockarie resigns from the RUF........................................................................ 288 1.9.3. Sesay becomes Interim Leader of the RUF..................................................................................................... 290 1.9.4. Role of the Accused......................................................................................................................................... 290

1.10. Conclusion on the RUF Organisation ................................................................................................296 2. FINDINGS ON THE GENERAL REQUIREMENTS ................................................................................................297

2.1. Crimes Against Humanity (Article 2) ...................................................................................................297 2.1.1. Attack directed against the civilian population of Sierra Leone..................................................................... 297 2.1.2. The attack must be widespread or systematic ................................................................................................. 299

2.2. War Crimes (Article 3)..........................................................................................................................303 2.2.1. The state of Armed Conflict in Sierra Leone .................................................................................................. 305 2.2.2. Nature of the Sierra Leone conflict ................................................................................................................. 305 2.2.3. General Requirements of Additional Protocol II ............................................................................................ 307 2.2.4. Law of occupation ........................................................................................................................................... 308

2.3. Article 4: Other Serious Violations of International Humanitarian Law............................................310 3. CRIMES IN BO DISTRICT.................................................................................................................................310

3.1. Factual Findings on the Crimes in Bo District ....................................................................................310 3.1.1. Background to Bo District............................................................................................................................... 310 3.1.2. Tikonko ............................................................................................................................................................ 311 3.1.3. Attack on Sembehun........................................................................................................................................ 314 3.1.4. Attack on Gerihun............................................................................................................................................ 315

3.2. Legal Findings on the Crimes in Bo District........................................................................................316 3.2.1. Unlawful Killings (Counts 3 to 5) ................................................................................................................... 317 3.2.2. Pillage (Count 14)............................................................................................................................................ 319 3.2.3. Acts of Terrorism (Count 1) ............................................................................................................................ 320 3.2.4. Collective Punishments (Count 2)................................................................................................................... 323

4. CRIMES IN KENEMA DISTRICT .......................................................................................................................323 4.1. Factual Findings on the Crimes in Kenema District ...........................................................................323

4.1.1. Background to Kenema District ...................................................................................................................... 323 4.1.2. Kenema Town.................................................................................................................................................. 324 4.1.3. Tongo Field...................................................................................................................................................... 333

4.2. Legal Findings on the Crimes in Kenema District...............................................................................338 4.2.1. Unlawful Killings (Counts 3 to5) .................................................................................................................... 338 4.2.2. Physical Violence (Count 11).......................................................................................................................... 341 4.2.3. Enslavement (Count 13) .................................................................................................................................. 343 4.2.4. Acts of Terrorism (Count 1) ............................................................................................................................ 344 4.2.5. Collective Punishment (Count 2) .................................................................................................................... 347

5. CRIMES IN KONO DISTRICT............................................................................................................................348 5.1. Factual Findings on the Crimes in Kono District ................................................................................348

5.1.1. Background...................................................................................................................................................... 348 5.1.2. Koidu Town ..................................................................................................................................................... 350 5.1.3. Tombodu .......................................................................................................................................................... 355 5.1.4. Wendedu .......................................................................................................................................................... 358 5.1.5. Sawao: Rapes, Beatings and Amputations...................................................................................................... 360 5.1.6. Yardu: Killings and Amputation ..................................................................................................................... 362 5.1.7. Killings at PC Ground ..................................................................................................................................... 362 5.1.8. Kayima: Carving AFRC/RUF on civilians................................................................................................... 363 5.1.9. Penduma: Rapes, Killings and Amputations................................................................................................... 363 5.1.10. Koidu Buma: Killing of 15 civilians ............................................................................................................. 366 5.1.11. Bumpeh: Rapes and Sexual Violence ........................................................................................................... 366 5.1.12. Bomboafuidu: Rape and Sexual Violence .................................................................................................... 366 5.1.13. Tomandu: Carving RUF on civilian men ................................................................................................... 367 5.1.14. Kissi Town: Forced Marriages of TF1-016 and her daughter.................................................................... 367 5.1.15. Forced Labour of civilians (February to April 1998) ................................................................................... 369 5.1.16. Treatment of Civilians in RUF Camps.......................................................................................................... 370 5.1.17. Forced mining in Kono (December 1998 to January 2000) ......................................................................... 375 5.1.18. Forced military training at Yengema (December 1998 to January 2000) ....................................................383

