SAIDUL ISLAM, KAUSHAL K.

CHANDRUL, GAURAV KUMAR

SHARMA, RISHI KUMAR JOSHI

DEPARTMENT OF PHARMACY,

MEWAR UNIVERSITY,

CHITTORGARH, INDIA.

ABSTRACT: Skin is the outer

covering of the body.in humans, it is

the largest organ of the integumentary

system. Human skin is consisting of

mainly three layer- Epidermis, dermis

and subcutaneous fatty tissue. In skin

there is a cell which is called as

“melanocytes”. The melanocytes cell

is responsible for melanin production

and this melanin is responsible for

determining skin and hair color.

Melanin is produced by oxidation of

the amino acid tyrosine, followed by

polymerization. Generally those with

darker skin tones and more melanin

are able to tolerate exposure to the sun

for hours without getting sunburn. “A

deficiency in melanin can lead to

several disorders and disease. For

example, a complete absence of

melanin cause a condition called

Albinism”.

KEYWORDS: Skin color, layers of

skin, types of skin, skin evaluation,

skin sensitivity, melanin and its types,

effect of melanin on skin, importance

of melanin, dark skin light skin, UV

rays and skin , How to reduce

melanin, action of an cream on skin ,

chemicals and whitening agents used

in skin cream.

INTRODUCTION TO SKIN:

Human skin is considered to be the

largest organ of the body. The surface

area of the skin on an average adult is

1.8m2 and represents 16% of the total

body weight. Thethickness of the skin

varies throughoutthe body. It depends

on how much use we make of that

area. For example, because we use

our feet for walking, it is thickest on

the soles our feet. We use our hands

for doing many everyday tasks such

as picking up and writing, so it is also

thick on our palms. The skin is a

multifunctional organ. Is is divided

into three main layers- The dermis,

epidermis and subcutaneous. The

image shows a microscopic cross –

section of human skin.

Figure-1

What does skin do in our body?Skin

do thermoregulation in our body. The

skin helps us to maintain our body

temperature. When we are hot, there

is vasodilation at the skin surface.

This cools us down by allowing more

heat to escape. Skin do metabolism in

our body. When we are hot or

exercising, sweat glands in our skin

excrete water salts and proteins. Apart

of this, skin does sensation, protection

and synthesis of vitamin D in our

body. [Rf-1]

LAYERS OF SKIN: Skin has three

layers mainly these are-

A. THE EPIDERMIS:- The

epidermis is the outermost layer

of the skin. Its composed of

epithelial tissue. The epidermis

has no blood supply and is

nourished by diffused oxygen

from surrounding air. The

thickness of epidermis is

approximately 0.1 mm. It acts

as protective barrier by

preventing pathogens from

entering.

The epidermis is sub divided

into 5 layers-

1. STRATUM CORNEUM:

the outermost layer of the

epidermis. There are many

cells which are tightly

packed together. This allows

the skin to be tough and

waterproof. This layer is

important in the prevention

of invasion from foreign

things, such as bugs and

bacteria.

2. STRATUM LUCIDUM:

this layer contains several

clear and flat dead cells. It is

a tough layer and is found in

thickened skin including the

palms of the hand and soles

of the feet.

3. STRATUM

GRANULOSUM: The

stratum granulosum is

composed of 3 to 4 layers of

cells. Here keratin is formed

which is a colorless protein

important for skin strength.

4. STRATUM SPINOSUM:

This layer contains cells that

change shape from

columnar to polygonal.

Keratin also produced here.

5. STRATUM BASALE:

This layer is the deepest layer of

the epidermis, in which many

cells are active and dividing. The

stratum basale is separated from

the next layer-The Dermis-by a

basement membrane which is a

layer made of collagen and

proteins. [Rf1,2]

Figure-2

Cells of epidermis: This layer of

the skin consists of many special

cells including keratinocytes,

melanocytes, Markel cells and

Langerhans cells. Keratinocytes

are cells that make a special fat

which gives skin its waterproof

properties. Melanocytes produce

melanin, which is a pigment

giving us the color of our skin.

