Shi‘a StudieSE-Journal of thE CEntrE for IslamIC shI‘a studIEs

Issue no.1 AprIl 2015

CONteNtS

imam husayn Conference

the institute of ismaili Studies establishes Shi‘i heritage Series

Jesus in Christianity and islam

editORiaL WhO We aRe

CONtaCt detaiLS

CONtRiButiONS

diSCLaiMeR editORiaL BOaRd

p.07

p.11

p.18

p.05

p.03

دراسة حول بحث اخلمس

Shi‘a Studies is an academic quarterly produced by The Centre for Islamic Shi‘a Studies (CISS). The CISS was established in July 2007 to bring the Shi‘a Hawza tradition and Western aca-demic tradition closer to each other as well as to foster greater understanding of Islam and its intellectual heritage. It aims to produce research on traditional and contemporary issues specifi-cally from the Shi‘a perspective and promote a better understanding of the Shi‘a faith, its people and culture in academia and society.

Centre for Islamic Shi‘a Studies, 247 High Road, Willesden, London, NW10 2RY United Kingdom Tel: +44 20 8451 3322 Fax: +44 20 3556 6964 Website: www.shiastudies.org.uk E-mail: info@shiastudies.org.uk

Graduate students, researchers and academics are invited to submit essays, book reviews and articles to Shi‘a Studies.

For more information contact:info@shiastudies.org.uk

The views expressed by authors & contributors in Shi‘a Studies do not necessarily reflect those of the Centre for Islamic Shi‘a Studies.

Editor-in-Chief: Prof Oliver Scharbrodt

Co-Editors: Haider Al-Khateeb

Designer: Safa Kadhim

editorial

Within the academic study of Islam, Shi’a Islam has long been neglected. Only in the last 30 years or so, Shi’a Studies have grown from an area of marginal interest to one that is seen as central to the understanding of the history of Islam, both its formative and pre-modern periods, and of the current geo-political dynamics in the Middle East and the wider Muslim world. Despite the growth of Shi’a Studies in the last few decades, there is still an enormous task ahead in terms of accessing various manuscripts and textual sources, tracing the historical development of Shi’a communities across the Muslim world and researching the rich literary, poetic, artistic and ritual traditions of Shi’a Islam.

In the past, the academic study of Shi’a Islam at European and North American universities had little interaction with representatives of Shi’a traditions of scholarship. Very often, both appeared to be quite separate if not conflicting avenues of investigating Shi’a Islam, one from a confessional insider perspective, the other from a critical outsider perspective. Roy Mottahedeh’s work has been ground-breaking in this regard, as he has engaged seriously with Shi’a scholars in his own research. The establishment of the Institute of Ismaili Studies has likewise yielded important contributions to bridging the gap between Shi’a communities and academic scholarship. The other significant factor is the coming of age of the children of immigrants of a Shi’a background who were born or grew up in Europe and North America and have

pursued academic research in their own faith tradition.

The Shi’a Studies E-journal which is launched with this edition seeks to be a platform for dialogue between academic and traditional scholarship on Shi’a Islam. The e-journal is a joint venture of the Centre for Islamic Shi’a Studies and the new Chester Centre for Islamic Studies which is based at the University of Chester. The Centre for Islamic Shi’a Studies under its director Sayyid Fadhil Bahrululoom has been engaged in a variety of scholarly activities to support the study of intellectual traditions and scholarly outputs, articulated by persons or entities committed to the Shi’a Islamic faith, and/or persons or groups concerned with the academic study of Shi’a Islam both past and present. It aims to offer informed and scholarly perspectives on historical and contemporary issues that affect Muslims and non-Muslims alike. The Centre for Islamic Shi’a Studies endeavours to offer original and insightful analysis drawing from both traditional seminarian traditions and contemporary academic discourses. It is particularly committed to expanding the reach of scholarship beyond traditional and contemporary academic discourses in the field of Shi’a Studies. The newly-established Chester Centre for Islamic Studies engages in academic research on Shi’a Islam in particular, investigating both its historical and contemporary dimensions. It particularly seeks to reach out to and involve Shi’a communities and to collaborate with them in various scholarly endeavours. The publication of

the Shi’a Studies e-journal is one of the first fruits of this collaboration.

The particular aim of the journal is to make academic research accessible to the wider community and to facilitate dialogue between academic scholarship on Shi’a Islam and the Shi’a hawza tradition. The editors of the Shi’a Studies e-journal invite article submissions on any area of Shi‘a Studies, from the historical to the contemporary and from the theological and philosophical to the sociological and ethnographic. The articles do not necessarily constitute new and original research but can be abridged versions or translations of research already published with the aim to make it accessible to a wider audience. We particularly encourage submissions from PhD students and early-career researchers who would like to share their research with a wider audience. Every edition of this e-journal will also include an Arabic translation of an academic journal published in English in Shi’a Studies or an Arabic article presenting and discussing a significant contribution to the academic study of Shi’a Islam published in Europe or North America. Repeatedly, scholars in the hawza tradition across the Shi’a world, but in particular those based in the hawza ‘ilmiyya in Najaf, have expressed interest in gaining access to the academic scholarship produced on Shi’a Islam. As part of its remit, this e-journal will seek to respond to this demand.

In this first edition, Somayeh Tohidi compares and contrasts various

3

Christian and Muslim doctrinal views on Jesus, thereby addressing an issue relevant within the wider context of Islamic Studies. Her inclusion of exegetical works of Mohammad Hossein Tabatabai provides an understudied Shi’a angle to Muslim views on Jesus. Haider Al-Khateeb was invited to present at the Sixth Al-Taff International Cultural and Scientific Conference in Iraq in December. The conference was held at the Al-Mustansiriyya University and included papers on various aspects of Imam Husayn’s uprising presented by academics from across the world. His report on the conference is included in this edition. The Institute of Ismaili

Studies has an immense track record in publishing academic work in the area of Islamic Studies. Its new Shi’i Studies series, published by I.B. Tauris, includes monographs, edited volumes and translations of Shi’a texts relevant across the wide spectrum of Shi’a Islam and is introduced by the series editor Gurdofarid Miskinzoda. Sayyid Fadhil Bahrululoom discusses an article by Norman Calder on khums in early Shi’a jurisprudence (10th – 16th centuries). The article published in the Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies (Vol. 45, no. 1, 1982) is one of the few academic contributions on this central ritual duty in Shi’a Islam. Sayyid Fadhil’s

reviews in Arabic highlights the merits of Calder’s article but also points at certain shortcomings.

I would like to take this opportunity to thank Sayyid Fadhil Bahrululoom for developing the idea of this journal and Haider Al-Khateeb and the staff at the Centre for Shi’a Islamic Studies for their editorial work.

