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TRANSCRIPT
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An Arabic Version of the
Testimonium Flavianum
and its Implications
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P U B L I C A T I O N S O F T H E I S R A E L A C A D E M Y
O F S C I E N C E S A N D H U M A N I T I E S
S E C T I O N O F H U M A N I T I E S
A N A R A B I C V E R S I O N O F T H E
T E S T I M O N I U M F L A V I A N U M
A N D I T S I M P L I C A T I O N S
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An Arabic Version of the
Testimonium Flavianum
and its Implications
by
S H L O M O P I N E S
Jerusalem 1971
The Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities
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© T h e I s ra e l A c a d e m y o f S c i e n c e s a n d H u m a n i t i e s , 19 7 1
P r i n t e d i n I s r a e l
a t t h e J e r u s a l e m A c a d e m i c P r e s s
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F E W H I S T O R I C A L T E X T S , o r n o n e , h a v e b e e n m o r e o f te n
q u o t e d , m o r e p a s s i o n a t e l y r e j e c t e d a n d d e n o u n c e d a s l i t e r a r y
f o r g e r i e s , m o r e d e v o t e d l y d e f e n d e d , m o r e c a re f ul ly e d i t e d a n d
m o r e v a r i o u s l y e m e n d e d t h a n t h e s o - c a l l e d ' T e s t i m o n i u m
F l a v i a n u m ' , a s h o r t p a s s a g e i n J o s e p h u s ' Antiquitates Judaicae,
X V I I I , 6 3 - 6 4 , 1 d e a l i n g w i t h J e su s . I f g e n u i n e , i t c o n t a i n s
p e r h a p s t h e e a r l i e s t e v i d e n c e c o n c e r n i n g J e su s w r i t t e n d o w n b y
a m a n w h o w a s n o t a C h r i s t i a n . I t i s t h e r e f o r e su r p r i s i n g t h a t ar ec en s io n o f th e T es t im on iu m th a t i s s ign if ican t ly d i ff e ren t f rom
t h e v u l g a t e t e x t h a s n o t b e e n g i v e n a n y a t t e n t i o n b y t h e n u
m e r o u s s c h o l a r s w h o s t u d i e d t h i s t e x t o f J o s e p h u s . T h i s n e g l e c t
m a y e v e n a p p e a r i n e x p l i c a b l e i f w e c o n s i d e r t h e b i b l i o g r a p h i c a l
d a t a : t h e r e c e n s i o n o c c u r s i n Kit ab al-eUnwân,2 a n A r a b i c
h i s t o r i c a l w o r k o f t h e t e n t h c e n t u r y b y A g a p i u s , 3 w h i c h h a s
b e e n e d i t e d t w i c e : ( 1 ) b y L . C h e i k h o , u n d e r t h e t i t l e AgapiusEpiscopus Mab bugensis: Historia Universalis f and (2 ) by
1 T h e T e s t i m o n i u m a l s o o c c u r s s o m e t i m e s , i n a n a m p l if ie d f o r m , i n c e r
t a i n M S S o f J o s e p h u s ' Bellum Judaicum, h a v i n g b e e n t a k e n o v e r ,
w i t h o u t d o u b t , f r o m h i s Antiquitates. I n t h e p r e s e n t p a p e r I c a n n o t
g o i n t o t h e p r o b l e m s p o s e d b y t h e a c c o u n t o f J e s u s f o u n d i n t h e o l d
R u s s i a n t r a n s l a t i o n o f Bellum Judaicum.
2 T h e f u l l t i t l e i s Kitäb al-'Unwän al-mukallal bi-fatfail al-fiikma al-
mutawwaj bi-anwä' al falsafa al-mam düht bi-fiaqaq al-ma'rifa.
3 I n A r a b i c A g h ä b i y ü s ; a l s o c a ll e d M a h b û b Q u s t a n t ï n a l -M a n b i j ï . H e
w a s t h e M e l k i t e b i s h o p o f M a n b i j ( H i e r a p o l i s ) .
