shklov, powell (1988) distributional bases for individual cell significance tests

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  • 8/2/2019 Shklov, Powell (1988) Distributional Bases for Individual Cell Significance Tests

    1/19

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    D I S T R I B U T I O N A L B A S E SF O

    I N D I V I D U A L C E L L S I G N I F I C A N C E T E S T S

    I

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    T h i s p a p e r h a b e e n p r e p a r e d f o p r e s e n t a t i o n t t h P s y c h o m e t r i c S o c i e t y i L o A n g e l e s , C a l i f o r n i a o J u n e 2 7 1 9 8 8 .

    C J C P o w e l l , 1 9 8 8 .\ P A P E R S \ S H K L 0 V 6

  • 8/2/2019 Shklov, Powell (1988) Distributional Bases for Individual Cell Significance Tests

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    I N T R O D U C T I O NI i u s u a l f o e d u c a t o r s t d e f i n e l e a r n i n g i t e r m s o c h a n g e s i

    b e h a v i o r . T h m e a s u r e m e n t o t h e s e c h a n g e s h a b e e n a c c o m p l i s h e d

    u s i n g f r e q u e n c y c o u n t s w i t h i n p r e d e f i n e d c a t e g o r i e s o o b s e r v a b l eb e h a v i o r . O n e x p e c t s t o b s e r v e a n i n c r e a s e i f r e q u e n c y a m o n g t h o s eb e h a v i o r s d e e m e d d e s i r a b l e o r d e c r e a s e i f r e q u e n c y a m o n g t h o s e

    b e h a v i o r c a t e g o r i e s d e e m e d u n d e s i r a b l e . S t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s i c o n d u c t e d u s i n g t h a s s u m p t i o n t h a t t h e s e f r e q u e n c i e s , a l t h o u g h i

    t h e m s e l v e s d i s c r e t e , r e p r e s e n t u n d e r l y i n g c o n t i n u o u s v a r i a b l e s .

    T h e r e i a n o t h e r q u i t e d i f f e r e n t w a i w h i c h c h a n g e m i g h t b

    o b s e r v e d a n d m e a s u r e d . B d e f i n i n g a n t w c a t e g o r i e s o b e h a v i o r a

    s t a t e o n e a n d s t a t e t w a n o b s e r v i n g a c r o s s t i m e i n t e r v a l , t h

    c h a n g e s w h i c h o c c u r b e c o m e o b s e r v a b l e a c a t e g o r y i n t e r a c t i o n s w h i c h

    a p p e a r a s s i n g l e c e l l s i n c o n t i n g e n c y t a b l e s .

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    a p p r o a c h e s f r o m w h i c h t s e l e c t . I t h m o r e g e n e r a l c a s e , w h e r e m o r e

    t h a n t w o i n t e r a c t i n g c a t e g o r i e s a r e i n v o l v e d , h e r e t o f o r e a s a t i s f a c t o r y

    m e t h o d f o t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o s i n g l e c e l l s i n c o n t i n g e n c y t a b l e s h a

    n o b e e n a v a i l a b l e .

    T h i s p r e s e n t p a p e r i t h m o s t r e c e n t i s e r i e s b t h p r e s e n t

    a u t h o r s i n t e n d e d t d e v e l o p m a t h e m a t i c a l l y v a l i d m e t h o d f o t h

    s t a t i s t i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o s i n g l e c e l l s i c o n t i n g e n c y t a b l e s . T h

    p r a c t i c a l p u r p o s e b e h i n d t h i s s e a r c h h a s b e e n t e n a b l e t h s e c o n d

    a u t h o r , f o r e s e a r c h r e a s o n s , t d e f i n e l e a r n i n g a s i g n i f i c a n t c o n t i n g e n t

    c h a n g e s i b e h a v i o r a c r o s s t i m e . T h i s a p p r o a c h w o u l d e n a b l e t h r e s e a r c h e r t r e t a i n t h q u a l i t a t i v e a n d i s c r e t e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o t h i n i t i a l d a t a s e w h i l e c o n d u c t i n g q u a n t i t a t i v e a n a l y s i s .