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5.2. Legal Findings on the Crimes in Kono District ...................................................................................384 5.2.1. Unlawful Killings (Counts 3 to 5) ................................................................................................................... 384 5.2.2. Sexual Violence (Counts 6 to 9)...................................................................................................................... 388 5.2.3. Physical Violence (Counts 10 and 11) ............................................................................................................ 394 5.2.4. Abductions and Forced Labour (Count 13) .................................................................................................... 396 5.2.5. Pillage (Count 14)............................................................................................................................................ 399 5.2.6. Acts of Terrorism (Count 1) ............................................................................................................................ 401 5.2.7. Collective Punishment (Count 2) .................................................................................................................... 409

6. CRIMES IN KAILAHUN DISTRICT ....................................................................................................................412 6.1. Factual Findings on Crimes in Kailahun District................................................................................412

6.1.1. Background...................................................................................................................................................... 412 6.1.2. Killings in Kailahun District ........................................................................................................................... 414 6.1.3. Sexual Violence in Kailahun District.............................................................................................................. 420 6.1.4. Forced Labour in Kailahun District................................................................................................................. 423

6.2. Legal Findings on Crimes in Kailahun District ...................................................................................433 6.2.1. Unlawful Killings (Counts 3 to 5) ................................................................................................................... 433 6.2.2. Sexual Violence (Counts 6 to 9)...................................................................................................................... 436 6.2.3. Abductions and Forced Labour (Count 13) .................................................................................................... 440 6.2.4. Terrorising the civilian population and Collective Punishment (Counts 1 and 2) ......................................... 444

7. CRIMES IN KOINADUGU AND BOMBALI DISTRICTS .......................................................................................446 7.1. Findings for Koinadugu District...........................................................................................................446 7.2. Findings for Bombali District ...............................................................................................................449

8. CRIMES IN FREETOWN AND THE WESTERN AREA .........................................................................................450 8.1. Factual Findings on Freetown and the Western Area ......................................................................... 450

8.1.1. Background to the AFRC Attack on Freetown............................................................................................... 450 8.1.2. Crimes Committed During the Attack on Freetown ....................................................................................... 454

8.2. Legal Findings on the Crimes in Freetown ..........................................................................................468 8.2.1. Unlawful Killings (Counts 3 to 5) ................................................................................................................... 469 8.2.2. Sexual Violence (Counts 6 to 9)...................................................................................................................... 471 8.2.3. Physical Violence (Counts 10 and 11) ............................................................................................................ 473 8.2.4. Abductions and Forced Labour (Count 13) .................................................................................................... 474 8.2.5. Pillage (Count 14)............................................................................................................................................ 476 8.2.6. Acts of Terrorism (Count 1) ............................................................................................................................ 477 8.2.7. Collective Punishments (Count 2)................................................................................................................... 480

9. CRIMES IN PORT LOKO DISTRICT...................................................................................................................481 10. CHILD SOLDIERS ..........................................................................................................................................482

10.1. Factual Findings on the Conscription, Enlistment and Use of Child Soldiers .................................482 10.1.1. Overview on children within the RUF and AFRC forces............................................................................. 482 10.1.2. Abductions of Children by the AFRC/RUF forces....................................................................................... 487 10.1.3. Military Training of Children by the RUF.................................................................................................... 489 10.1.4. Use of children by the RUF and AFRC forces ............................................................................................. 493

10.2. Legal Findings on the Conscription, Enlistment and Use of Child Soldiers.....................................504 10.2.1. Conscription of Child Soldiers ...................................................................................................................... 505 10.2.2. Use of Child Soldiers in Hostilities............................................................................................................... 509

11. ATTACKS DIRECTED AGAINST UNAMSIL PERSONNEL (COUNTS 15 TO 18) .............................................519 11.1. Factual Findings on Attacks Directed Against UNAMSIL Personnel...............................................519