Prof Oliver ScharbrodtProfessor of Islamic Studies and Director of the Chester Centre for Islamic Studies, University of Chester

4

Literature and Linguistics, including:1. The rhetoric in the speeches of the Battle of Karbala.2. The aesthetics of the literature of the Battle of Karbala. Philosophy, Psychology and educational, including:1. The role of women in the uprising of Imam Husayn – Sayyida Zaynab as an example.2. The influence of the uprising of Imam Husayn on the revival of the Islamic community.3. The educational and psychological aspects of his uprising and their effect on the revival of public morale in the Islamic community. history, Sociology and anthropology, including:1. The role of Ahl Al-Bayt in reviving the uprising of Imam Husayn.2. The social aspects of the uprising.3. The contribution of the youth to the uprising of Imam Husayn.4. The influence of Imam Husayn’s uprising on other revolts against tyrannical governments. Media and Library Studies, including:1. The role of the uprising of Imam Husayn in holding those in power accountable to the public.2. The role of mass media and electronic libraries in making sources and information on Imam Husayn and his uprising available.

at al-mustansIrIyya, Baghdad, 3-4th of dECEmBEr 2014

imam husayn Conference

CISS was invited to attend and participate at the Sixth Al-Taff International Cultural and Scientific Conference in Iraq, Baghdad.The conference was sponsored by both the Iraqi Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research and the Shia Endowment Office.The Conference was held at the College of Arts, Al-Mustansiriyya University under the Title of ‘The Rise of Imam Husayn: A Stand Against Terrorism and a Call For Reform’.

The opening ceremony was attended by senior government officials among them the Vice President of the Republic of Iraq Nouri al-Maliki, the Minister of Higher Education and Scientific Research, joined by the Minister of the Shia Endowment Office and the President of the Martyrs’ Foundation. Various members of the Iraqi Parliament and guests and scholars from across the globe also attended.

Researchers presented work concerned with the Battle of Karbala and events related to it in the past and in the present within various research disciplines discussing themes related to the Battle:

5

A paper presented by Qussay Al-Attabi of Brown University looked at ‘Intertextuality in the Husayni Majlis’. Al-Attabi argued that the significance of the majlis lied in the cultural intertextuality of the narratives about the Battle of Karbala. His paper looked at how the majlis, through the invocations of Karbala, produced and reproduced a counter-discourse to hegemonic readings of Islamic history. Particular attention was paid to the case of the Imam Husayn Majlis in Iraq over the past two years. Al-Attabi assessed through his work whether the common narrative could play a role in the development of Shia-Sunni bonds.

Oliver Scharbrodt presented a paper entitled ‘Imam Husayn as a Role-model of Non-violence in Islam’. The paper looked at current misconceptions or generalisation that Islam either was

violent by its very nature or at least had a problematic relationship towards violence. Scharbrodt highlighted in his paper the importance of acquiring

proper understanding of the diverse range of views on violence within Islam. He moved on to explore the role of Imam Husayn and the tragedy of Karbala in defining attitudes towards non-violence in the Shii tradition.

Another paper, by Yasir Ali Mirza, investigated the the influence of the uprising of Imam Husayn on mass mobilisation against the regime of Reza Shah in Iran. by. Nuzhat Moini examined the role of Sayyida Zaynab in highlighting the philosophy of Imam Husayn.

The majority of the presenters were from academic institutions from across the Arab world. After the conference, participants were invited to visit the Holy Shrines of Imam Husayn and Imam ‘Ali and to meet prominent Shia scholars such as the Grand Ayatullah Shaykh Bashir Husayn Al-Najafi and Grand Ayatullah Sayyid Mohammad Sa’id Al-Hakim. The invited guests had time to listen and engage with these scholars. These visits coincided with the Arba‘in Commemorations in Karbala last year.

Haider Al-KhateebPh.D. candidate, Middlesex UniversityCISS Manager

6

الدراسات بعض حول أكتب أن نيتي وفي بالقصيرة ليست مدة منذ والترجمة لبحوث كانت والزالت محط نقاش وآراء الباحثني في مجالي

الفقه واألصول وفق املذهب اإلمامي ملدرسة أهل البيت )ع(.

وأود أن أبني هنا من خالل مقدمة مختصرة بأن الغرض من هذه الدراسات هو توضيح وشرح منطلقات أو آراء هذا الباحث أو ذاك وذلك ألجل ارساء قواعد ملباني دراسة آراء املستشرقني وبحوثهم مع محاولة لفهم تلك اآلراء

ونقدها أو توضيحها ألجل فائدة الباحث والقارئ ولتعم الفائدة للجميع.

وقد وقع اختياري بادي ذي بدء على دراسات للدكتور نورمان كالدر )ت 1997( االستاذ والباحث في كلية سواس جامعة لندن، وسبب االختيار هو كون دراساته تخصصية فقهية قلما جند من يحاول ان يكتب عنها الفلسفة يفضلون االجنبية باللغات الباحثني فجل االنكليزية، باللغة

والدراسات املعرفية وكذلك التاريخية على وجه العموم.

دراسة حول بحث اخلمس للدكتور نورمان كالدر

7

وللدكتور املذكور اكثر من بحث في هذا املضمار وقد اخترت بحث اخلمس ألهميته واختصاره على أن يلحق باملستقبل ببحوث أخرى السيما بحثه عن الزكاة باالضافة الى ترجمة نصية لتلك البحوث في املستقبل

القريب ان شاء الله.

اراء بني االمر أول قارن كالدر الدكتور أن نرى اخلمس بحث وفي الفقهاء دون أن يتعرض الى استدالل ذلك الفقيه ولعله وهذه املسألة تشمل اللغة السيما العربية، اللغة من الكرمي الباحث متكن لعدم اآلخرين ومتمرس متمكن متخصص الى حتتاج ذاتها بحد هي والتي الفقهية الدراسي التدرج الدراسة احلوزوية يتدرج في لم ملن مترسًا قل حتقيقه املعهود، لذا نرى بعضهم يتخبط في عرضه ويقفز من نظرية او فرضية بالطريقة البحث ودليلية الى منهجية االستنباط التطرق الى اخرى دون

املعهودة مما يوقعه في فخ املساءلة من قبل احلوزويني.

والواقع أن السبب الرئيسي لذلك هو الهوة بني االستشراقيني والباحثني األجانب وبني العلماء في احلوزة العلمية، تلك الهوة التي كانت وال زالت مفصلة،عسى لدراسة عنها البحث نترك متعددة، واسبابها موجودة، اللغة من التمكن عدم اسبابها اهم من أن اال مستقباًل، لها نوفق أن

بالشكل الذي يساعد على تيسير الهفوات واالشتباهات وتقليلها.

وقد حاولت من خالل التعرض لبعض النقاط حول بحث اخلمس للدكتور كالدر، أن أشير الى أمثلة من األمور التي يقع فيها الباحثون، مراعيًا التفصيل لبحوث مستقبلية، عسى تاركًا التلخيص واالختصار، عامل

أن نوفق لنشرها ان شاء الله.