  • 8/2/2019 Shklov, Powell (1988) Distributional Bases for Individual Cell Significance Tests

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    A l p r e v i o u s a t t e m p t s b G o o d m a n ( * * ) , F a b e r ( * * ) , F u c h s & K e n e t t( 1 9 8 0 ) a n t h p r e s e n t a u t h o r s ( * * * ) h a v e b e g u n w i t h t h p r i n c i p l e sb e h i n d t h c e l l v a l u e s ( [ E ] 2 / E ) i t h X ( C h i S q u a r e ) d i s t r i b u t i o n

    T h i s p r e s e n t p a p e r h a u s e d d i f f e r e n t a p p r o a c h , a t t e m p t i n g i n s t e a d t d e t e r m i n e w h i c h o f o u r d i s t r i b u t i o n s :

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    b e s t f i t t e d r a n d o m l y g e n e r a t e d f r e q u e n c y d i s t r i b u t i o n s o s i n g l e c e l l s i n

    c o n t i n g e n c y t a b l e s l a r g e r t h a n t w b t w w h e n t h m a r g i n a l t o t a l s a r c o n s t r a i n e d .

    B A S I C D I S T R I B U T I O N S

    I a n a l y z i n g t h e c o n t i n g e n c y t a b l e , a d e s c r i p t i o n m u s t b m a d e

    c o n c e r n i n g t h u n d e r l y i n g d i s t r i b u t i o n w h i c h i m o s t a p p r o p r i a t e . T h i s

    p r o b l e m w a f i r s t t r e a t e d b G A B a r n a r d a n d b y E . S . P e a r s o n f o t a b l e s i B i o m e t r i k a 3 4 1 9 4 7 .

    W c o n s i d e r f o u r p o s s i b l e c a s e s o u n d e r l y i n g d i s t r i b u t i o n , v i z . ,

    1 ) b i n o m i a l , 2 m u l t i n o m i a l , 3 h y p e r g e o m e t r i c a n 4 t h u n i f o r m . T h e i r

    r e s p e c t i v e p r o b a b i l i t y f u n c t i o n s a r e :

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    I t h c o u r s e o o u i n v e s t i g a t i o n s i w a f o u n d t h a t t h e l a s t t w d i s t r i b u t i o n s , n a m e l y t h h y p e r g e o m e t r i c a n t h e u n i f o r m w e r e n o a p p r o p r i a t e f o t h p u r p o s e i h a n d , s w c o n c e n t r a t e d o u c o n s i d e r a t i o n s o t h f i r s t t w o , n a m e l y t h b i n o m i a l a n m u l t i n o m i a l .T h w a i w h i c h t h d i s t r i b u t i o n e n t e r s i n t o t h e p i c t u r e i i t h c a l c u l a t i o n o t h e x p e c t e d v a l u e i t h c e l l o c o n c e r n . T h v a l u e s o

    w i l l b c a l c u l a t e d i t h s a m e m a n n e r a t h t e s t f o r h o m o g e n e i t y a n w i l l b e t r e a t e d a s i n v a r i a n t f o t h e p r o b a b i l i t y c a l c u l a t i o n .

    I w a f o u n d , a w i l l b e c o m e e v i d e n t i t h r e m a i n d e r o t h

    p a p e r , t h a t t h m u l t i n o m i a l i s i m o s t c a s e s , a J a n n e r o n e h a s h o w n f o t h t w o - b y - t w o c a s e , t h d i s t r i b u t i o n m o s t s u i t a b l e f o c a l c u l a t i n g t h e s e e x p e c t e d v a l u e s .

    O p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t i t h e m u l t i n o m i a l d i s t r i b u t i o n w h i c h w a s

    u s e d i s p e c i a l w a y . T h e p r o c e d u r e e m p l o y e d i d i s c u s s e d i d e t a i l .