11.1.1. Establishment and Role of the UNAMSIL Mission and the Disarmament Process .................................... 519 11.1.2. Assault and abductions of UNAMSIL personnel on 1 and 2 May 2000...................................................... 529 11.1.3. Attacks against UNAMSIL Camps on 2 May 2000 ..................................................................................... 539 11.1.4. Attacks against UNAMSIL on 3 and 4 May 2000........................................................................................ 541 11.1.5. Coordination and Communication Among RUF Commanders (1 to 4 May 2000) ..................................... 545 11.1.6. Attacks against UNAMSIL after 3 May 2000 .............................................................................................. 550 11.1.7. UNAMSIL captives in Kono District............................................................................................................ 551

11.2. Legal Findings on Attacks Directed Against UNAMSIL Personnel ..................................................556 11.2.1. Intentionally directing attacks against personnel involved in a peacekeeping mission in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations (Count 15) ................................................................................................................. 558 11.2.2. Unlawful Killings (Counts 16 and 17) .......................................................................................................... 572 11.2.3. Abduction and holding as hostage of UNAMSIL personnel (Count 18) ..................................................... 576

VII. RESPONSIBILITY OF THE ACCUSED.................................................................................................579 1. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS ..........................................................................................................................579 2. BO DISTRICT FROM 1 JUNE 1997 TO 30 JUNE 1997 .......................................................................................580

2.1. Crimes Committed in Bo District..........................................................................................................580 2.1.1. Unlawful Killings (Counts 1 and 3 to 5) ......................................................................................................... 580

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2.1.2. Pillage (Count 14)............................................................................................................................................ 581 2.1.3. Acts of Terrorism (Count 1) ............................................................................................................................ 581

2.2. Responsibility under Article 6(1) of the Statute....................................................................................581 2.2.1. Personal Commission ...................................................................................................................................... 581 2.2.2. Commission through Joint Criminal Enterprise.............................................................................................. 581

3. KENEMA DISTRICT FROM 25 MAY 1997 TO 19 FEBRUARY 1998 ..................................................................603 3.1. Crimes Committed in Kenema District.................................................................................................603

3.1.1. Unlawful Killings (Counts 1 to 5) ................................................................................................................... 603 3.1.2. Physical Violence (Counts 1 to 2 and 11) ....................................................................................................... 604 3.1.3. Enslavement (Counts 1 and 13)....................................................................................................................... 604

3.2. Responsibility under Article 6(1) of the Statute....................................................................................604 3.3. Personal Commission............................................................................................................................604 3.4. Commission through Joint Criminal Enterprise ..................................................................................605

4. KONO DISTRICT FROM 14 FEBRUARY 1998 TO JANUARY 2000.....................................................................607 4.1. Crimes Committed in Kono District .....................................................................................................608

4.1.1. Crimes Committed from 14 February to 30 April 1998 ................................................................................. 608 4.1.2. Crimes Committed from May 1998 to January 2000 ..................................................................................... 611

4.2. Responsibility under Article 6(1) of the Statute....................................................................................612 4.2.1. Personal Commission ...................................................................................................................................... 612 4.2.2. Commission through Joint Criminal Enterprise.............................................................................................. 612 4.2.3. Ordering, Planning, Instigating or Aiding and Abetting................................................................................. 623

4.3. Superior Responsibility of Sesay...........................................................................................................626 4.3.1. Existence of a Superior-Subordinate relationship........................................................................................... 626 4.3.2. Actual or Imputed Knowledge ........................................................................................................................ 628 4.3.3. Failure to Prevent or Punish ............................................................................................................................ 629

4.4. Superior Responsibility of Kallon.........................................................................................................629 4.4.1. Existence of a Superior-Subordinate relationship........................................................................................... 629 4.4.2. Actual or Imputed Knowledge ........................................................................................................................ 633 4.4.3. Failure to Prevent or Punish ............................................................................................................................ 633