The Markel cells which

functions as a receptor and is

responsible for stimulating

sensory nerves and the

Langerhans cell is defined as

inter-aspersed among the

keratinocytes of this layer is a

type of denofritic cell called the

Langerhans cell which function

as a macro phase by engulfing

bacteria, foreign particles and

damaged cells that occur in this

layer. [Rf-3]

Figure-3

B. THE DERMIS: The dermis is

the second layer of the skin.

The dermis varies in thickness,

ranging from 0.6mm on the

eyelids to 3mm on the back,

palms and soles. Its –

- Flexible and strong

connective tissue.

- Elastic, reticular and

collagen fibers.

- Cells: Fibroblasts, macro

phases (WBC), mast cell

(histamine)

- Nerve, blood and lymphatic

vessels.

- Oil and sweat glands

originate and hair follicles.

The dermis is made of two

layers of connective tissue,

these are- 1 Papillary layer and

2 Reticular layer. [Rf- 4,3]

Figure-4

C. HYPODERMIS: The

hypodermis (also called the

subcutaneous layer or

superficial fascia) is a layer

directly below the dermis and

serve to connect the skin to the

underlying fascia (fibrous

tissue) of the bones and

muscles. It is not strictly a part

of the skin, although the border

between the hypodermis and

dermis can be difficult to

distinguish. The hypodermis

consists of well Vascularized,

loose, areolar connective tissue

and adipose tissue , which

functions as a mode of fat

storage and provides insulation

and cushioning for the

integument. [Rf-3,5]

Figure-5

Type of skin:-There are four

basic type of skin- Normal, dry,

oily and combination skin. Skin

type is determined by genetics.

The condition of our skin can

however vary greatly according

to the various internal and

external factors it is subjected

to.

1. Normal Skin: Normal is

term widely used to refer to

well balanced skin. The

scientific term for healthy is

endemic. Normal skin is

neither too oily nor too dry.

Identification of Normal

Skin: Normal skin has-

Fine pores

Good blood

circulation

A velvety, soft and

smooth texture.

A fresh, rosy color

uniformtransparency.

No blemishes

And is not prone to sensitivity.

[Rf-6]

Figure-6

2. DRY Skin:-Dry is used to

describe a skin type that

produces less sebum than

normal skin. As a result of

the lack of sebum. Dry skin

lacks the lipoids that it

needs to retain moisture and

build a protective shield

against external influences.

Significantly more women

suffer from dry skin than

men and all skin gets dryer

as it ages.

Identification Of Dry

Skin:

Tightness and a rough

skin feeling often

indicates a dry skin

Elderly women with

dry skin have more

pronounced wrinkles

and lines.(figure-6)

3. Oily Skin: “Oily” describe a

skin type with heighted

sebum production. A over

production is known as

seborrhea.

Identification Of Oily

Skin:

Enlarged, clearly

visible pores.

A glossy shine.

Thicker, pale skin:

blood vessels may not

be visible (figure-6)

4. Combination Skin: In

combination skin types vary

in the T-zone and cheeks the

so called T-zone can differ

substantially from a very

slim zone to an extended

area.

Identification of

combination skin:

An oily T-zone

(forehead, chin and

nose)

Enlarged pores in this

area perhaps with

some impurities.

Normal to dry cheeks.

(figure-6) [Rf-7]

SKIN

EVALUATION

GENERAL PRICIPLES:

Skin evaluation method describe the

severity of erythema, dryness or rash

relative to normal, healthy skin on the

same person. The region of interest

varies depending upon the situation.

For example, if the interest is the skin

condition following dressing removal,

the region of interest would be the

area covered by the dressing. For

diapered infants, skin areas covered

by the diaper are the buttocks, genital

region, perianal region and

interfriginous areas and they are

judged separately and given separate

scores.