    M A T H E M A T I C A L C O M P A R I S O NI a e a r l i e r a p p r o a c h ( P o w e l l S h k l o v , 1 9 8 7 ) t h p r o c e d u r e w a s

    t u s t h a s s u m p t i o n t h a t :

    X - 1 0 . . E ) / V E . ( 5 w i t h E . ( R o w S u m . ) ( C o l u m n S u . ) / N

    a n E . . / N p ( 6

    t r e w r i t e , a l g e b r a i c a l l y , t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n p r o p o r t i o n ss t a t i s t i c .

    B s u b s t i t u t i o n a n r e a r r a n g e m e n t , w o b t a i n e d t h f o l l o w i n gr e s u l t .

    / . . . . ( 7 V / E / N \ ( E ) / N ,

  • 8/2/2019 Shklov, Powell (1988) Distributional Bases for Individual Cell Significance Tests

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    E q u a t i o n ( 7 w a r e s c a l e d t a c c o m m o d a t e t h p r o b l e m t h a t g r o u ps i z e i c o r r e l a t e d w i t h X b t r a n s f o r m i n g t h r a t i o s i n t o t h e i r a r c s i n ,a f o l l o w s .

    Z i s . . L . Q . . s . . . i . n . L a Z N } z , . , . l n . L E Z K X / . N ( 8 V j ^ Y / n ) * a r c s i n ( ( N - E ) / N )

    T h i s m o d i f i c a t i o n r e d u c e d s u b s t a n t i a l l y t h c o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e nt h i s c e l l s t a t i s t i c c o m p a r e d t t h X s t a t i s t i c ( f r o m . 7 4 8 ; . 0 0 0 0 2t o . 4 7 2 ; . 0 1 2 ) . I d i n o e l i m i n a t e t h i s e f f e c t .

    s e c o n d p r o b l e m e m e r g e d . T h Z o e q u a t i o n ( 8 w a n o

    s t a n d a r d s c o r e a s i t s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n w a l e s s t h a n 1 . 0 0 . I f a c t ,t h i s s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n w a d i f f e r e n t f o e a c h t a b l e c o n f i g u r a t i o n ,

    r e q u i r i n g a r e n o r m a l i z i n g f a c t o r t b e a p p l i e d f r o m a a r r a y w h i c h

    r e f l e c t e d t a b u l a r d i m e n s i o n s .

    A t h i s p o i n t , a a l t e r n a t i v e a p p r o a c h w a a t t e m p t e d . T h

    u n d e r l y i n g i d e a i p r e s e n t e d i F i g u r e

    I N S E R T F I G U R E H E R E

    T h e t w o - b y - t w o t a b l e s h o w n i F i g u r e i c o l l a p s e o a n

    r e a s o n a b l e p a r t i t i o n o f a n d e s i r e d s e g m e n t o a n c o n t i n g e n c y t a b l e i w h i c h t h p a r t i t i o n h a m o r e t h a n t w o c a t e g o r i e s i o n d i r e c t i o n a n a

    l e a s t t w i t h o t h e r .

    T h t o l e f t ( l e a d ) c e l l ( c o n t a i n s t h r e l a t i o n s h i p f o w h i c h

    t h c u m u l a t i v e p r o b a b i l i t y o t h o b s e r v e d f r e q u e n c y i d e s i r e d w i t h t h

    o b s e r v e d m a r g i n a l t o t a l s a n t a b l e t o t a l a s s u m e d t b i n v a r i a n t .

    I t h c e l l t t h r i g h t i p l a c e d t h s u o a l t h o t h e r c e l l s i t h r o i w h i c h t h l e a d c e l l o c c u r s . I t h c e l l b e l o w t h

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    F I G U R E

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    c o r r e s p o n d i n g r e s i d u a l c o l u m n s u t h t a b l e r e s i d u a l i p l a c e d i c e l l

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    e x p e c t e d v a l u e s ) f o e a c h c e l l s u c h t h a t :

    P . ( 9

    w i t h c o r r e s p o n d i n g v a l u e s f o t h o t h e r c e l l s .