4.5. Superior Responsibility of Gbao...........................................................................................................634 5. KAILAHUN DISTRICT FROM 30 NOVEMBER 1996 TO 15 SEPTEMBER 2000 ...................................................634

5.1. Crimes committed in Kailahun District ................................................................................................634 5.1.1. Unlawful Killings (Counts 1 to 5) ................................................................................................................... 635 5.1.2. Sexual Violence (Counts 1 and 7 to 9)............................................................................................................ 635 5.1.3. Enslavement (Count 13) .................................................................................................................................. 635

5.2. Responsibility under Article 6(1) of the Statute....................................................................................635 5.2.1. Personal Commission ...................................................................................................................................... 635 5.2.2. Commission through Joint Criminal Enterprise.............................................................................................. 635

6. KOINADUGU DISTRICT FROM 14 FEBRUARY 1998 TO 30 SEPTEMBER 1998..................................................639 7. BOMBALI DISTRICT FROM 1 MAY 1998 TO 30 NOVEMBER 1998 ..................................................................640 8. FREETOWN AND THE WESTERN AREA FROM 6 JANUARY 1999 TO 28 FEBRUARY 1999 ...............................641

8.1. Crimes Committed in Freetown ............................................................................................................641 8.2. Responsibility under Article 6(1) of the Statute....................................................................................641

8.2.1. Personal Commission ...................................................................................................................................... 641 8.2.2. Commission through Joint Criminal Enterprise.............................................................................................. 642 8.2.3. Ordering, Planning, Instigating or Aiding and Abetting................................................................................. 649

8.3. Superior Responsibility of Sesay, Kallon and Gbao ............................................................................650 9. PORT LOKO DISTRICT FROM FEBRUARY 1999 TO APRIL 1999......................................................................650 10. CONSCRIPTION, ENLISTMENT AND USE OF CHILD SOLDIERS (COUNT 12) ..................................................651

10.1. Crimes Committed under Count 12 ....................................................................................................651 10.2. Responsibility under Article 6(1) of the Statute .................................................................................651

10.2.1. Personal Commission .................................................................................................................................... 651 10.2.2. Planning ......................................................................................................................................................... 651

11. ATTACKS ON UNAMSIL PERSONNEL (COUNTS 15 TO 18) .........................................................................654 11.1. Crimes Committed under Counts 15 to 18 .........................................................................................654 11.2. Responsibility under Article 6(1) of the Statute .................................................................................655

11.2.1. Sesay .............................................................................................................................................................. 655 11.2.2. Kallon............................................................................................................................................................. 656 11.2.3. Gbao............................................................................................................................................................... 660

11.3. Responsibility under Article 6(3) of the Statute .................................................................................662 11.3.1. Superior Responsibility of Sesay .................................................................................................................. 662 11.3.2. Superior Responsibility of Kallon................................................................................................................. 667 11.3.3. Superior Responsibility of Gbao ................................................................................................................... 669

Case No. SCSL-04-15-T viii 2 March 2009

VIII. CUMULATIVE CONVICTIONS ............................................................................................................672 1. APPLICABLE LAW...........................................................................................................................................672 2. FINDINGS ON CUMULATIVE CONVICTIONS ....................................................................................................672

2.1. Cumulative Convictions on War Crimes and Crimes Against Humanity ............................................672 2.2. Cumulative Convictions on separate Crimes Against Humanity.........................................................673

2.2.1. Murder and Extermination .............................................................................................................................. 673 2.2.2. Rape and Sexual Slavery ................................................................................................................................. 673 2.2.3. Rape and Forced Marriage............................................................................................................................ 674 2.2.4. Sexual Slavery and Forced Marriage............................................................................................................ 674

2.3. Cumulative Convictions on separate War Crimes ...............................................................................674 2.4. Cumulative Convictions on separate Modes of Liability .....................................................................675

IX. DISPOSITION...............................................................................................................................................677 1. SESAY.............................................................................................................................................................677 2. KALLON..........................................................................................................................................................680 3. GBAO..............................................................................................................................................................684