4 S e e b i b l i o g r a p h y o n p . 8 3 .
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A . V a s i l i e v , u n d e r t h e t i t l e Kitab al-'Unwân / Histoire Uni
verselle, écrite par Agap ius (Mahboub) de Menbidj. Vas i l i ev a l so
t r a n s l a t e d i t i n t o F r e n c h . 5
A g a p i u s ' c h r o n i c l e d e a l s w i t h t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e w o r l d f r o m t h e
b e g i n n i n g t i l l t h e t e n t h c e n t u r y . H e a n d h i s c o n t e m p o r a r y
E u t y c h i u s I b n S a e i d a r e t h e e a r l i e s t C h r i s t i a n A r a b i c a u t h o r s
t o h a v e w r i t t e n u n i v e r s a l h i s t o r i e s . E u t y c h i u s ' c h r o n i c l e s e e m s
t o a n t e d a t e A g a p i u s ' , a s t h e l a t t e r m e n t i o n s i n o n e p a s s a g e t h a t
h e i s w r i t i n g i n t h e e i g h t h m o n t h o f t h e y e a r 3 3 0 H . , w h i c h
c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e y e a r 9 4 2 o f t h e C h r i s t i a n e r a ; E u t y c h i u s
d i e d i n 9 4 0 .T h e p a s s a g e i n w h i c h t h e T e s t i m o n i u m i s i n c l u d e d m a y b e
r e n d e r e d a s f o l l o w s : 6
5 S e e b i b l i o g r a p h y o n p . 8 3 . T h e b i b l i o g r a p h y r e l a t i n g t o A g a p i u s m a y
b e f o u n d i n G . Graf, Geschichte der Christlichen arabischen L iteratur, I I ,
C i t t à d e l V a t i c a n o 1 9 4 7 , p . 3 9 . A g a p i u s s e e m s t o h a v e u s e d S y r i a c
r a t h e r t h a n A r a b i c s o u r c e s ; o n e o f t h e s e s o u r c e s c a n p e r h a p s b e i d e n
t i f i e d . I r e f e r t o t h e l o s t h i s t o r i c a l w o r k o f T h e o p h i l o s o f E d e s s a , a
S y r i a c a u t h o r w h o d i e d i n 7 8 5 ; c f. C . H . B e c k e r , ' E i n e n e u e C h r i s t l i c h e
Q u e l l e z u r G e s c h i c h t e d e s I s l a m ' , Der Islam, I I I ( 1 9 1 2 ) , p p . 2 9 5 - 2 9 6 ;
Α . B a um s t ar k , Geschichte der syrischen Literatur, Bonn 1 9 1 2 , p p . 3 4 1 - 3 4 2 .
A n a rt i cl e o f Α . B a u m s t a r k , e n t i t l e d ' D i e L e h r e d e s r ö m i s c h e n P r e s b y
t e r s F l o r i n u s ' , Zeitschrift für neutestamentliche Wissenschaft, X I I I ( 1 9 1 2 ) ,
p p . 3 0 6 - 3 1 9 , d e a l s w i t h A g a p i u s ' a c c o u n t o f t h e d o c t r i n e s o f t h i s h e r e t i c .
I t s h o w s , inter alia, t h a t t h i s a c c o u n t , w h i c h d e s c r i b e s o t h e r w i s e u n
k n o w n p o i n t s o f F l o r i n u s ' d o c t r i n e s , c a n n o t b e d e r i v e d f r o m E u s e b i u s '
Historia Ecclesiastica, w h i c h , a s B a u m s t a r k r e c o g n i z e s , w a s a m a i n
s o u r c e f o r A g a p i u s ' a c c o u n t s o f o t h e r C h r i s ti a n h e r e s i e s . H e p o i n t s o u t ,
h o w e v e r , t h a t i n t h e s e a c c o u n t s a l s o i n f o r m a t i o n i s g i v e n t h a t i s n o t
f o u n d i n E u s e b i u s ' w o r k . H e i s i n c l i n e d t o b e l i e v e t h a t A g a p i u s m a y
h a v e u s e d a t e x t w r i t t e n i n S y r i a c . A s f a r a s F l o r i n u s i s c o n c e r n e d ,
t h i s t e x t m a y h a v e b e e n — b u t B a u m s t a r k m a k e s i t c l e a r t h a t h e is n o t
a t a ll s u r e o f t h e c o r r e c t n e s s o f t h i s h y p o t h e s i s — a S y r i a c t r a n s l a t i o n
o f a l e t t e r o f I r e n a e u s t o P o p e V i c t o r , w h i c h m a y h a v e i n c l u d e d a n
a c c o u n t o f F l o r i n u s ' o p i n i o n s .