    T h m a x i m u m v a l u e i c e l l i t h l e s s e r o R a n d T T h

    r a n g e o v a l u e s w h i c h c a o c c u r i C i t h m i n i m u m o R , S , T o p l u s a n t h m i n i m u m v a l u e i c e l l i s

    m i ( R , T ) m i ( R , S , T , o U B e c a u s e t h p a r t i t i o n i n g a n t h e c o n s t r a i n t s m a k e t h c u m u l a t i v e

    p r o b a b i l i t y o t h i s s i t u a t i o n l e s s t h a n o n e , t h c a l c u l a t i o n s n e e d t b

    r e s c a l e d o r n o r m a l i z e d u s i n g t h e p o s s i b l e s u o a l t h p r o b a b i l i t i e su n d e r t h e s e c o n s t r a i n t s , a s f o l l o w s :

    p < 1 0 >w h e r e p . S ( & * 2 V i \ S * S l \ m 2 ( . $ . . * . I ) m J ( & * J l \ m 4m 1 ! m 2 ! m ^ m A ? \ P U ^ \ ^ ( ' f o r t h r a n g e m i t m a

    T h v a l u e s o h a n a r c h o s e n a c h a n g e s s t h a t t h

    r o a n c o l u m n s u m s a r i n v a r i a n t .I t h e n f o l l o w s t h a t t h a d j u s t e d c u m u l a t i v e f r e q u e n c y f r o m m i

    t 0 ( t h e o b s e r v e d f r e q u e n c y t b t e s t e d ) w i l l b e

    n t m x n

    R o w s o c o l u m n s w i t h z e r o ( 0 s u m s a r m e r e l y d r o p p e d f r o m t h a n a l y s i s . C e l l s c o n t a i n i n g z e r o , b c o n t r a s t , a r p o t e n t i a l l y m e a n i n g f u l .

  • 8/2/2019 Shklov, Powell (1988) Distributional Bases for Individual Cell Significance Tests

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    F o t h o n t a i l e d t e s t s , w i l l b s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t i i

    i l e s s t h a n o e q u a l t . 0 o g r e a t e r t h a n o r e q u a l t . 9 5 . I t h r e s u l t s r e p o r t e d l a t e r t h o s e p r o b a b i l i t i e s a t h u p p e r e n o t h r a n g e( P X 1 - 5 0 ) w e r e r e s c a l e d s u c h t h a t P t h u s a v o i d i n g

    i n t e r p r e t a t i o n c o n f u s i o n .

    A l t h a t r e m a i n s i t s h o w t h a t e q u a t i o n ( 1 1 ) f i t s t h e s i m u l a t e d

    o u t c o m e f o r a n d o m o b s e r v a t i o n s u n d e r t h e s e c o n s t r a i n e d c o n d i t i o n s .

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    W i t h t h e a i o r a n d o m n u m b e r g e n e r a t o r t w s e t s o f f i v e r u n so 1 0 t w o - b y - t w o c o n t i n g e n c y t a b l e s , e a c h c o n t a i n i n g 5 d i s c r e t e

    e v e n t s , w e r e p r o d u c e d . I t h f i r s t s e t , n f u r t h e r c o n s t r a i n t s w e r e

    i m p o s e d . I t h s e c o n d s e t , o n l y t h o s e t a b l e s i w h i c h t h m a r g i n a l

    t o t a l s w e r e 2 w e r e c o l l e c t e d f o r s t u d y .