For new patients, the

Patients region is likely to have more

compromise involves the area of

involvement / within the region of

interest and severity of the

compromise. The numerical scores

derive from severity of damage, e.g.

inflammation and erythema and area

of (percent) involvement with nearby

areas of normal; uninvolved skin as a

reference. Erythema is scored with a

9-point 0-4 scale with o.5 grade

increments and rash with a 7-point 0-

3 scale with half grade increments.

Dryness is measured on an 11-point

0-5 scale with 0.5 grade increments.

Area of Interest:-for a skin patient,

notice the basic skin coloration as

there is high variability in patient to

patient. This is important because red

and yellow tones vary naturally with

pigmentation and age, especially for

premature infants as the stratum

corneum develops. So judgments are

made relative to normal skin for that

individual patient. Next visualize the

area of interest.

Area of skin involvement: two

examples for judging the amount of

an area that is involved i.e. damaged.

One is for an area on the chest and the

other for the perineal region. This will

vary in size from patient to patient.

The amount of area of skin damage is

relative to the entire area. [Rf-8]

Evaluate your skin in

under 30 min.:-

Even if your skin appears to be

healthy, there is often under-lying

damage invisible to the naked eye and

no one is immune to the effects of

aging. The VISIA R facial imaging

and analysis system provides a quick

and painless evaluation of your skin’s

unique complexion and the advanced

scientific technology objectively

analyzes eight different qualities that

affect your skin’s health and

appearance.

Schedule for free skin evaluation /

complimentary skin

Step 1. The VISIA R system will

take several high quality pictures of

your face using

standard, polarized and ultraviolet

lighting.

Step 2. Analyze:- VISIA R

advanced technology will analyze

your facial images and

display the results on a color monitor.

Step 3 Review:- A skin care

consultant with extensive training and

experience

will remain your results and your

options for improving

your skins unique condition.

IT’S NEVER TOO

LATE…………..OR TOO EARLY.

The results of your VISIA R skin

evaluation allows the qualified staff to

determine the continually improve the

condition of your skin. VISIA R

allows us to objectively evaluate your

skin as your treatment progresses to

ensure thatis health and appearance is

always improving. If you are not

moving forward, you are falling

behind and VISIA R makes certain

that your skin is always advancing

toward optimum health. [Rf-9]

The Study of melanin

Melanin: Melanin is a natural skin

pigment. Hair skin and eye color in

people and animals mostly depends

on the type and amount of melanin.

They have melanin is a bread from for

a group of natural pigments in most

organisms. Melanin is produced by

oxidation of the amino acid and

Tyrosine followed by Polymerization.

The special cells called melanocytes

make melanin.

Everyone has the same number of

those cells make just a little bit of

melanin, your hair skin and the iris of

your eyes can be very light. If your

cells make more than your hair skin

and eyes will be darker. The melanin

is a complex polymer derived from

the amino acid “Tyrosine”. It is

responsible for determining skin and

hair color and is present in the skin to

varying degrees, depending on how

much a population has been exposed

to the Sun historically.

The amount of

melanin in your body makes depends

on your genes. If your parents have a

lot or a little skin pigment, yow will

probably look like them. [Rf-10,11]

Melanin ethnicity figure-7

How Melanin Reacts to

The Sun:-

When you are in the sun, your body

makes more melanin. It may help to

protect the body from harmful UV

Rays. Melanin is a pigment that cells

in your skin create. It helps to protect

your deeper skin layers from the sun’s

“ultra violet rays”. Everyone has

melanin both “Fair and dark” skinned.

The melanin pigment comes in

different shades depending on the

“genetic makeup” of the individuals,

who are exposed to UV light, such as

the sun will produce more melanin for

protection. Aside from determining

skin color, the light absorbent melanin

protects the DNA against UV

radiation from the sun.

But it isn’t enough to keep you safe

from the sun. Your skin is already

damaged if you are sunburned or your

skin has turned slightly darker. That’s

why its important to always cover up

and wear sunscreen. Studies show

people with darker skin get fever

cases of skin cancer than people with

lighter skin. More research is needed

to know if this is because of the

amount of melanin in their skin.