X. DISSENTING OPINION OF JUSTICE PIERRE G. BOUTET...............................................................688 1. ALLEGATIONS IN THE INDICTMENT................................................................................................................688 2. THE RUF IDEOLOGY AS SIGNIFICANT CONTRIBUTION TO THE JCE..............................................................689 3. OTHER CONDUCT AS SIGNIFICANT CONTRIBUTION TO THE JCE...................................................................691 4. DIFFICULTIES IN RELATION TO THE BROAD PLEADING OF JCE......................................................................693 5. GBAOS RESPONSIBILITY FOR PLANNING FORCED LABOUR .........................................................................694 6. GBAOS SUPERIOR RESPONSIBILITY ..............................................................................................................695 7. CONCLUSION ..................................................................................................................................................695

XI. SEPARATE CONCURRING OPINION OF JUSTICE BANKOLE THOMPSON FILED PURSUANT TO ARTICLE 18 OF THE STATUTE ......................................................................................697

1. INTRODUCTION...............................................................................................................................................697 2. ALLEGED DEFECTS OF LACK OF SPECIFICITY IN THE FORM OF THE INDICTMENT: THE CONTROLLING PRINCIPLE ..........................................................................................................................................................697 3. ALLEGED DEFECTS IN THE FORM OF THE INDICTMENT: SPECIFIC PRINCIPLES .............................................699

3.1. Article 6(1).............................................................................................................................................699 3.2. Article 6(3).............................................................................................................................................700 3.3. Article 6(3).............................................................................................................................................700 3.4. Timing of Objections .............................................................................................................................700 3.5. Divisibility of Joint Criminal Enterprise ..............................................................................................701 3.6. Divisibility of Joint Criminal Enterprise: Other Key Principles .........................................................701 3.7. Duration of Joint Criminal Enterprise .................................................................................................701 3.8. Purpose of Joint Criminal Enterprise...................................................................................................701

4. ALLEGED DEFECTIVE PLEADING OF JOINT CRIMINAL ENTERPRISE, LACK OF NOTICE TO ACCUSED IN RESPECT OF CATEGORY TWO OF JCE AND ALLEGED IMPERMISSIBILITY OF ALTERING THE NATURE AND SCOPE OF JCE................................................................................................................................................................701 5. ALLEGED DEFECTS IN THE FORM OF THE INDICTMENT: DUPLICITY .............................................................704 6. EVIDENTIARY PRINCIPLES .............................................................................................................................706 7. DEFENCE OF ALIBI RAISED BY THE SECOND ACCUSED.................................................................................713

7.1. Applicable Principles ............................................................................................................................713 7.2. Application of Defence of Alibi to Case for the Second Accused ........................................................715

8. POSSIBLE GROUND FOR THE EXCLUDING CRIMINAL RESPONSIBILITY ARISING FROM THE TOTALITY OF THE EVIDENCE...........................................................................................................................................................716

8.1. Introduction ...........................................................................................................................................716 8.2. Defence of Just War or Rebellion: Ideological Basis ..........................................................................719

9. HUMANE TREATMENT OF THE CIVILIAN POPULATION BY RUF AS OCCUPYING FORCE IN KAILAHUN DISTRICT ............................................................................................................................................................723

9.1. Introduction ...........................................................................................................................................723 9.2. Legal Submissions of the First Accused ...............................................................................................723 9.3. Defence Evidence and Prosecution Evidence in Adversarial Contraposition ....................................725 9.4. Summary of Defence Evidence..............................................................................................................726

9.4.1. Establishment of farms in Kailahun District ................................................................................................... 726 9.4.2. Civilian Military Training ............................................................................................................................... 728

Case No. SCSL-04-15-T ix 2 March 2009

9.4.3. Operation of Schools and Hospitals ................................................................................................................ 729 9.4.4. Sesay as Interim leader .................................................................................................................................... 730 9.4.5. Legal Analysis and Significant Findings ........................................................................................................ 730

10. CONCLUSION ................................................................................................................................................731 ANNEX A: LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ........................................................................................................733

ANNEX B: PROCEDURAL HISTORY ...........................................................................................................737 1. PRE-TRIAL......................................................................................................................................................737