    I t h f i r s t s e t , t h e o b s e r v e d f r e q u e n c y f o e a c h c e l l v a l u e a m o n g

    t h 1 0 r u n s o t a b l e s o 5 e v e n t s w a c o l l e c t e d f o r a l f o u r c e l l s i e a c h t a b l e . T h i s c o l l e c t i o n w a m a d e w i t h o u t r e g a r d f o w h i c h c e l l w a i n v o l v e d . T h r e s u l t i n g f r e q u e n c y d i s t r i b u t i o n s w e r e a v e r a g e d t t a k ea d v a n t a g e o c e n t r a l t e n d e n c y a n t h e n c o m p a r e d t t h b i n o m i a l

    d i s t r i b u t i o n . T h r e s u l t s o f t h i s c o m p a r i s o n i g i v e n i T a b l e 1

    I n s e r t T a b l e H e r e

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    d o u b t , b i n o m i a l .

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    c o l l e c t e d . A b o u t l / 8 0 t h o a l t h i t e r a t i o n s e m e r g e d w i t h t h i s

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    R o w S u m

    T a b l e T o t a lA

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    F I G U R E

    D a t a R e d u c t i o nP r o c e d u r e s

    M o t h e rC e l l

    C 2 . 1S u o r e s t o

    c o l u m n

    C o l u m n

    t h t h

    S u

    C Z , 2S u o t h r e s t o t h r o

    C 2 . 2S u o t h b a l a n c e o

    t h t a b l e

    C o l u m n S u

    R o

    R o w 2

    T a b l

    S u

    S u

    T o t a l

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    T A B L E

    B i n o m i a l f i f o r c e l l f r e q u e n c i e s

    o n r a n d o m l y g e n e r a t e dc o n t i n g e n c y t a b l e s .

    N u m b e r o C e l l E v e n t s

    1

    1

    1

    1

    1

    1

    1

    1

    1

    1

    2

    2

    O b s e r v e dF r e q u e n c i e s

    .

    .

    3 .

    4 .

    9 .

    8 .

    1 1 . 3

    1 2 . 6 5

    1 2 . 4

    1 1 . 3 5

    8 . 6 . 4 5

    4 .

    3 . 2 5

    1 .

    . 6

    . 6

    E x p e c t e dF r e q u e n c i e s

    . 7

    1 . 2 3 4

    2 . 5 8 6

    4 . 6 3 4

    7 . 2 0 9

    9 . 8 5 2

    1 1 . 9 4 1

    1 2 . 9 3 7

    1 2 . 6 0 5

    1 1 . 1 0 4

    8 . 8 8 46 . 4 7 8

    4 . 3 1 8

    2 . 6 3 9

    1 . 4 8 2

    . 7 6 5

    . 6 2 2

    0 . 0 0 0

    0 . 1 5 3

    0 . 0 6 6

    0 . 0 0 4

    0 . 4 9 6

    0 . 0 9 2

    0 . 0 3 4

    0 . 0 0 6

    0 . 0 0 3

    0 . 0 0 5

    0 . 0 2 60 . 0 0 0

    0 . 0 0 0

    0 . 1 4 1

    0 . 0 0 0

    0 . 0 1 7

    0 . 0 0 1

    T o t a l 1 . 0 4 7

    T H C H S Q U A R E V A L U E I 1 . 0 4 7 ; d 1 5 . 9 9 5

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    T A B L E

    B i n o m i a l f i f o r f r e q u e n c y d i s t r i b u t i o n

    o f C e l l C w i t h m a r g i n a l c o n s t r a i n t s .

    6 . 9 3 4

    2 . 0 1 3

    0 . 1 1 2

    0 . 4 2 7

    9 . 8 0 6

    5 . 8 6 1

    1 . 3 6 7

    0 . 0 2 6

    1 . 6 5 9

    8 . 2 9 1T o t a l 3 6 . 4 9 6

    T H C H S Q U A R E V A L U E I 3 6 . 4 9 6 ; d 9 . 0 0 1

    N u m b e r o C e l l E v e n t s

    1

    1

    1

    1

    1

    1

    1

    1

    O b s e r v e dF r e q u e n c i e s

    ,

    3 .

    8 .

    1 4 . 2

    2 4 . 2

    2 1 . 2

    1 5 . 0

    8 .

    3 .

    .