Structure Of Melanin:-

Chemical name – 1(4) 2,5,9(18), 10,

13-hexaene-7,8,15,16-tetrone

Properties:-

Molecular formula – C18H10N2O4

Weight – 318.288 g/mol.

M.P - ‹20C, BP-450 to 550C [Rf-12]

Types Of Melanin:- Some different

types of melanin include “

eumelanin”, “Pheomelanin” and

“Neuromelanin”.

1. Eumelanin:-Eumelanin is found

in the hair, skin and dark areas

around the nipples. It is

particularly abundant among

black populations and provides

balck and brown pigment to the

hair, skin and eyes. “When

eumelanin is present only in

small amounts hair may be

blonde”. [Rf-13,14,15]

2. Pheomelanin:-Pheomelanin is

also found in the hair and skin.

This type of melanin provides

“Pink and Red” Colors and is

the main pigment found among

red haired individuals. “This

type of melanin is not as

protective against UV radiation

induced cancer as eumelanin.

3. Neuromelanin:-Neuromelanin

is a form of melanin found in

different areas of the brain and

loss of this melanin may cause

several neurological disorders.

Other Melanin Types:-

1. Plant Melanin:- plant melanin

is characterized by the principle

of nitrogen economy, as this

element as an important

limiting factor for plant

growing. According to that, the

amino acid 1-tyrosine is not

used for the synthesis of plant

melanin. In general, the

obtained melanin is a polymer

devoid of nitrogen and is

generically named allomelanin.

The color of allomelanin is

always from dark brown to

totally black and structure

depends on the nature of the

main unit oxidited.

2. Fungal Melanin:- As in birds,

reptiles and plants microbial

pigments are mere than just

melanin but the relevance of

this pigment and the great

interest for fungi melanin is

demonstrated by the

publication of a great number

of original papers, book chapter

and many reviews on different

aspects.

A very interesting and

studied case of fungal

melanin is the neuropath

genic fungi Cryptococcus

neoformans. This

basidiomycetous fungus

infects the human brain

and it contains a very

active phenol oxidase

able to oxidize the

catecholamine

neurotransmitters

dopamine and

norepinephrine to

melanin polymers. As

these pigments are

formed in the brain after

infection, a pathogenic

neuromelanin is formed

using the most

compounds.

Aspergillus fumigates,

one of the most

important airborne fungal

pathogens of

immunosuppressed

humans is able to

produce DHN-melanin,

which is predominately

present in conidia.

3. Bacterial Melanin:- Bacterial

melanins are also common and

they have been observed in a

great number of species as their

cultures have black or dark

brown colors. However it is

important to note that not all

dark pigments in bacterial

cultures are indeed melanin

pigments. Bacterial melanins

were first characterized in

Streptomyces, as these species

have been actively pursued in

the search of antibiotics. [Rf-

16]

4. Synthetic Melanin:- finally,

these are also melanins formed

by chemical oxidation from

some diphenolic precursors.

The most common ones are

dopa-melanin and dopamine-

melanin which are easily

formed by chemical oxidation

of those precursors, generally

using atmospheric oxygen or

hydrogen peroxide in basic

media.[Rf-17]

DARK SKIN V/S LIGHT SKIN:-

Are you fair or dark?

Don’t worry. Dark pigment people

living in high sunlight environments

are at an advantage due to the high

amounts of melanin produced in their

skin. The dark pigmentation protects

from DNA damage and absorbs the

right amount of UV radiation needed

by the body as well as protects against

foliate depletion. Dark skin is a

naturally occurring human skin color

is rich in eumelanin pigments. The

evolution of dark skin is believed to

have begun around 1.2 million years

ago.

Due to mass migration and increased

mobility of people between

geographical regions in the recent,

past, dark-skinned populations today

are found all over the world.

On the other hand, light skin is

more prone to sunburn.Light skin

people having less amount of

melanin. This melanin also synthesis

from tyrosine and a leak of tyrosine

can lead to albinosm vitamin

deficiency. Melanin absorbs more UV

Rays but for less amount of melanin

UV light can cause disease in lighter

skin like-cancer, sun burn etc. [Rf-18]

Figure-8

UV RAYS And SKIN:- There are two

types of UV rays in sun light. These

are “UVA” and “UVB”. UVA

spreads skin aging and boosts skin

cancer risk. UVB causes sunburn.