1.1. Arrest and Initial Appearance ..............................................................................................................737 1.2. Indictment ..............................................................................................................................................737 1.3. Bail.........................................................................................................................................................738 1.4. Request by the Truth and Reconciliation Commission.........................................................................738 1.5. Preliminary Motions on Jurisdiction....................................................................................................739

1.5.1. Constitutionality .............................................................................................................................................. 739 1.5.2. Amnesty provided by Lom Accord ............................................................................................................... 740 1.5.3. Invalidity of the Special Court Agreement ..................................................................................................... 740 1.5.4. Right to Appeal................................................................................................................................................ 741

1.6. Motion for Disqualification of Hon. Justice Robertson .......................................................................741 1.7. Witness Protection.................................................................................................................................742 1.8. Joinder and Consolidated Indictment...................................................................................................743

1.8.1. Joinder.............................................................................................................................................................. 743 1.8.2. The Consolidated Indictment and Amendment............................................................................................... 743 1.8.3. Concurrent Presentation of Evidence for RUF and AFRC Cases .................................................................. 744

1.9. Judicial Notice.......................................................................................................................................745 1.10. Trial Preparation Filings, and Pre-Trial Briefs.................................................................................745 1.11. Disclosure............................................................................................................................................746 1.12. Status and Pre-Trial Conferences.......................................................................................................746

2. TRIAL PHASE..................................................................................................................................................747 2.1. Overview................................................................................................................................................747

2.1.1. Withdrawal of Counsel .................................................................................................................................... 748 2.1.2. Absence of the Accused .................................................................................................................................. 749 2.1.3. Amendment to Indictment ............................................................................................................................... 750 2.1.4. Agreed Facts .................................................................................................................................................... 751

2.2. Prosecution Case...................................................................................................................................752 2.2.1. Witnesses ......................................................................................................................................................... 752 2.2.2. Disclosure ........................................................................................................................................................ 756 2.2.3. Evidentiary Issues............................................................................................................................................ 762 2.2.4. Motions for Judgement of Acquittal Pursuant to Rule 98 .............................................................................. 766

2.3. Defence Case.........................................................................................................................................768 2.3.1. Filings and Pre-Trial Conference .................................................................................................................... 768 2.3.2. Kallon Alibi ..................................................................................................................................................... 769 2.3.3. Resource Issues................................................................................................................................................ 769 2.3.4. Witnesses ......................................................................................................................................................... 770 2.3.5. Disclosure ........................................................................................................................................................ 775 2.3.6. Evidentiary Issues............................................................................................................................................ 777 2.3.7. Challenges to the Indictment ........................................................................................................................... 779 2.3.8. Motion for Disqualification of Hon. Justice Thompson ................................................................................. 780

2.4. Miscellaneous........................................................................................................................................781 ANNEX C: INDICTMENT.................................................................................................................................782

ANNEX D: JUDICIALLY NOTICED FACTS................................................................................................801

ANNEX E: TABLE OF AUTHORITIES..........................................................................................................805 1. JUDGEMENTS AND DECISIONS........................................................................................................................805 2. INTERNATIONAL LEGAL DOCUMENTS ...........................................................................................................819 3. DOMESTIC LEGISLATION ................................................................................................................................822 4. SECONDARY SOURCES....................................................................................................................................822

Case No. SCSL-04-15-T 1 2 March 2009

I. INTRODUCTION

1. The Special Court for Sierra Leone (Special Court) was established in 2002 by an

agreement between the United Nations and the Government of Sierra Leone (Special Court

Agreement).1 The mandate of the Special Court is to prosecute those persons who bear the

greatest responsibility for serious violations of international humanitarian law and Sierra

Leonean law committed in the territory of Sierra Leone since 30 November 1996.2 In

particular, the Statute of the Special Court (Statute) empowers the Special Court to

prosecute persons who committed crimes against humanity, serious violations of Article 3

Common to the 1949 Geneva Conventions for the Protection of War Victims and of

Additional Protocol II, other serious violations of international humanitarian law and specified

crimes under Sierra Leonean law.3

2. It is under this mandate that the Accused were arrested, charged and the trial hearings

were conducted. Accordingly, under the mandate given to the Chamber by the United Nations

and the Republic of Sierra Leone the Chamber delivers this Judgement.