    E x p e c t e dF r e q u e n c i e s

    8 . 4 5 8

    7 . 2 0 9

    9 . 8 5 2

    1 1 . 9 4 1

    1 2 . 9 3 7

    1 2 . 6 0 5

    1 1 . 1 0 4

    8 . 8 8 4

    6 . 4 7 8

    9 . 8 2 6

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    T A B L E

    M u l t i n o m i a l f i f o f r e q u e n c y d i s t r i b u t i o n

    o C e l l l f w i t h m a r g i n a l c o n s t r a i n t s .

    N u m b e r o C e l l E v e n t s

    1

    1

    1

    1

    1

    1

    I

    1

    O b s e r v e dF r e q u e n c y

    .

    3 .

    8 .

    1 4 . 2

    2 4 . 2

    2 1 . 2

    1 5 . 0

    8 .

    3 .

    .

    E x p e c t e d X F r e q u e n c y

    1 . 1 3 3 0 . 0 9 8

    3 . 3 0 2 0 . 0 0 3

    8 . 4 5 3 0 . 0 1 4

    1 5 . 7 1 7 0 . 1 4 6

    2 1 . 3 9 3 0 . 3 6 8

    2 1 . 3 9 3 0 . 0 0 2

    1 5 . 7 1 7 0 . 0 3 3

    8 . 4 5 3 0 . 0 0 0

    3 . 3 0 2 0 . 0 0 3

    1 . 1 3 3 0 . 0 9 8

    T o t a l 0 . 7 6 5

    T H C H S Q U A R E V A L U E I 0 . 7 6 5 ; d 9 . 9 9 5

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    T A B L E

    C o m p a r i s o n o t h n u m b e r o f s i g n i f i c a n t c e l l s i n e a c h 4 x t a b l e f r o m M u l t i n o m i a la n d A r c s i n p r o c e d u r e s .

    A L C E L L S W I T H O U T P R I N C I P L ED I A G O N A L C E L L S

    G a i n e d 0 > E 0 < L o s t # S i g G a i n e d O > E 0 < E L o s t S i g

    < 9 9

    1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 2 1 3 1 3 1 4 1 4 1 5 1 5 1 6 1 6 1 7 1 7 1 8 1 3 1 9 1 9 2 0 2 0 2 1 2 1 2 2 > 2 2 5

    ' :

    2 3 3

    1 0 6 9 9 9

    1 1 9

    1 1 9 8 9 7

    1 1 1 8 1 9 2 0 1 7 1 6 1 4 1 1 . 3 8 5 4 3

    t

    P

    e

    : -

    L 1 2 5 3 6 6 6 6 6 7 5 4 5 3 5 8 9

    1 0 7

    7 7 5 4 2 3 1 1

    . -

    l i 2 8 1 0 1 4 i - 1 2 L 4 5 7 1 3

    A L C E L L Sa g e t s i g . 5 9 3 ; s i g . a t t h e . 0 l e v e l .

    W I T H O U T S T A B L Ea g e f s i g - - 2 5 4 ; n o s i g . a . 0 l e v e l .

    A G E V S G R O U P S I Z Ea g j . 2 5 3 ; n o s i g . a . 0 l e v e l .