Once the skin is exposed to sunlight,

the melanocytes try to cover all the

cells with melanin like sun hats that

block UV rays.

Luckily we evolved in a world

that’s saturated with UV light, so our

cells have built-in repair kits for the

damaging UV radiation can do. But if

the damage outweighs our capacity to

repair or our repair kits themselves

get damaged, its hello liver spots,

cataracts and way to often skin

cancer.

Sunburn: when

UV meets RNA, the pain, the heat,

the redness, the judgmental looks

from everyone who thought to dress

appropriately. They are all part of the

sunburn experience and judgmental

looks aside. They are all caused by

UVB radiation.[Rf-19,20]

ACTION OF AN CREAM ON

SKIN:-Cream is composed of natural

and chemical substances, it is usually

used to improve the appearance of

blemishes such as birth marks and

melisma/ dark patches. Skin

lightening produces work by reducing

the concentration or production of

melanin in the skin. Do you want your

markup to look better? Do you want

to get rid of the dark spots on your

face? Light color rejuvenates the face

and allows the skin to look more

much younger you. Most people who

use lighteners do so to treat skin

problems such as freckles, age spots,

acne, scars or discoloration related to

hormones. [Rf-21, 22]

HOW TO REDUCE MELANIN:-

Fastestway to permanently reduce

melanin in skin is by undergoing a

laser treatment but this option is very

costly. As an alternative, you can

either buy skin lightening creams

from a store or visit a dermatologist to

get some prescribed products.

Natural home remedies like-

turmeric, aloe Vera, tomato,

cucumber, lemon and potato can also

be used to get rid of excess melanin.

What increases the melanin levels?

These are some of the

common causes that increases the

melanin production in the body-

1. Changes in the hormonal

levels.

2. Excess contact of skin with sun

rays.

3. Some kind of skin disorders

also lead to high melanin in

skin.

4. Lack of adequate vitamins. [Rf-

25]

Despite the fact that an adequate

quant of the melanin pigment is

required to protect skin from the

damaging sunrays. But large quantity

of this pigment makes skin dark. May

be you have heard that exposing skin

under sun makes it dark. This is

because melanin is produced into

skin. [Rf-26]

Apply sun protection lotions. This is

the best precaution you can take

whether your skin is darker or fair.

Using sun protection lotions helps in

proving a layer of shield.

HOME REMEDIES TO REDUCE

MELANIN:-

1. Potato:- The catecholase

enzyme and the blenching

effects of the potato work great

in erasing the darkness and

blemishes from the skin. Make

a paste of potato and daily

apply to your skin area with

high melanin. It will give you a

lighter complexion by reducing

melanin in skin.

2. Lemon Juice:- This natural

product will be mentioned

everywhere when it comes to

lightening of the skin color, the

high vitamin C content and the

acidic characteristic of lemon

work great in lightening the

dark spots and scars. Slice one

lemon and extract the juice.

Mix one tablespoon of honey in

this paste and stir it properly.

Now apply it to your dark skin

and wait for 5 mins. Use it

every day to get a clear and

whitened skin tone.

3. Turmeric:- This is an ancient

Asiatic remedy to improve the

fairness of an individual. It

helps to lower the melanin

levels and make skin fair. To

use this remedy, mix water or

rose water to turmeric powder

and apply this paste to your

face, neck and hands.

4. Cucumber:- Cucumber is little

slow but very effective for

moisturizing the skin and

getting rid of skin

pigmentation. The soothing

properties in cucumber help to

relax the skin and lightening

the skin.

5. Tomato:- tomatoes are

considered to contain the most

powerful form of antioxidants

plus it has vitamin C and the

skin lightening characteristics.

It is great remedy to get rid of

melanin in skin. Mash one

tomato and apply it all over.

After 20 minutes clean it with

water. Use this remedy regular.