6 S e e e d . C h e i k h o , p p . 2 3 9 - 2 4 0 ; e d . V a s i l i e v , p p . 4 7 1 - 4 7 3 . V a s i l i e v ' s
F r e n c h t r a n s l a t i o n i s o n t h e w h o l e c o r r e c t , b u t , i n v i e w o f t h e i m p o r
t a n c e o f t h e e x a c t w o r d i n g , a t le a s t w i t h r e g a rd t o t h e T e s t i m o n i u m
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[Al-Maribijï] 1 has said: W e have found in many books of the
philosophers that they refer to the day of crucifixion of Christ
[ a l - m a s i h ] , and that they marvel thereat. The first of them is
the philosopher Iflaßn,8 who says in the thirteenth chapter of
the book he has written on the kings: 9 'In the reign of [Tiberius]
Caesar, the sun was darkened and there was night for10 nine
itself, I s h a l l a t t e m p t t o g i v e a l i t e r a l t r a n s l a t i o n . B o t h e d i t i o n s o f t h i s
p a rt o f A g a p i u s ar e b a s e d o n o n e s i n g l e F l o r e n t i n e M S . H o w e v e r ,
m a n y p a s s a g e s o f A g a p i u s , i n c l u d i n g t h e o n e w i t h w h i c h w e ar e c o n
c e r n e d , a re q u o t e d b y t h e t h i r t ee n t h - c e n t u r y C h r i s t i a n C o p t i c h i s t o r i a n
J û rj is a l - M a k î n I b n a l -
e
A m ü d i n h i s Universal History ( o f w h i c h o n l y t h es e c o n d p a r t , t r e a t in g o f I s l a m i c h i s t o r y , h a s b e e n p u b l i s h e d ) . T h e s e
p a s s a g e s h a v e b e e n c o l l e c te d b y C h e i k h o ( w h o c o n s u l t e d M S P a r i s
A r . 1 2 9 4 ) i n t h e v o l u m e c o n t a i n i n g th e e d i t i o n o f A g a p i u s . A s e c o n d
M S o f a l - M a k î n ( P a r i s 2 9 4 , f o i l . 1 6 2 v - 1 6 3 r ) h a s b e e n u s e d b y m e f o r
t h e p u r p o s e s o f t h e p r e s e n t p a p e r . T h e q u o t a t i o n o f a l - M a k ï n i s o f
g r e a t h e l p i n e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e t e x t o f A g a p i u s ' p a s s a g e .
7 T h e w o r d s i n p a r e n t h e s e s , w h i c h a r e m i s s i n g i n A g a p i u s ' w o r k , a re
t a k e n f r o m a l - M a k ï n ' s t e xt ( q u o t e d i n C h e i k h o ' s e d i t i o n , p p . 3 9 0 - 3 9 1 ) .
A l - M a n b i j j r e fe r s t o A g a p i u s ( se e a b o v e , n . 3 ) .
8 Iflätün i s t h e u s u a l A r a b i c f o r m o f P l a t o . H e r e P h l e g o ( P h l e g o n ) o f
T r a l l e s a p p e a r s t o b e m e a n t ; c f. b e l o w p . 5 2 . W e m a y s u p p o s e t h a t a
s c r i b e h a s c o n f u s e d s o m e f o r m o f t h e r a r e n a m e P h l e g o n w i t h Iflätün,
w h i c h w a s f a m i l i a r .
9 L i k e A g a p i u s , E u s e b i u s s t at e s i n h i s Chronicon t h a t t h e p a s s a g e i n
q u e s t i o n o c c u r r e d i n t h e t h i r t e en t h b o o k o f P h l e g o ' s w o r k . E u s e b i u s '
Chronicon i s p r e se r v e d i n : ( 1 ) a n A r m e n i a n t r a n s l a t i o n ; cf. Eusebius 9
Werke, V '.Die Chronik des Eusebius aus dem Armenischen übersetzt, t r a n s
l a t e d b y J . K a r s t (Die griechischen Christlichen Schriftsteller der ersten
drei Jahrhunderte = GC S), L e i p z i g 1 9 1 1 , p . 2 1 3 ; a n d ( 2 ) i n S t . J e r o m e ' s
L a t i n v e r s i o n ; c f. Eusebius 1 Werke, V I I : Hieronymi Chronicon, e d .
R . H e l m , GCS, B e r l i n 1 9 5 6 , p p . 1 7 4 - 1 7 5 . O r i g e n i s n o t q u i t e c e r t a i n
w h e t h e r t h i s p a s s a g e w a s f o u n d i n t h e t h i r t e e n t h o r i n t h e f o u r t e e n t h
b o o k ; s e e Contra Celsum, I I , 3 3 .