وقد خلصت االشكاالت في عدد من النقاط، اوجزها فيما يلي:-

ربط الدكتور بني مسألة اخلمس والدولة البويهية وذلك بعد )1ذكره آلية اخلمس مبا نصه:

البويهية الدولة بعد أو قبل كونهم عن النظر بغض اإلمامية "وفقهاء أو يتفرع منه قسم قسموا اخلمس الى خمسة أقسام وبالتأكيد ينقدح سادس للخمس. بعد وفاة الرسول ثالثة أقسام تعود الى اإلمام واألقسام وبالنسبة بني هاشم. السبيل من وأبناء واليتامى للفقراء الثالثة األخرى

الى األقسام الثالثة األخيرة، هناك تردد من قبل احملقق"

ويرد على هذا أمورما عالقة الدولة البويهية بآراء الفقهاء؟ وما سبب استدالله بأن )1(آراءهم معتمدة على ذلك؟ ان هو اال استحسان من قبل الباحث الكرمي، ولرمبا يتناغم مع روح العصر ومحاولة حتميل الفقهاء وآرائهم على الدول

الشيعية من بويهية وصفوية الخ.

أقسام خمسة الى قسموه االمامية فقهاء بأن استدل كيف )2("واعلموا اثنان. فيه يختلف القرآن صريح ال منه سادس، ونص ويتفرع واليتامى القربى ولذي وللرسول خمسه لله فان شيء من غنمتم امنا

واملساكني وابن السبيل" 41:8

وهذا واضح بكون االقسام ستة:سهم الله )1

سهم الرسول )ص( )2سهم ذي القربى )3

سهم اليتامى )4سهم املساكني )5

سهم ابناء السبيل )6

ولرمبا يستند الى قول احملقق في الشرائع "وقيل: بل يقسم خمسة أقسام والفقهاء، العرب لغة يفهم من كل يفهمه واضح وهذا أشهر" واألول فعندما يذكر الفقيه قوال على نحو" قيل"يدل على التضعيف و التقليل التالية الرأي اآلخر اشهر، ويتضح من عبارته السيما عندما يذكر ان في الشرائع انه لم يتبنى ذلك الرأي ذاك. علمًا انه ال يخفى على املراجع والباحث ان عبارة قيل نسبة الى ما ذكره صاحب مصباح الفقيه االغا سهم اسقط انه من اصحابنا من شاذ من حكى "فما الهمداني رضا

رسول الله )ص( ضعيف، بل لم يعرف قائله".

كان احملقق أن تعني وال وضوح، بكل التساؤل عن جتيب والعبارة فيه بحسب تردد احملقق الذي املصدر لم يذكر بانه ابدًا علمًا مترددًا قوله ، ولكنني استخرجت ذلك من هامش على عبارته في الشرائع )1(.

هذه كل في شرط هو "الفقر بأن فيقول الدكتور يستطرد ثم ج( مطلوبا الفقر كون في مترددًا كان لوحده الطوسي الثالثة. األقسام لأليتام". وقصده من الثالثة الفقراء وااليتام وابناء السبيل من بني هاشم. وليت شعري من أين توصل الى ذلك وفي أي مصدر؟ حيث انه لم يذكر ذلك في الهامش. وقد راجعت النهاية بنفسي ولم اجد ذلك، واملفروض ان

االحتجاج يكون به باعتباره اخر كتب الشيخ في الفقه.

منهم السبيل وأبناء "واليتامى نصه ما الشيخ ذكر فقد املبسوط أما يعطيهم مع الفقر والغنى، ألن الظاهر يتناولهم )2( " أقول: وهذه العبارة

ال تعني ان الشيخ متردد، ورأيه واضح ملن كان لديه شم فقاهة.

عند فيستحقون عليها العاملني "اما بعد فيما ما ذكره ذلك من واهم استحقاقهم، اي في حالة فقرهم اثناء عملهم او جبايته، حتى لو كانوا غير مستحقني في اوطانهم". وال ادري من اين له هذا؟ فهو لم يذكراملصدر وال يوجد من يقول بأن في اخلمس سهمًا للعاملني عليها، ولعله خلط بني الزكاة واخلمس، السيما بأن له بحثا مفصال عن الزكاة، علنا نوفق

لترجمته ومناقشته فيما بعد ولنشره في مجلتنا هذه.

يحلل او يناقش عندما املؤلف ان اليه االشارة جتدر مما )2الفقه تاريخ في ادريس ابن ُعرف "وقد يقول: ادريس ابن وآراء افكار الشيعي بتحامله على الشيخ او مناقشته آلرائه، واذا الحظنا صفحة من سرائر االسالم فاننا جند انها البد ان حتتوي على نقد للشيخ الطوسي، كاعتماده على اخبار اآلحاد، وعدم متسكه بظواهر التنزيل او عموم اآلية باالضافة الى حيوده عن براءة الذمة. وباالضافة الى ذلك فان قسمًا كبيرًا من نهاية الطوسي او املبسوط كان قد اقُتبس من قبل ابن ادريس.

ومن الواضح ان الطوسي سواءًا كان اُتبع او خولف فال يحكمه جتاهل احلملة توضح االسالم سرائر في اخلمس بحث ومناقشة املهم. تأثيره العنيفة البن ادريس والتي هي ال تخلو من غرابة في تاريخ الفقه االسالمي

وذلك لكونها حول قضية تتعلق بتملك ثروات هائلة وأموال".

االسالم سرائر عنوان له اين من اواًل: الكثير، ذلك على ويرد اقول والكتاب عنوانه السرائر احلاوي لتحرير الفتاوي.

ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــشرائع اإلسالم 133:1 )1(

املبسوط 357:1 )2(

8

نذكرها والتي ادريس ابن عبارة يفهم لم املؤلف أن الواضح من ثانيًا: اخبار اضعف من فإنه الكتب بعض سواد في يوجد "وما لالنصاف يعمل بأخبار اآلحاد ال يعمل اآلحاد، ألنه مرسل غير مسند، وعند من

بذلك، ألنه ال يعمل اال باملسانيد التي يروونها العدول دون املراسيل".

اخبار في ادريس ابن رأي يعرف بالفن ودراية فقاهة شم له من وكل اآلحاد، وهو منحى اتخذه بعض الفقهاء من قبله، كالشريف املرتضى، بأخبار املقصود ما تفاصيل في اخلوض عن النظر وبغض زهرة وابن اآلحاد ألن ذلك يحتاج الى تفصيل اكثر من هذا املقام اال انه من الواضح غير مرسل ألنه اآلحاد، اخبار اضعف من انه "هو الشيخ مقصد ان اال يعمل ال ألنه بذلك، يعمل ال اآلحاد بأخبار يعمل من وعند مسند، باملسانيد التي يروونها العدول دون املراسيل" فاشكال الشيخ على اخلبر

املرسل وليس كونه من اخبار اآلحاد.

واهل الفن يفهمون ما املقصود بهذ، ومن الواضح ان البحث قد اختلط على مؤلفنا الكرمي.