3. The Special Court is an international court, independent from the domestic legal

system in Sierra Leone. It is for this reason that the Special Court Ratification Act (2002)

provides that Offences prosecuted before the Special Court are not prosecuted in the name of

the Republic of Sierra Leone, Section 13 Special Court Ratification Act, 2002. Nevertheless,

the Chamber pronounces this Judgement in the name of the people of Sierra Leone, knowing

that it delivers the even-handed justice they sought when their Government requested the

United Nations, after eleven years of conflict, to establish the Special Court.

4. The trial, officially titled the Prosecutor v. Sesay, Kallon and Gbao, has commonly been

referred to as the RUF trial due to the fact that the three Accused persons were members of the

Revolutionary United Front (RUF). The Trial Chamber (Chamber) observes that this trial

1 Agreement between the United Nations and the Government of Sierra Leone on the Establishment of a Special Court for Sierra Leone, United Nations and Sierra Leone, 16 January 2002, 2178 U.N.T.S. 138 [Agreement]. The Agreement entered into force on 12 April 2002. 2 See Special Court Agreement, Art. 1; Statute of the Special Court for Sierra Leone, annexed to the Agreement Between the United Nations and the Government of Sierra Leone on the Establishment of a Special Court for Sierra Leone, United Nations and Sierra Leone, 16 January 2002, 2178 U.N.T.S. 138 [Statute], Art. 1.1. 3 Statute, Articles 2 to 5.

Case No. SCSL-04-15-T 2 2 March 2009

is not a trial of the RUF organisation itself, but rather a trial against three individuals, Issa

Hassan Sesay, Morris Kallon and Augustine Gbao.

5. The Chamber notes that there were originally two other individuals indicted by the

Special Court for Sierra Leone who were alleged to be more senior members of the RUF -

Foday Saybana Sankoh and Sam Mosquito Bockarie. The Indictments against these

individuals were withdrawn on 8 December 2003 after the Prosecution had confirmed their

deaths.

6. Each of the three Accused was charged with eight counts of crimes against humanity,

eight counts of war crimes (violations of Article 3 common to the Geneva Conventions4 and

Additional Protocol II5) and two counts of other serious violations of international

humanitarian law. The charges relate to violations against civilians and civilian property and

include acts of terrorism (Count 1), collective punishment (Count 2), extermination (Count 3),

murder (Count 4 and 5), rape (Count 6), sexual slavery and other sexual violence (Count 7),

inhumane acts (Count 8 and 11), outrages upon personal dignity (Count 9), mutilation (Count

10), enlisting or conscripting children under the age of 15 or using them to participate actively

in hostilities (Count 12), enslavement (Count 13) and pillage (Count 14). The charges also

include the offences against UNAMSIL peacekeepers including intentionally attacking

personnel on a peacekeeping mission (Count 15), murder (Count 16 and 17) and hostage-

taking (Count 18).6

4 Geneva Convention (I) for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armed Forces in the Field, 12 August 1949, 75 U.N.T.S. 31 (entered into force 21 October 1950); Geneva Convention (II) for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded, Sick and Shipwrecked Members of Armed Forces in at Sea, 12 August 1949, 75 U.N.T.S. 85 (entered into force 21 October 1950); Geneva Convention (III) Relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War, 12 August 1949, 75 U.N.T.S. 135 (entered into force 21 October 1950); Geneva Convention (IV) relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War, 12 August 1949, 75 U.N.T.S. 287 (entered into force 21 October 1950) [Geneva Convention IV]. 5 Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949 and Relating to the Protection of Victims of Non-International Armed Conflict, 8 June 1977, 1125 U.N.T.S. 609 (entered into force 7 December 1978) [Additional Protocol II]. 6 Prosecutor v. Sesay, Kallon and Gbao, SCSL-04-15-PT, Corrected Amended Consolidated Indictment, 2 August 2006 [Indictment].