1 0 Fi tis' sa ät\ l i t e r a l l y : in nine hours. T h e u s e o f t h e p r o p o s i t i o n ft i n
t h i s c o n t e x t is a w k w a r d . A c c o r d i n g t o E u s e b i u s ' Chronicon ( A r m e n i a n
v e r s i o n , loc. cit.; S t . J e r o m e ' s v e r s i o n , loc. cit.) P h l e g o n s t a t e s t h a t
t h e r e w a s n i g h t i n t h e s i x t h h o u r . A c c o r d i n g t o a p a s s a g e f r o m J u l i u s
A f r i c a n u s q u o t e d b y S y n c e l l u s (c f. P . d e L a b r i o l l e , La réaction païenne,
P a r i s 1 9 5 0 , p p . 2 0 9 - 2 1 0 ) , th e e c l i p s e , w h i c h w a s s u p p o s e d t o a c c o u n t
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hours; and the stars appeared. And there was a great and violent
earthquake in Nicea and in all the towns tha t surround it. And
strange things happened.'*
Ü r . s . y . w . s . , 1 1 the philosopher, says in the fifth chapter of the book
he has written concerning the ways and life of the kings as
[follows] :6A great calamity and prolonged anguish have befallen
us. The sun was darkened and the earth [a l -a rd] quaked, and
many terrifying things are stated to have happened in the country
[a rd ] of the Hebrews 12 [ a l - e i b r â n i y y î n ] . We learnt the cause of
this from letters, written by Pilate [F . l ä t . s . ] , the judge,12 from
Palestine to Tiberius Caesar. [For] he said in them that all thesethings happened at the death of a man whom the Jews have
crucified. When Caesar 14 heard this, he sent [an order] dismissing
Pilate from judgeship over the Jews for having obeyed them. And
he threatened and menaced the Jews who had crucified him.'
Similarly Josephus [Yüsi fus] , the Hebrew. For he says in the
treatises that he has written on the governance [?] 15 of the Jews:
f o r t h e d a r k n e s s t h a t c o v e r e d t h e e a r t h a t t h e t i m e o f t h e c r u c i f i x i o n ,
l a s t e d f r o m t h e s i x t h t o t h e n i n t h h o u r .
1 1 O r : Ür.s.n.w.s.; o r Ür.s.b.s.; s e e b e l o w , p p . 5 2 - 5 3 .
1 2 A l - M a k ï n ' s q u o t a t i o n f r o m A g a p i u s o m i t s t h e w o r d s and many terri
fying things are stated to have happened in the country. H i s t e xt m a y b e
r e n d e r e d : and the country of the Hebrews trembled. T h e o m i s s i o n i s
p r o b a b l y d u e t o a s c r i b a l e r r o r o c c a s i o n e d b y t h e r e p e t i t i o n o f t h e
w o r d ard.
1 3 Al-qädi.
1 4 T i b e r i u s .
1 5 T h e M S o f A g a p i u s , a s r e a d b o t h b y C h e i k h o a n d b y V a s i l ie v , h a s ft
sharr al- Yahüd - On the E vil of the Jews, w h i c h i s c e r t a i n l y i n c o r r e c t .
A l - M a k i n , i n h i s q u o t a t i o n f r o m A g a p i u s p u b l i s h e d b y C h e i k h o ( p . 3 9 1 ) ,
m e r e l y s a y s : in the treatises that he has written about the Jews -
'alal-Yahüd; V a s i l i e v ( p . 4 7 1 ) h a s n o n o t e o n sharr, b u t t r a n s l a t e s
dans ses ouvrages quHl a écrits sur les guerres des Juifs. T h i s m e a n s t h a th e e m e n d e d sharr i n t o burüb, w h i c h i s n o t v e r y d i f f i c u l t , a s f a r a s t h e
A r a b i c s c r ip t i s c o n c e r n e d . A n o t h e r p o s s i b l e e m e n d a t i o n i s harb - war,
i n t h e s i n g u l a r , w h i c h m a y c a l l t o m i n d Bellum Judaicum. I t i s n o t
w h o l l y i m p o s s i b l e , b u t i n m y o p i n i o n v e r y i m p r o b a b l e , t h a t o n e o f
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6At this time there was a wise man who was called Jesus}6 His
conduct was good,11 and [he] was known to be virtuous.1*
And many people from among the Jews and the other nations19
became his disciples. Pilate 20 condemned him to be crucified and
t h e s e f o r m s i s t h e c o r r e c t e m e n d a t i o n . I h a v e c h o s e n t o e m e n d sharr
i n t o tadbïr - governance, w h i c h s e e m s t o b e l i k e w i s e a d m i s s i b l e f r o m t h e
p o i n t o f v i e w o f t h e A r a b i c sc r ip t . T h e w o r d tadbïr ( a s w e l l a s t h e w o r d
hurüb) o c c u r s i n A g a p i u s ( e d . C h e i k h o , p . 2 5 5 ) i n t h e f o l l o w i n g s e n