It will fade the dark spots. [Rf-

27]

VITAMINS TO REDUCE

MELANIN:-

There are 4 vitamins used to

reduce melanin production-[Rf-28]

1. Vitamin C:- popularly known

as ascorbic acid, it has

antioxidants properties.

Vitamin C seeps deep into the

skin where the melanin

producing cells are located and

inhibits their production.

2. Vitamin A:- Vitamin A is also

known as retinol. Vitamin A

does not penetrate and

eliminate melanin. Regular use

of retinol creams keeps your

skin glowing because it

destroys the accumulated

melanin pigment.

3. Vitamin K:- Vitamin K also

known by the name Sunshine

Vitamin. It is the only vitamin

that our body can produce when

the skin exposed to sunlight.

Dark circles caused due to

excessive melanin production

are also removed when vitamin

K is used.

4. Vitamin E:- Vitamin E is

probably the best vitamin for

all kinds of skin problems.

Though vitamin E has no direct

role in inhibiting melanin

pigment production but it helps

the skin to fight against the

melanin and recover fast.

WHITENING AGENTS

OR MASK:-

Some other whitening agents or mask

are used to reduce melanin or

lightening skin-

1. Chilled organ juice.

2. Tomato juice.

3. Papaya and cucumber face

pack.

4. Lemon and aloe Vera for

instant fair skin.

5. Curd and turmeric fairness

mask.

6. Lemon juice and glycerin,

moisturizer.

7. Exfoliate with strawberry

fairness scrub.

8. Almond and milk skin

whitening and polishing mask.

9. Pineapple face pack and skin

lightening corn flour.

10. Rice powder, banana and milk

instant brightening creamy

mask. [Rf-28,29]

CHEMICALS ARE USED TO

MAKE SKIN FAIRNESS CREAM

AND REDUCE MELANIN:

Best skin whitening chemical agents

which are used to make skin fairness

cream. They shown to inhibit melanin

production. These are-1. Arbutin

2.Vitamin C 3.Glutathione 4.Atelic

acid 5.Kojic acid 6.Rational 7.Fine

Oxide 8.Boric acid 9.Quinoline

10.Citric acid 11.Termeric acid (keto

form) 12.Menobenzene 13.Tretinione

14.Resorcinol 15.Alfa hydroxyl acid

16.Niacinamide17.Mercury

18.Tranexamic 19.Hydroquinone

20.Oxybenzene. [Rf 31, 32, 33, 34,

35, 36]

Common harmful skincare

ingredients:-

1. Parabens

- Phenoxyethanol

- Sodium benzoate

- Benzyl alcohol

2. Formaldehyde

3. Sodium lauryl sulphate /

sodium lauryl sulfate

4. Petrolatum

5. Coal Tar

6. Hydroquinone

- Antioxidants

- Plant-based acids

- Vitamin B3

7. Triclosan

8. Oxybenzone

9. Phthalates

10. Fragrances

11. Alcohol in cosmetics. [Rf-37,

38, 39, 40]

CONCLUSIONS:-Tyrosinase

inhibitors and other agents that affect

the melanin biosynthesis pathway are

widely distributed in materials. These

natural ingredients offer, safer

alternatives to hydroquinone, for use

in topical skin lightening

compositions, additional

functionalities as sun cream,

moisturizers, anti-aging and reducing

the appearance of wrinkles.

SCIENCE BEHIND THE COLOR

OF YOUR SKIN

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edition) USA

: McGraw Hill 2004.

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(4TH

edition) USA : Lippincott

Williams and Williams, 2003.

3. Anatomy and Physiology, open

textbooks.

https://opentextbc.ca.chapter5.1

.

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dermatology.about.com

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available.in URL link

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top 10 tips for relieving dry

skin.

8. https://www.medscayoe.com/o

nline/available.in URL link.

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ailable.in URL link.

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11. New Journal of science, "

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18. https:/www/avyaskincare.com/

onlin/available in URL link.

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20. Fuehs E. Seratching the

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nature. 2007, 445:834-

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