انه في موضع اخر يستفهم عن مسألة ولم يوضح ما هو نرى )3مورد االستفهام وذلك حني يشرح مسألة حصول الزيادة وذلك بعد توزيع

اسهم اخلمس فيقول:

ستكون فانها التوزيع بعد زيادة هناك كانت اذا بانه يعتقد "وكان عائدة الى االمام )كان تكون له خاصة(. وفي نفس الوقت اذا كانت هناك نقيصه فُيفترض أن يدفعها من ماله )سهم من اخلمس؟(" – اقول متت ترجمة العبارة حرفيًا وبالنص مع عالمة السؤال التي وضعها والتي لم افهم ما هو مقصوده منها، فهو هنا يذكر العبارة من املبسوط للشيخ الطوسي وال معنى لعالمة السؤال هذه، ألنه ان كان لديه سؤال فعليه أن يسأل املختصني، وان كان يتساءل عن احلكم فليس بحثه استدالليًا، اال اذا كان يطرح اسئلة للشارع ،وفي هذه احلالة يفقد موضوعيته، ألن البحث يفترض ان يكون فقهيا محضا وال معنى لهذه االستفسارات هنا.

بعد نقص حدوث حالة فيذكر العبارة في املؤلف يخوض ذلك وبعد )اقول يتم من حصة خاصته" أن عليه "وان نقص كان فيقول: التوزيع

وهذه العبارة اقتبسها بالعربية وباحلروف العربية(.

واحلال ان العبارة في املبسوط كمايلي: "وان نقص كان عليه ان يتم من حصته خاصة". اقول: والفرق واضح وجلي بني العبارتني، فاالولى مبهمة، الفقهاء وعباراتهم، وهي بلغة يلم املعنى ملن الشيخ فواضحة واما عبارة أن لإلمام ان يكمل النقص في توزيع السهام )لليتامى واملساكني وابناء السبيل من بني هاشم( من حصته من سهم االمام. وقد يكون اخلطأ في

االمالء او النقل، ولكن حينئذ ال معنى العتراضه باملرة.

ثم يستطرد فيقول: "ووفق هذا فانه يعني انه يجب ان يصرف من سهمه تناقض هناك كان وقد املستحقني بقية نواقص يغطي كي اخلمس منطقي في ما افاده الطوسي، السيما انه بت في ان لالمام ان يفعل ما

يريد بسهمه اخلاص، والسؤال هو انه ناقض نفسه".

له السهم يكون كيف انه قصد لعله املناقضة هي اين شعري وليت وامنا تناقضًا، ليس ،وهذا النواقص ليغطي يصرف أن وعليه خاصة؟ ألحد وليس بنفسه يتوالها امور هناك وكذلك لالمام، هو ملا ايضاح االمور وأمامها،ولتوضيح هذه وقائدها األمة باعتباره زعيم بها، القيام نحتاج الى تفصيل اكثر، والكاتب يحتاج الى سعة اطالع حول منصب

االمامة، واالمور املتعلقة به قبل ان يصدر حكمًا بهذا الشكل.

ادريس ابن رأي الى يتعرض ان بعد انه نرى آخر مورد وفي )4بأن قائاًل انه يكمل نرى يناقشهم مناقشة موضوعية أن وغيره، وبدل املوزعني هم كانوا )اذا عامة بصورة الفقهاء الى مفيدًا كان "هذا لألخماس( كمسيطرين على مصادر الثروة في املجتمع. ولرمبا يكون الناحية ومن هاشم(. )بني السادة من هم الذين العلماء لهؤالء مفيدا الفكرية اي ادعاء من الفقهاء حول السيطرة على سهم االمام من اخلمس يختلف عن سيطرتهم على الزكاة حيث أن اخلمس يختلف عن الزكاة، ألنه قانونيًا ملك االمام. ومن خالل ادعائهم حق توزيع اخلمس فالفقهاء

جعلوا ألنفسهم عالقة خاصة باالمام".

ان الذي املوضوعي، الفقهي التحليل من خال كالم الواقع في وهذا صدر فيجب أن يستند الى رأي فقهي قائم على أسس لها عالقة مباشرة دون ألمر شخصي استحسان ملجرد وليس الفقهي، االستنباط بعملية آخر، وتعبير عن وجهة نظر بحتة ال متت الى عملية االستنباط الشرعي

بصلة، بل هي محض تكهنات سياسية واجتماعية.

من ناحية ضبط املصادر نرى أن الكاتب الكرمي يقع احيانًا )5في اشتباهات قد ال ُيتسامح بها اكادمييًا فضاًل عنها حوزويًا مثل نقله عن الشهيد األول بالعبارة التي انقلها منه نصًا كالتالي: "الشهيد االول تدفع لإلمام ثالثة أقسام، ستة الى "يقسم قائاُل: اخلمس عن يتحدث في ذلك وينسب ".... ُيحفظ أو غيبته حالة في نائبه الى أو له مباشرة البهية الروضة ان الروضة ص53 واحلال االول في الشهيد الى الهامش للشهيد الثاني، وهي شرح للمعة الدمشقية للشهيد األول والفرق واضح

وجلي.

املجتهد اإلمام من قبل التصرف في سهم املؤلف مسألة ربط )6ما ولنراجع بحتة، وسياسية تاريخية وعوامل بقضايا للشرائط اجلامع عن حتدث االفهام مسالك في الثاني "الشهيد يقول: نناقشه ثم قاله زيادة حصول حالة في اثيرت املشكلة وهذه اخلمس، توزيع مشكلة القول كذلك الى االمام. وعليه فيمكن تعود فانها بني هاشم، لسهم بني هاشم وكذلك ميكن الى الغيبة سيعود االمام في زمن بأن سهم

توزيعه".

أن بأنه: ال ميكن لإلمام وقال املسألة لهذه الثاني قدم عرضًا الشهيد يسد اي نقص لسهم بني هاشم، وهذا مما اعطاه التبرير الكافي له وملن سبقه من الفقهاء في توزيع حصة االمام للفقهاء في زمن الغيبة. واالخير بصورة اخلمس بتوزيع اخلاصة القوانني البهية الروضة في ذكر قد ان يجب االمام "سهم الفقهاء صالحية الى نظره يعكس مما عادلة، ُيسلم له )اي لالمام( حال احلضور، وفي زمن الغيبة لنوابه، وهم فقهاء انه يقصد شرعية( )واعتقد لهم شريعة العدول وهؤالء هم من االمامية الفتوى ألنهم وكالؤه. ولذلك فانه محتم عليهم ان يتصرفوا وفق مذهبهم )والظاهر قصده اجتهادهم مثاًل ألن عبارته موهمة( وهؤالء الذين يرون انه يجوز توزيعه للمستحقني لسد احتياجاتهم، فهذا ينطبق مع نظراملشهور الثاني( قد يوزعونه بحسب الشهيد )اقول: واملقصود زمن املتاخرين من ما يرون اكثره او على العكس، اما هؤالء الذين ال يوافقون على ذلك

فيبتون بأنه يجب ان يحفظ لإلمام كوديعة حلني ظهوره.

ولذلك فطاملا ان االمام غائب ... او يحفظ لغاية ظهوره من قبل من يدفع اخلمس كوديعة كما فصلنا ذلك للنائب )=الفقيه(. من يدفع اخلمس قد ال يوزع سهم االمام من اخلمس ملستحقيه حتت اي ظروف، وكذلك قد ال يعطيه ألي احد اال للحاكم الشرعي. واذا استولى اي احد على ذلك

فحينئذ ُيعتبر ضامنا لذلك.