t e n c e : And he [Josephus] then composed twenty books concerning the
governance [ t a d b ï r ] of the Jews, their m igration [ o r tradition, o r transmit-
ter s of tradition', s e e b e l o w ] , their high priests and the wars [ h u r ü b ] of theRom ans and their capture of Jerusalem. T h e p a ss a g e c o n t i n u e s : And
sixty-two letters of Agrippa were in existence in which he praised Jose
phus' works, great knowledge and excellent execution. T h e s e c o n d s e n
t e n c e c o r r e s p o n d s t o a p a s s a g e i n J o s e p h u s ' Vita, 3 6 4 , w h i c h a p p e a r s
t o r e f e r t o Bellum Judaicum. B u t t h i s p a s s a g e i s q u o t e d i n E u s e b i u s '
Historia Ecclesiastica, I I I , 1 0 : 1 1 , a n d m a y h a v e b e e n q u o t e d b y
A g a p i u s f r o m t h e l a tt e r s o u r c e . T h e f a c t t h a t A g r i p p a ' s le t t er s r ef er
t o Bellum Judaicum i s n o t v e r y c o n s p i c u o u s i n E u s e b i u s ' t e x t . I n t h e first
s e n t e n c e o f A g a p i u s q u o t e d i n t h i s f o o t n o t e t h e w o r k c o n c e r n i n g t h e
g o v e r n a n c e (tadbïr) o f t h e J e w s c a n b e i d e n t i f i e d a s J o s e p h u s ' Anti
quitates, w h i c h h a s t w e n t y b o o k s , t h e n u m b e r m e n t i o n e d b y A g a p i u s .
M y p r e f e r e n c e f o r tadbïr i n t h e p a s s a g e i n A g a p i u s i n t r o d u c i n g t h e T e s t i
m o n i u m a r i s e s i n p a r t ( o t h e r r e a s o n s a r e g i v e n e l s e w h e r e i n t h i s p a p e r )
f r o m t h e c o m p a r i s o n o f t h i s p a s s a g e w i t h a t e x t o f t h e S y r i a c Chronicle
o f M i c h a e l ; a s w e s h a l l s e e b e l o w , t h e t w o p a s s a g e s a r e d e f i n i t e l y c o n
n e c t e d , t h o u g h i n a s o m e w h a t c u r i o u s w a y . T h e S y r i a c t e x t, w h i c h
l i k e w i s e i n t r o d u c e s th e T e s t i m o n i u m ( i n a v e r s i o n w h o s e d i v e rg e n c ie s
f r o m t h e v u l g a t e te x t a r e l e s s c o n s i d e r a b l e t h a n t h o s e f o u n d i n A g a p i u s '
r e c e n s i o n , b u t n e v e r t h e l e s s v e r y s i g n i f i c a n t ) , r ef e rs i n t h e f o l l o w i n g
w o r d s t o t h e w o r k o f J o s e p h u s i n w h i c h t h i s T e s t i m o n i u m o c c u r s :
bemä de-al dübhärä de-yûdayë - in what relates to the governance of the
Jews. T h e w o r d dübhärä, w h i c h i s d e r i v e d f r o m t h e s a m e r o o t a s tadbïr,
c o u l d h a v e b e e n c o n s i d e r e d a s a n e q u i v a l e n t o f t h e A r a b i c w o r d . A
t r a n s l a t o r w i s h i n g t o r e n d e r dübhärä i n t o A r a b i c w o u l d p r o b a b ly
c h o o s e tadbïr.
I t m a y b e n o t e d t h a t ( 1 ) C h a b o t t r a n s l a t e d t h e w o r d dübhärä i n t h e
a b o v e p h r a s e a s histoire, w h i c h i s i n a c c u r a t e ; ( 2 ) t h e w o r d m i g h t a l s o
b e r e a d i n t h e p l u r a l , dübhäre, w h i c h m i g h t m e a n usages. B u t t h i s w o u l d
n o t m a t e r i a l l y a f f e ct t h e b e a r i n g o f t h e p h r a s e o n t h e te x t o f A g a p i u s
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to die.11 But22 those who had become his disciples did not abandon
his discipleship.23 They reported 24" that he had appeared to them
three days after his crucifixion, and that he was alive; accord-
ingly 25 he was perhaps the Messiah 26 concerning whom the
prophets have recounted21 wonders.'2*
w i t h w h i c h w e ar e c o n c e r n e d . T h e f a c t t h a t i n a r e l a t e d S y r i a c t e x t t h e
w o r k o f J o s e p h u s c o n t a i n i n g t h e T e s t i m o n i u m i s d e s c r i b e d a s t r e a ti n g
o f t h e dübhärä o f t h e J e w s s e e m s t o r e n d e r i t v e r y p r o b a b l e t h a t A g a p i u s
i n h i s i n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h e T e s t i m o n i u m m e n t i o n e d th a t t h e w o r k o f
J o s e p h u s d e a l t w i t h t h e tadbïr o f t h e J e w s ; s e e a l s o b e l o w , p p . 4 4 if.