Case No. SCSL-04-15-T 3 2 March 2009

II. CONTEXT

1. The Political Context of the Conflict in Sierra Leone

7. Sierra Leone achieved independence from Britain in 1961.7 It is comprised of the

Western Area and three Provinces: the Northern Province, the Eastern Province and the

Southern Province which are divided into thirteen districts and subdivided into chiefdoms.8

8. In the decades following independence, the country suffered several military coups and

a one-party State was established in late 1978.9 Despite its rich natural resources, which include

diamonds and other minerals, Sierra Leone experienced an economic decline throughout the

1980s, largely attributable to rampant corruption.10

9. As a result of this flagrant corruption an armed opposition group, the Revolutionary

United Front (RUF), was formed in the late 1980s with the aim of overthrowing the one-

party rule of the All Peoples Congress (APC) Government.11 The principal leader of the RUF

was Foday Sankoh, a former member of the Sierra Leone Army (SLA).12 The leadership of

the RUF accused the APC of endemic corruption and oppression of the people of Sierra

Leone.13 The RUF professed that the use of arms was the only way to bring democracy to Sierra

Leone and to fight the injustice, nepotism and penury they claimed was prevailing.14

10. The RUF was originally composed largely of former students of middle class origin;

7 Exhibit 146, Human Rights Watch, We will kill you if you cry, Sexual Violence in the Sierra Leone Conflict, Vol. 15, No.1 (A), January 2002, p. 9 [Human Rights Watch, We will kill you if you cry]. 8 Consequential Order on Judicial Notice, Annex II, Part II, Tab 88: Map of Sierra Leone, Scale 1:350,000, UNAMSIL Geographic Information Service, 6 May 2002. 9 See Bankole Thompson, The Constitutional History and Law of Sierra Leone (1961-1995) Lanham: University Press of American Inc., 1997. 10 Exhibit 146, Human Rights Watch, We will kill you if you cry, p. 9; Exhibit 175, Human Rights Watch, Sowing Terror, Atrocities against Civilians in Sierra Leone, Vol. 10, No. 3 (A), July 1998, p. 19437 [Human Rights Watch Sowing Terror]; Exhibit 181, No Peace Without Justice, Conflict Mapping in Sierra Leone: Violations of International Humanitarian Law from 1991 to 2002, p. 24234 [NPWJ Conflict Mapping Report]. 11 Exhibit 146, Human Rights Watch, We will kill you if you cry, p. 9; Transcript of 3 May 2005, Issa Sesay, p. 41; Transcript of 29 July 2005, TF1-036, p. 5 (CS). 12 Consequential Order on Judicial Notice, Annex I, Fact J. 13 Exhibit 174, Human Rights Watch, Getting Away With Murder, Mutilation, and Rape: New Testimony From Sierra Leone, Vol. 11, No. 3(A), June 1999, p. 19375 [Human Rights Watch, Murder]; Exhibit 181, NPWJ Conflict Mapping Report, p. 24258; Transcript of 3 May 2005, Issa Sesay, p. 41. See also Exhibit 38, RUF Training Manual, p. 11072.

Case No. SCSL-04-15-T 4 2 March 2009

alienated and impoverished youths; former members of the SLA; and Liberian fighters from

the National Patriotic Front of Liberia (NPFL).15 The NPFL was a rebel group led by Charles

Taylor that initiated and fought in the Liberian civil war. The NPFL provided important

military and logistical resources to the RUF thereby creating an intimate link between the civil

wars in Liberia and Sierra Leone.16

11. Certain core members of the RUF, including Foday Sankoh, were trained in Libya17

alongside other West African revolutionary leaders, including Charles Taylor and Blaise

Campaor.18 The fighters who were trained in Libya were called the Special Forces and held the

highest status within the movement.19 In 1990 and 1991, the RUF were trained at Camp

Naama in Liberia.20 Those trained at Camp Naama were called Vanguards, and held the

second highest status within the RU