9

ومن الواضح من عبارة الشهيد األول أنه يجب ان ُيعطى للنواب حيث انه ال يحل ألي أحد التصرف بهذا اجلزء ما عدا مجموعته ]فريقه =؟ الفريق الذي هو مسؤول عن اخلمس اي الفقهاء[". هذا وينسب ذلك الى الروضة

البهية.

اقول: من الواضح من عالمة االستفهام املوجودة في املنت االنكليزي أن املؤلف لم يفهم العبارة.

ثم يستطرد بعد ذلك فيقول "والفقرة كما هو معتاد من الشهيد الثاني توضح بعض املسائل املستعصية او القضايا اخلالفية، وكذلك تفصيل

صالحيات الفقيه والتقليل من صالحيات األفراد.

اقول: وهنا يتضح الدس والتحريض على خالف املوضوعية االكادميية املطلوبة، فهو يحمل على الشهيد الثاني ورأيه، ويعلله بأنه ألجل احلصول اول هو ليس الثاني الشهيد أن واحلال الصالحيات، من املزيد على لو العدول، بل الفقهاء التصرف في سهم االمام من قبل اقر بجواز من قبله، وشرح ولرمبا السرائر، ادريس في ابن الى يعود نراه ذلك تتبعنا هذا يتطلب بحثًا مستقاًل أسأل الله ان يوفقنا له يومًا ما، ومن يطلع على تلك اآلراء يتضح له علة التحليل في جواز التصرف، وهي ليست لزيادة الصالحية وال ألي سبب سياسي ملا بعد او قبل الدولة البويهية، بل يرى أن فقهاء الطائفة قد خصصوا لذلك صفحات مفصلة من البحث واملناقشة الدقيقة، والتي كان حريًا باالستاذ املؤلف ان يطلع عليها، السيما انه

اكادميي متبحر.

ثم نرى انه وقع للمرة الثانية في مسألة نسبة الروضة البهية الى الشهيد االول، وهي للثاني واحلال انه كان االجدر به ان ينقل رأي الشهيد األول من منت اللمعة الدمشقية. )الحظ الهامش رقم 22 في النص االنكليزي(.ومما جتدر االشارة اليه ان الدكتور كالدر اختلفت طريقته )7في سرد املصادر في الهوامش فلو الحظنا على سبيل املثال الهامش رقم

)26( القزويني ص 47 – 48، 164، 53، 54، ص71.

فيذكر املؤلف والصفحات في حني نراه في الهامش رقم 29 يورد املصدر كما يلي "س. كوتني، طائفة البحر املتوسط، اجلزء الثاني، بركلي، على به يورد ما كثيرا االمر وهذا سابقها، عن تختلف وهذه "1971الفن اهل يعرفه حد الى االكادميية اجلامعات في واحملققني الطلبة

والتحقيق في هذا املجال.

طريقة اخترع من "أول الثاني الشهيد بأن الدكتور ذكر )8بحثًا منهما ليكون والشرح املنت من كل بخلط املعهودة التأليف مشتركًا وهذا ما اخذه من طريقة السنة" ويشير في الهامش الى ترجمة الشهيد الثاني في الروضات للخونساري.اقول: من يراجع ترجمة الشهيد الثالث من الروضات يرى ان اخلونساري ينقل عن ابن الثاني في اجلزء العودي في سرده حلياة الشهيد الثاني والتي يذكرفيها مؤلفاته فيقول: احملبور املبرور للشيخ الدمشقية اللمعة شرح في البهية "الروضة منها الشهيد املذكور مجلدان مزجا ايضًا، سلك فيه مسلكًا لطيفًا وحّرره رآها ملا فانه املزج شروح في رغبته وأّما قال: ان الى معروفًا، حتريرًا نفسها في فهي ذلك، على احلمّية حملته منها ألصحابنا وليس للعاّمة

شيء حسن".

وأقول: هذا ال ُيفهم منه انه اخذها من اهل السنة فلرمبا انهم اكثروا من هكذا تأليف فأخذته احلمي، وال يخفى على القارئ الكرمي ان فخر احملققني قبله قام بشرح قواعد والده العالمة في كتابه ايضاح الفوائد

في شرح القواعد وكذلك الفاضل املقداد السيوري في شرحه املعروف بالنافع يوم احلشر في شرح الباب احلادي عشر للعالمة وهذا ما يخطر

ببالي على وجه السرعة ولو اتسع املقام لذكرت املزيد.

ثم بعد ذلك يستطرد الدكتور فيقول "مسالك األفهام وهو شرح لكتاب الشرائع للمحقق كان شيئًا سابقًا لذلك ولكنه خشن )ويقصد صعب( الفن أهل ألن واضح اشتباهه ولكن آخر شيئًا قصد ولرمبا العبارة لعدم املؤلف ولعل املعامالت في ما ُكتب أقوى من املسالك ان يعلمون

متكنه من اللغة العربية الفقهية توهم بأن عبارة الكتاب معقدة.

وختامًا أود أن أشير الى اهمية هذه البحوث كونها وان كان فيها كالم اال انها تنقل شيئًا من فقه االمامية الى متحدثي االنكليزية وقد حاول املؤلف بذل قصارى جهده وترك املجال ملن بعده ليطور ويوصل االفكار بصورة العلمية احلوزات بني هوة حلدوث الرئيسي السبب ان املطلوبة. الباحثني ودراسات جانب من عامة بصورة الشرق اهل وبحوث خاصة يعبر عنه بدراسات املستشرقني،من جانب اخر هو عدم او ما الغربيني مهم امر اللغات من التمكن فإن لذا اآلخر، بلغة كالالطرفني املام سعي يكون أن يجب الوقت نفس وفي االخرين، ثقافة على لالطالع علة هو وهذا احلكم، اصدار قبل االخر الطرف ثقافة على للتعرف السعي لترجمة هكذا بحوث ومحاولة كتابة دراسات حولها، ألن جلها وبضمنها بعض الكتب والدراسات الواسعة واملعمقة اشارت بطريقة او بأخرى الى نقاط ضعف لم تكن موجودة لو كان هناك استيعاب كامل للغة العربية، او باألحرى للمنطق الفقهي الذي مييز املوسوعات والكتب

الفقهية واألصولية.

وكلي أمل أن تكون محاولتنا هذه بذرة لشحذ همم اآلخرين وتشجيع، من الكثير فهناك وشاق طويل بالسهلة،والطريق ليست املهمة ألن بهذا االملانية او الفرنسية او االنكليزية باللغات كتبت التي الكتب اآلن لها حلد ينبر ولم بهذا اخلصوص، والسمني الغث وحوت الشأن، من يرد عليها او يصحح مفاهيمها، بل نرى البعض منها اصبح يعد من وعلومه، وتاريخه االمامي او االسالمي فقهنا لدراسات املهمة املصادر البحوث هذه بترجمة العناية الى التوجه وأهمية يعكس حساسية مما لغته كانت مهما الكرمي الباحث الى املطالب لتوضيح والدراسات

ومهما كان توجهه.