1 6 hu, a S y r i ac f o r m o f t h e n a m e . A l - M a k î n h a s Ishu.1 7 O r : way of life - sir a.
1 8 O r : outstanding. F o r wa-'ulima annahu fädil a l - M a k î n h a s wa-käna
lahu sira fyasana wa-'ilm fadil ( C h e i k h o , p . 3 9 1 ) - his conduct was good
and his learning [ o r : knowledge] outstanding. I n A l - M a k ï n ' s te xt an
nahu i s o m i t t e d . T h i s m a y b e d u e t o a sc r i b a l e r r o r.
1 9 Sä'ir al-shu üb.
2 0 Filät.s
2 1 Qaddä 'alayh bi l-salb wa l-mawt.
22 L i t e r a l l y : and.
2 3 Lam yatrukü talmadhatahu. T h i s i s t h e v a r i an t f o u n d i n a l - M a k ï n ' s
q u o t a t i o n f r o m A g a p i u s ( C h e i k h o , p . 2 3 9 ) . F o r r e a s o n s t h a t w i l l b e
s t a t e d b e l o w , t h i s v a r i a n t s e e m s , o n t h e w h o l e , t o b e p r e f e r a b l e t o t h e
o n e o c c u r i n g i n t h e M S o f A g a p i u s u se d b y C h e i k h o a n d V a s i l i e v :
yad'ü talmadihatahu, w h i c h m a y m e a n preached the doctrine; talmadha
m a y r e n d e r t h e S y r i a c tülmädhä - doctrine.
2 4 Dhakarü.
2 5 I f o l l o w t h e M S o f A g a p i u s , w h i c h h a s fa-la'allahu. A l - M a k ï n ' s q u o
t a t i o n h a s wa-la'alla hädhä - and perhaps this [man],
2 6 O r : Christ.
2 7 L i t e r a l l y : said.
2 8 Fa-la'allahu ftuwa al-masih allädhi qälat 'anhu al-anbiya al-ajaib.
T h e w a y i n w h i c h t h i s s e n t e n c e f o l l o w s t h e o n e c o n c l u d i n g w i t h wa-
innahu 'äsha - and he was alive s e e m s t o s u g g e s t — i f o n e c o n s i d e r s
A r a b i c s y n t a c t i c u s a g e — t h a t t h e o p i n i o n a c c o r d i n g t o w h i c h J e s u s
w a s , p e r h a p s , t h e M e s s i a h i s a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e d i s c i p l e s a n d i s n o t a
p e r s o n a l r e f l e c ti o n o f J o s e p h u s . T h i s i s a l s o t h e v i e w o f V a s i l i e v , e x
p r e s s e d b y t h e p l a c i n g o f t h e i n v e r t e d c o m m a s i n h i s t r a n s l a t i o n o f
a l - M a k ï n . Prima facie, t h e r e a r e t h e s e t w o w a y s o f i n t e r p r e t i n g t h i s
s e n t e n c e — t h e o p i n i o n t h a t J e s u s w a s p e r h a p s t h e M e s s i a h i s e i t h e r
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This is what is said by Josephus and his companions29 of our
Lord the Messiah, may he be glorified. And he also says30 that
all the public activity31 of our Lord Christ, may he be glorified,
[all] that he did32 occurred under the high priesthood 33 of Hannän 3*
and Qayäfä.35 For [the two] were high priests 36 in those years;
I mean [to say that his public activity occurred] from the high
priesthood of Hannän till the beginning of the high priesthood of
Qayäfä. The time between these two [dates] does not amount to
four years. For when Herod had charge of them, he burnt the
genealogies of their tribes, in order that it should not be known
that he [was descended] from undistinguished people. He [also]took the priestly vestmen t and put it under his seal. And he did
not allow anyone of the high priests 31 to officiate as such for
a p e r s o n a l r e f l e c t i o n o f J o s e p h u s , o r i t i s a t t r i b u t e d t o J e s u s ' d i s c i p l e s .
T h e fi rs t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s e e m s t o b e i n d i c a t e d i f t h e t e x t i s c o n s i d e r e d
a s a p i e c e o f o r d i n a r y A r a b i c p r o s e , b u t t h i s i s n o t q u i t e c e r t a i n ; i n
a n y c a s e , n o d e c i s i v e r u l i n g c a n b e m a d e o n t h i s p o i n t o n s y n t a c t i c o r
o t h e r g r o u n d s , e s p e c i a l l y a s t h e s e n t e n c e i s t r a n s l a t e d f r o m a n o t h e r
l a n g u a g e . O n a S y r i a c r e n d e r i n g o f t h i s s e n t e n c e o r o f a s i m i l a r o n e ,
s e e b e l o w , p p . 2 2 , 2 6 , 4 6 .