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    T A B L E

    D i s t r i b u t i o n o P r p o s t A n s w e r

    S e l e c t i o n s f o A g e L e v e l 1 7

    P r e T e s t S e l e c t i o n

    1 = 8 . 2p = . 0 0 0 3

    0 = 1 7 = 2 1 p = . O 5 1 6

    T O T A L S

    0 = = 3 . 6 6p = . 4 7 9 9

    0 = " = 8 . 9 2p = . 2 7 6

    0 = = 1 5 . 1 3p = . 0 0 0 4

    6 = 4 0 . 7 6p = . 0 0 0 0

    0 = = 6 . 7p = . 2 6 1 5

    0 = = 1 6 . 3 9p = . 0 0 1 6

    = 1 . 7 2P 2 = . 4

    0 = = 4 . 6 4p = . 2 1 7 8

    I T O T A L S

    0 = 1 3 = 1 0 . 9 1p = . 1 4 8 8

    1 = 2 9 . 4 1P = . 0 0 0 1

    m u m t . m k j m < m . d | _

    0 = = 0 . 7p = . 0 0 3 5

    0 = = 1 . 8 7p = . 2 7 9

    C e l l s 0 > a t . 0 5 l e v e l

    C e l l s 0 < a . 0 l e v e l

    0 = = 4 . 8 5p = . 3 4 6

    1

    2 = 1 1 . 8 p = . 0 0 0 0

    1 8

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    T A B L E

    E m p i r i c a l T e s t o f t h e M u l t i n o m i a l P r o c e d u r eW i t h S t a b l e A n s w e r s R e m o v e d

    A g i M o n t h s

    o P r e s t e s t

    ( a

    < 9 9

    1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 2 1 3 1 3 1 4 1 4 1 5 1 5 1 6 1 6 1 7 1 7 1 8 1 8 1 9 1 9 2 0 2 0 2 1 2 1 2 2

    > 2 2 5

    T o t a l s

    * *

    5

    : ;

    -

    6

    W r o n gA n s w e r C h a n g !

    D

    ' .

    6

    .

    5

    3

    2

    7

    '

    <

    1 f

    3 ! L

    1

    1 1

    1

    6

    1 9

    " ^ 1 1

    1 1 = r

    1

    1 1

    1 8

    * >

    6

    S t a b l eH r o n g

    A n s w e r s

    1

    1 1 1 1 1 , '

    ^

    1 2 2 1 1 1

    i

    3 3

    1 1

    1 1 1 X 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

    1 1

    5 6

    1 )

    ^ <

    1

    :

    1 3

    R i g h tA n s w e r C h a n g e s

    "

    "

    1 1 1

    6

    *

    -

    6

    2 O 2 1 1

    2 0

    1

    1 1

    2 1 1 1 1

    2 0

    1 1 1 1 1 2 1 3 6 5 7 6 5 4 3 3 3 1 2 1

    6 5

    M

    1 1 2 5 3 6 6 6 6 6 7 5 4 5 3 5 8 9

    1 0 7 7 7 5

    1 0 2 3 1 1

    1 4 5 7

    E N L A R G E D N U M B E R S a r s i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e . 0 l e v e l .I f r o n t o n u m b e r s i n d i c a t e s

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    T A B L E

    D i s t r i b u t i o n o P r p o s t A n s w e r

    C h a n g e s f o rA g e L e v e l 1 7

    P r T e s t S e l e c t i o n

    1

    T O T A L S

    0 = 1 3 = 8 . 0 5p = . 0 0 2 4

    = 1 . 3 8P = . 4

    0 = 1 7 = 1 1 . 4 8p = 0 . 0 0 2 4

    0 = 1 7 = 1 4 . 8 7p = 1 3

    0 = = 4 . 0 3p = . 3 7 5 0

    0 = = 2 . 8 5p = . O 3 1 9

    0 = = 5 . 2 3p = . 4 2 9 O

    0 - = 5 . 2 8p = . 0 9 8 7

    0 = = 3 . 7 1p = . 0 0 1 6

    0 = = 1 . 1 7p = . 0 8 6 0

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    T A B L E

    D e n s i t y o S i g n i f i c a n t E v e n t sW i t h i n A n t i c i p a t e d C h a n g e P a t t e r n s

    C H A N G EP A T T E R N

    -

    - *

    - *

    -

    A g e r a n g e s a r e e s t i m a t e d f r o m r e p o r t e d r e a s o n i n g .

    1 0 . 5

    1

    A G R A N G E

    1 2 . 5 Y e a r s

    1 6 . 5 Y e a r s

    2 0 Y e a r s

    2 0 Y e a r s

    P R O P O R T I O NO S I G N I F I C A N T

    C E L L S

    . 6

    . 7

    . 7

    . 8