Sayyid Fadhil BahrululoomExecutive Director of the Centre for Islamic Shi‘a Studies

10

The Institute of Ismaili Studies was es-tablished in 1977 with the object of promoting scholarship and learning on Islam, in the historical as well as contemporary contexts. The Institute’s programmes encourage a perspec-tive which is not confined to the theo-logical and religious heritage of Islam, but seek to explore the relationship of religious ideas to broader dimensions of society and culture. The programmes thus encourage an interdisciplinary approach to Islamic history and thought. Particular attention is also given to issues of modernity that arise as Muslims seek to relate their heritage to the contemporary situations.

The Institute’s programmes concentrate on the diverse of cultures in which Islam is prac-tised today, from the Middle East, South and Central Asia, and Africa to the industri-alised societies of the West, thus taking into consideration the variety of contexts which shape the ideals, beliefs and practices of the Muslims.

In particular, the Institute promotes re-search on those areas of the Muslim tradition which have received rela-tively little attention from scholars. These include the intellectual and literary expressions of Shi‘i Islam in general, and the Ismaili tradition in particular.

These objectives are realised through concrete programmes and activities organised and implemented by the Institute. Thus, one of the new endeav-ours at the Institute is the launching of the Shi‘i Heritage Series. It has been established as an intrinsic part of the

publications programme of the Insti-tute. It will include: monographs and edited volumes intended to enhance knowledge of Shi‘i Islam and Shi‘i interpretations of Islam; textual stud-ies leading to the publication of pri-mary sources based on unpublished manuscripts of important Shi‘i texts. In addition, the Shi‘i Heritage Series

produces English translations of se-lected classical Shi‘i texts of crucial significance as well as bibliographical projects.

Through these publications and various other research projects, the

Institute aims to encourage original research and analysis of existing issues in the field. Recognising the increasing interest in the study of Shia Islam in recent years, the Shi‘i Heritage Series aims to promote a better understanding of Shi‘i Islam and its interpretations by bringing together some of the most significant contributions in the field and seeking to make these accessible to wide audiences of academics and non-specialists. It also investigates the theoretical, methodological and practical challenges encountered in Shi‘i studies.

The Shi‘i Heritage Series intends to produce distinctive and highest quality contributions in tackling the problematic lack of readily

available primary sources on Shi‘i Islam - which constitutes a major impediment to scholarship in the field. In order to offer a wider and easier access to primary sources, the series will provide new editions of works which have not received appropriate consideration due to the poor quality or inaccessibility of their

the institute of ismaili Studies establishes Shi‘i heritage Series

11

current versions. This will be done through working partnerships with individual scholars and academic establishments in the field and by identifying key institutions engaged in similar endeavours. Moreover, the series intends to produce English translations of selected classical Shi‘i texts of primary importance, accompanied by new critical editions and, where required, by introductory or explanatory material.The Editorial Board, which ensures the quality and breadth of publications, consists of: Farhad Daftary (General Editor), Maria de Cillis (Managing Editor), Gurdofarid Miskinzoda (Managing Editor), Mohammad-Ali Amir-Moezzi, Hermann Landolt, Wilferd Madelung, Andrew Newman, Sabine Schmidtke and Paul Walker.

So far, three books have been published in the Shi‘i Heritage Series. The first book in the series, by Dr Farhad Daftary, provides a definitive account of the development of Shi‘ism, also clarifying the frequent misunderstandings and misrepresentations that colour the dominant perceptions about it. The author draws on the scattered findings of modern scholarship to explain the formative era of Shi‘i Islam, when a multitude of Muslim groups and schools of thought were elaborating their doctrinal positions. Subsequent chapters are devoted to the history of the Ithna‘asharis, or Twelvers, the Ismailis, the Zaydis and the Nusayris (now more commonly known in Syria as the ‘Alawis), the four communities that account for almost the entirety of the Shi‘i Muslim population of the world (ca. 200 million).

The result is a comprehensive history of Shi‘i Islam that will serve as a work of reference for academics in Islamic and Middle Eastern studies, as well as the broader field of the History

of Religions. At the same time, the author’s accessible text will assure a wide interest among general, non-specialist readers who follow contemporary events in the Middle East and the Islamic world.

The second book in the series, The Study of Shi‘i Islam: History, Theology and Law represents an extensive analysis of the field of Shi‘i Studies. Its central objective is to provide overview of the present state of the field and to showcase some of the major issues and approaches through the publication of original studies. Edited by Farhad Daftary and Gurdofarid Miskinzoda, the book is divided into eight main parts. These are: history and historiography, Qur‘an and its Shi‘i interpretations, Shi‘i hadith, Shi‘i law, authority, theology, rites and rituals, and philosophy and intellectual traditions.

The introductions to each of the parts aim to provide an overview of that particular sub-field in the study of Shi‘i Islam within the more general context of Shi‘i and Islamic studies. They examine issues of methodology and recent developments in their respective sub-fields and represent a comprehensive overview of the topic, the state of research in that particular sub-field, how it has developed so far, primary aims at the current stage of its development and what needs to be done to further future research. Moreover, the author of each introduction has taken a unique approach to writing them for pragmatic reasons, in order to avoid repetitions and also to provide an extensive overview of the field in general.

The ‘case studies’ (studies on a particular topic) themselves are meant to explicate the type of issues and questions raised in the

introductions and those that exist in the contemporary study of Shi‘i Islam, along with the methodologies and tools of research that are currently used to address these issues. Each case-study deals with a number of significant methodological issues central to the study of Shi‘i Islam as well as contains analytical containing descriptions of the features and contents of various developments in history, doctrine and thought. The introductions utilise these case studies that follow to exemplify and highlight issues wherever appropriate without, however, limiting themselves to these alone. It is hoped that the volume will inspire further research and discourse in the field leading to more exciting avenues for research in these and other areas.

The volume benefits from the diverse expertise of nearly 30 eminent scholars, including Mohammad-Ali Amir-Moezzi, Meir M. Bar-Asher, Farhad Daftary, Maria Massi Dakake, Daniel De Smet, Gerald R. Hawting, Nader El-Bizri, Etan Kohlberg, Wilferd Madelung, Christopher Melchert, Andrew Newman, Andrew Rippin, Sajjad Rizvi, Sabine Schmidtke and Paul E. Walker.