2 9 wa-asfiäbihi. V a s i l i e v t r a n s l a t e s et de ses coreligionnaires, w h i c h i s a
p o s s i b l e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , b u t n o t t h e o n l y o n e .
3 0 T h e A r a b i c t ex t h a s yaqülu. F r o m t h e g r a m m a t i c a l p o i n t o f v i e w t h e
s u b j e c t o f t h i s v e r b s h o u l d h a v e b e e n J o s e p h u s , b u t t h i s i s c e r t a i n l y
n o t t h e c a s e . T h e f o l l o w i n g p a s s a g e i s i n c e r t a i n r e s p e c t s s i m i l a r t o ,
t h o u g h b y n o m e a n s i d e n t i c a l w i t h , a t e x t o f E u s e b i u s . P o s s i b l y t h i s
c h u r c h f a t h e r i s t h e s u b j e c t o f yaqülu; o n t h i s h y p o t h e s i s a n d i t s i m
p l i c a t i o n s a n d d i f f i c u l t i e s s e e b e l o w , p p . 5 4 f f .
3 1 P u b l i c a c t i v i ty r e n d e r s tadbïr, a w o r d w h i c h h a s b e e n t r a n s l a t e d a b o v e
b y governance.
3 2 Taqallubuhu.
3 3 Ri'äsa; l i t e r a l l y : domination, o r : leadership.
3 4 I . e . A n n a s .
3 5 I . e . C a i a p h a s ; c f. L u k e i i i : 2 .
3 6 Rtfisal-kahana.
3 7 T h e M S h a s li-rtfïsal-kahana, i . e . a d u a l f o r m - the two high priests.
C h e i k h o e m e n d s U-ru'asäU-kahana, a p l u r a l f o r m . T h i s e m e n d a t i o n
i s p l a u s i b l e , b u t n o t n e c e s s a r i l y c o r r e c t .
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more than one year 3* For this [reason] there came up four
high [priests] in the [interval of time] between the high priest
hood39 of Han nän and that of Qayäfä. For after the dismissal of
Hannän, Ismâ'îl the son of Yahyä 40 took his place. W hen he 41
had finished his year and quitted42 his [office], Eliezer,43 the son
of Hannän the high priest, replaced him. After he 44 had terminated
his year, Simon ,45 son of Qamïhûd 46 succeeded him. Then came
3 8 L i t e r al l y: except for one year only.3 9 Ri'äsa; l i t e r a l l y : domination, o r leadership.
4 0 T h i s i s d o u b t l e s s t h e e r r o r o f a s c r i b e w h o s u b s t i t u t e d t h e f a m i l i a r
n a m e Y a h y ä f o r P h a b ï , w h i c h i s i n c i d e n t a l l y f o u n d i n t h e S y r i a c v e r
s i o n o f E u s e b i u s * Historia Ecclesiastica, I , 8 : 4 ; s ee The Ecclesiastical
History of Eusebius in Syriac, e d . W r i g h t & M c L e a n , p . 4 5 . T h e p a r
t i c u l a r i t ie s o f t h e A r a b i c s c r ip t r e n d e r t h i s s u b s t i t u t i o n p o s s i b l e , t h o u g h
o n t h e f a c e o f i t o n e w o u l d n o t c o n s i d e r i t a v e r y l i k e l y e m e n d a t i o n .
4 1 Ismail.
4 2 L i t e r a l l y : and had gone out - kharaja.
4 3 T h e n a m e i s w r i tt e n Y.l.'äz.r. T h e S y r ia c t r a n s la t i on o f E u s e b i u s '
Historia Ecclesiastica h a s 'Li'z.r.
4 4 E l i e z e r .
4 5 Sham'ün.
4 6 T h e n a m e o f S i m o n , t h e h i g h - p r i e s t' s f a th e r , i s g i v e n b y J o s e p h u s
(Antiquitates, X V I I I , 3 4 ) a s Kamithou, i n t h e g e n i t i v e , w h i c h s u g g e s t s
t h e n o m i n a t i v e Kamithes. T h e M S S o f E u s e b i u s ' Historia Ecclesiastica, I ,
1 0 : 5 g i v e v a r i o u s f o r m s f o r t h e g e n i t i v e : Kamithou, Kamiphou a n d Ka-
thimou, t h e n o m i n a t i v e s b e i n g p r o b a b l y Kamithos, Kamiphos a n d
Kathimos. E u s e b i u s ' Demonstratio, V I I I , 2 : 9 9 h a s i n t h e g e n i t iv e t h e
f o r m Kathimou. T h e S y r i a c t r a n s l a t i o n o f t h e p a s s a g e o f E u s e b i u s '
Historica Ecclesiastica q u o t e d a b o v e h a s t h e f o r m Qamïhûd.