In 2010 The Institute of Ismaili Studies organised a colloquium entitled The Study of Shi‘i Islam: The State of the Field, Issues of Methodology and Recent Developments to coincide complement the genesis of this volume. While focusing on the state of the field itself, the colloquium enabled serious discussions on current issues in the study of Shi‘i Islam. By providing leading scholars as well as those new in the field, with the opportunity to meet and discuss the state of the field and their current research, it sought to realise the aims of the Institute in promoting the understanding of Shi‘i

12

Islam and enhancing further research.The latest book in the series is Words of Power: Hurufi Teachings between Shi‘ism and Sufism in Medieval Islam by Orkhan Mir-Kasimov. It focuses on the Jawidan-nama-yi kabir (‘Great Book of Eternity’), the magnum opus of Fadl Allah Astarabadi (d. 796/1394) and one of the most important known texts belonging to the mystical and messianic current that became particularly active in Iran and Anatolia following the Mongol invasions. It illuminates the contemporary reconfiguration of religious and political authority along messianic and charismatic lines that took place in the Islamic East, and which arguably contributed to the rise and consolidation of the Ottoman, Safawid and Mughal empires. The conception of authoritative hermeneutics (ta‘wil) is at the core of Fadl Allah’s teachings and explains the claim ascribed to him by his followers to high religious and possibly also political office. The use of Jewish and Christian texts in the Jawidan-nama, together with the Muslim scriptural sources, suggests a universal dimension to Fadl Allah’s messianic project. Fadl Allah and his followers came to be known as Hurufis, a reference to the Islamic science of letters’ (‘ilm al-huruf). The Hurufis left behind a rich cultural heritage. Their literature and doctrines were integrated into Alevi and Bektashi milieus in the Ottoman Empire, and influenced the development of Azeri and Ottoman Turkish literatures. The longevity of Hurufi ideas and motifs is also evident in modern Turkish literature as, for example, in the work of Orhan Pamuk.

Words of Power is the first comprehensive study of Fadl Allah’s seminal work. The Introduction surveys Fadl Allah’s biography and the history of the Hurufi movement,

before exploring possible solutions to the ‘puzzle of fragments’ represented by the random composition of the Jawidan-nama. Parts One to Three present a detailed analysis of the Jawidan-nama’s contents, including cosmology, anthropology, prophetology and eschatology. The Conclusion contextualises the Jawidan-nama within Islamic intellectual history. Is the Jawidan-nama a work of Qur’anic exegesis? Is it a Sufi work based on an original interpretation of Ibn al-‘Arabi’s ideas? Or is it a continuation of the Shi‘i Ismaili esoteric tradition elaborated during the Alamut phase of Nizari Ismaili history? Although the Jawidan-nama does not answer all the questions that it may raise, it exemplifies the diversity and richness of the intellectual and spiritual traditions of Islam.

Gurdofarid MiskinzodaResearch Associate, Institute of Ismaili Studies

13

This subject, namely, the comparison of Christians’ and Muslims’ views about Jesus, is very extensive. The dif-ferences between different sects and branches of each religion make the issue very complicated and render it almost impossible to be discussed comprehensively in a short essay. Nevertheless, in what follows, I will try to give a very brief account of how Christians see Jesus and then contrast it to Muslims’ picture of him.

Jesus from a Christian point of viewThe majority of Christians believe that Jesus is far more than a mes-senger of God. That is because in their view Jesus reveals God in an unprecedented manner. Moreover, he brought true salvation to human-kind in a sense that no one had done before and will do in the future. This belief about Jesus as the bearer of a unique type of salvation has a crucial role in forming the Christian under-standing of the nature of Jesus. I will return to this point later. For a Chris-tian believer, Jesus is not just a histori-cal figure, but a personal redeemer with whom she has a direct internal connection.

It is important to note that Christian theologians believe that the New Testament, on its own, is not conclu-sive on the matter of ‘who is Jesus’ (Ware, 2005). To understand who Jesus is, one needs to employ one’s faith as well as historical and theo-logical evidence.

The area within Christian Theology which deals with understanding the person of Jesus Christ is known as Christology. As Karl Rahner (1904-1984) brilliantly puts it, Christology approaches can be divided into two main catego-ries: Christology from below and Christology from above.

Christology from below presents a human picture of Jesus. From this point of view, Jesus is a prophet, a per-fect man, a moral teacher who is the best example for the humanity. He is neither eter-nal, nor does he have any attribute which is specific to God. The charac-teristic of the followers of this view is that they refrain from considering Je-sus as God, no matter how perfect he was. Adoptionists and Ebionists are examples of those who adhered to this type of Christology amongst early Christians. The proponents of this view usually rely on the Synop-tic Gospels and especially Mark to justify their point (Ware, 2005). Since contrary to the fourth Gospel, one can hardly find a trace of the divin-ity of Jesus in the first three gospels, namely Matthew, Mark and Luke (Ashrafi & Qurbani, 2011).

In the Synoptic Gospels, Jesus has been portrayed as a practicing Pal-estinian Jew who fulfills the prophe-cies of the Old Testament about the Messiah. He was a kind preacher who was close to ordinary people and compassionate towards the poor and outcasts such as prostitutes. Although his message was full of no-tions about God’s love and kindness and he believed that love is more important than juridical correctness, he confirmed Jewish law and prac-ticed it himself. There are some refer-ences to Jesus as Son of God which are usually interpreted symbolically by proponents of Christology from below. There are also some astound-ing verses in these gospels which are explicitly monotheistic:

Jesus in Christianity andislam

14

15

And Jesus answered him, ‘The first of all the com-mandments is: “Hear, O Israel, the Lord our God is one Lord.”’ (Mark 12.29)

Moreover, there are verses that re-ject Jesus’ having divine attributes such as his being free of need or all-knowing:

…saying to them, ‘Go to the village ahead of you, and at once you will find a donkey tied there, with her colt by her. Untie them and bring them to me. If anyone says anything to you, say that the Lord needs them, and he will send them right away.’ (Matthew 21.2-3)

But about that day or hour no one knows, not even the angels in heaven, nor the Son, but only the Father. (Mark 13.32)

On the other hand, Christology from above introduces Jesus as a divine eternal existent, the second person of the Holy Trinity who was born in a human nature at a specific historical point. He has both divine and human natures in full. He is one person with two natures (essences). The Nicene Creed is the classic formulation of this type of Christology. It is mainly based on the fourth gospel which has explicit assertions regarding Jesus’ being eternal:

In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God. (John 1.1)

In this gospel, Jesus is depicted as the logos (an eternal existent) who was God’s instrument in creation (John

1.3). This logos became incarnate through his birth from Mary (John 1.14) and then sacrificed himself to re-deem humanity and unite them with God (John 3.16). Finally, he resur-rected three days after his crucifixion. Although this notion of resurrection is mentioned in the Synoptic Gospels as well, but the context of these Gos-pels leads the reader to consider it as the most important miracle and sign of the truthfulness of Jesus’ prophet-hood. However, this event, namely resurrection, means far more than just a sign of prophethood in the context of the fourth gospel and the Paul’s epistles. It is a confirmation for the be-lief that Jesus is God himself.

This fact that ‘Jesus is God’ has been explicitly confirmed in many verses of the New Testament. According to Raymond Brown, the most important occasions, in addition to the famous John 1.1, which was mentioned be-fore, are the confessions of Thomas when he addressed the risen Christ as “my Lord my God” (John 20.28) and in the Hebrews 1.8 when Jesus is addressed as God. (McGrath, 2011).

Christology from above has been shaped in a strong soteriological con-text. The paradoxical affirmation that Jesus is fully God and fully human at the same time, finds its justification in this context. Different soteriological models have been employed for this justification (ransom, sacrifice, substi-tution, and victory). But according to Kallistos Ware (Ware, 2005), the most effective one is the model of ‘mutual participation’. This model is based on the idea that God became incarnate as Jesus to share with us what he had. Since like is healed by like, he has to assume human nature in order to be able to share with us his divine nature. It can be said that this model is based on two principles: first ‘only God can save’ and second ‘salvation

has to reach to the point of human need’. The first principle which has its roots in the Old Testament in addi-tion to the fact that Jesus has come to save us leads to the affirmation that Jesus is fully God. On the other hand, the second principle states that Jesus, in order to be able to communicate divine life to us human beings, has to become like us and therefore has to fully assume human nature. In Ware’s words:

Unless he is fully divine and fully human, the ‘ex-change of gifts’ is fatally impaired. Only if he is tru-ly human can we humans receive that gift from and through him. (Ware, 2005).

Although this division of Christology into two categories of ‘from above’ and ‘from below’ is very helpful to get a good sense of how Christians thinks about Jesus, in the real world of Christian Theology, there are many sects and theologians whose Christologies cannot be put in either of these two categories. In fact, they are combinations of both. For instance the Antiochene school, while giving more weight to the picture of Jesus as a moral teacher rather than a re-deemer (which is a characteristic of Christology from below), strongly em-phasizes Jesus having two separate natures. However, it seems that in the majority of popular types of Christol-ogy the weight of Christology from above is greater.

One of the very important types of Christology is Spirit Christology which interprets the presence of God in Jesus differently. From this perspec-tive, Jesus is the bearer of the Holy Spirit and it is in this sense that God is present in him. If one wants to know Christ better, one has to know the

16

Holy Spirit first. In this way Pneuma-tology becomes the prerequisite of Christology. This view is very appeal-ing for those who are concerned about the divine aspect of Jesus and yet cannot digest the presence of God within him. However, theologi-ans like Pannenberg (1928) are op-posed to this idea, since they believe it will finally ‘lapse into some form of adoptionism’ (McGrath, 2011).

It is important to note that any criti-cism about irrationality of the belief that Jesus is fully God and fully hu-man at the same time is in vain, since it is promptly referred by Christians to the limited cognititive abilities of hu-man beings. But accepting this kind of response means anyone can justify her position by just saying it is not un-derstandable by human reason which is tantamount to the end of intellec-tual debate about the subject.

Jesus from an islamic point of view The Quran as the most important source of Islamic faith mentions the names of Jesus, Messiah and Mary-am sixteen, ten and thirty three times respectively. Jesus and his mother Maryam are among the most re-spectful figures in the Quran. They were gifted by some unprecedented miracles. Virgin birth, talking in the cradle, healing incurable diseases, and calling the dead back to life are among Jesus’ miracles which are mentioned in the Quran.

Nevertheless, Jesus is no more than a messenger of God in the Quran. He was sent by God to remind people about monotheism just like all other prophets. His miracles were just signs of his truthfulness. Almost every men-tion of miracles is followed by remind-ing that those miracles happened by

the permission of God. The Quran explicitly rejects any claim about Jesus being God or the son of God:

They have certainly disbelieved who say that Allah is Christ, the son of Mary… (5:17)

They say, ‘The All Merciful has taken a son!’ Glory be to Him! They are only His honored servants.” (21:26)

There are several verses in the Quran emphasizing the fact that Jesus is a messenger and servant of God just as all other prophets were. In addi-tion to his miracles, three character-istics have been mentioned in the Quran for Jesus specifically: first, that he was God’s word , second that he was a soul from God and third he was supported by the Holy Spirit .

According to Muhammad Hossein Tabatabai (Tabatabai, 1984), Jesus’ being the word of God means Jesus was created by the direct word of God and without mediation of instru-mental causes such as a father. In this sense, his creation was very similar to the creation of Adam. The term ‘soul’ in the description of Jesus as being a soul from God, refers to the same soul which was breathed into Adam by God in the process of creation and the same soul which is mentioned as something of the affair of Lord. Con-cerning the third notion, Tabatabaei believes that Jesus received special

support from the Holy Spirit, who is the special angel of God, which en-abled him to do life-related miracles such as calling some dead people back to life or giving life to clay birds by breathing into them.

Regarding the issue of crucifixion, Quran explicitly asserts that Jesus was neither killed nor crucified, but those who were trying to kill him, killed someone else in his place. There is an important verse in the third surah of the Quran which says:

When Allah said, ‘O Jesus, in-deed I will take you and raise you to Myself…’

This verse alludes to a specific and miraculous form of life which was con-ferred to Jesus after the Romans at-tempted to kill him. Other commenta-tors like Tabatabaei believe that he was raised by both his soul and body to heaven. So Jesus is still alive ac-cording to the understanding of most Muslims. According to some hadiths, he will return towards the end of the time and all people will understand and admit his truthfulness on his return.

17

ConclusionThrough a comparison of Christian and Islamic perspectives about Jesus, we can see that claims like the vir-gin birth, astonishing miracles such as life-giving power of Jesus, have been confirmed in both religions. But when it comes to claims such as incarnation, crucifixion and resurrection, Islam ex-plicitly refuses to accept them. In fact in the cases which deal with the di-vine nature of Jesus (notions such as incarnation) Islam’s position is more severe than simply not accepting. It considers it heresy.

Islam and Christianity also have dif-ferent views about the meaning of the term ‘Holy Spirit’ and the relation they portray between the Holy Spirit and Jesus. While Christians believe that Jesus was the bearer of the Holy Spirit, Muslims believe the Holy Spirit is the revelatory angel of God which supported Jesus throughout his life.

In fact, there are many points of re-semblance between the Islamic view of Jesus and Christology from below since in both of these Jesus is a hu-man and not God. But there are still differences especially when it comes to the issues of crucifixion and resur-rection.

BibliographyAshrafi, A. & Qurbani, F., 2011. Masih shenasi dar Quran va Ahd-e- Jadid. Pazhuhesh-haye Qurani.McGrath, A. E., 2011. Christian Theol-ogy: An Introduction. s.l.:John Wiley & Sons.

Mustafa, B., 2005. Jesus from a Mus-lim Perspective. In: N. Solomon, R. Har-ries & T. Winter, eds. Abraham’s Chil-dren: Jews, Christians and Muslims in Conversation. London: Continuum International Publishing Group.

Solomon, N., Harries, R. & Winter, T., 2005. Jesus in Christian, Jewish and Muslim Thought. In: N. Solomon, R. Harries & T. Winter, eds. Abraham’s Children: Jews, Christians and Mus-lims in Conversation. London: Con-tinuum International Publishing Group.

Tabatabai, M. H., 1984. Tafsir-e Almi-zan. s.l.:s.n.

Ware, K., 2005. Jesus from a Christian Perspective. In: N. Solomon, R. Harries & T. Winter, eds. Abraham’s Children: Jews, Christians and Muslims in Con-versation. London: Continuum Interna-tional Publishing Group.

Somayeh TohidiResearcher

18