I t m a y b e n o t e d t h a t J o s e p h u s ' τ ο ν Κ α μ ίθ ο υ , w h i c h s e e m s t o r e f e r
t o t h e h i g h p r i e s t' s f a t h e r , i s , i n f a c t , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e e v i d e n c e , a G r e e k
t r a n s p o s i t i o n o f t h e n a m e o f h i s m o t h e r . T h e h i g h p r i e s t r v r iB p p ptffctP
i s m e n t i o n e d i n t h e T a l m u d i c a l l i t e r a t u r e ; c f., f o r i n s t a n c e , TB Yoma
4 7 a ; s e e th e ar t i c l e rp r iD p i n : J . L e vy , Wörterbuch über die Talmudim
und Midraschim, I V , B e r l i n 1 9 2 4 , p p . 3 2 4 - 3 2 5 . I n t h e H e b r e w t r a n s
l a t i o n o f Antiquitates ( η Η Ί Γ Γ Π nrrmp, Π Ι , J e r u sa l e m 1 9 6 3 , p . 2 8 4 )
A . S c h a l i t h a s c o r r e c t l y g i v e n t h e h i g h p r i e s t 's n a m e a s rvnfcp p pstotf
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after him [and in his place] Qayäfä, on whose order 47 and under
whose high priesthood 4* our Lord, the M essiah, may he be
glorified, was crucified. Thus the time between Hannän and
Qayäfä does not [amount] to less [? aqa l l ] than four years. 49
W e h a v e c o m e t o a p o i n t w h e r e i t s e e m s a d v i s a b l e t o c o m p a r e
i n d e t a i l A g a p i u s ' A r a b i c v e r s i o n o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m w i t h t h e
t r a d i t i o n a l G r e e k t e x t , a s g i v e n i n J o s e p h u s ' Antiquitates a n d
i n E u s e b i u s ' Historia Ecclesiastica a n d h i s Demonstratio. V a r i
a n t s , f o u n d i n a l - M a k ï n ' s H i s t o r y , w i l l b e u se d i n e s t a b l i sh i n g
t h e A r a b i c t e x t , a n d v e r s i o n s o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m f o u n d i n
B y z a n t i n e c h r o n i c l e s w i l l b e q u o t e d i n t h e c r i t i c a l a p p a r a t u s o f
t h e G r e e k t e x t . 5 0
4 7 'Ahd; t h i s s e e m s t o b e t h e m e a n i n g o f t h e w o r d i n t h i s c o n t e x t . *Ahd
a l s o m e a n s time.
4 8 Ri'äsa; s e e a b o v e , n . 3 9 .
4 9 T h i s s e n t e n c e i s c e r t a i n l y c o r r u p t , s i n c e i t s e e m s t o c o n t r a d i c t a s e n
t e n c e i n t h e s a m e p a s s a g e r e f e r r i n g t o t h e i n t e r v a l o f t i m e b e t w e e n t h e
h i g h p r i e s t h o o d o f I J a n n ä n a n d t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e h i g h p r i e s t h o o d
o f Q a y ä f ä . A s r e n d e r e d a b o v e , t h i s s e n t e n c e s i g n i f i e s : The time between
these two [dates] does not amoun t to four years. I t i s v e r y u n l i k e l y t h a t
t h e s e n t e n c e w e a r e d i s c u s s i n g n o w r e f er s t o t h e e n d o f Q a y ä f ä ' s h i g h
p r i e s t h o o d r a t h e r t h a n t o i t s b e g i n n i n g . T h e r e m a y h a v e b e e n a s c r ib a l
e r ro r . O n e s h o u l d p e r h a p s e m e n d aqall t o akthar a n d t r a n s l a t e :
Thus the time between Hann än and Qayäfä does not [amount] to more
than four years.
5 0 M i c h a e l ' s S y r i a c a n d S t . J e r o m e ' s L a t i n v e r s i o n s w i l l b e q u o t e d a n d
d i s c u s s e d l a t e r o n . I n t h e c r i t i c a l a p p a r a t u s o f t h e G r e e k t e x t , s o m e o ft h e d a t a g i v e n b y E i s le r i n h i s e d i t i o n o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m ( I , p p . 8 5 - 8 6 )
h a v e b e e n u s e d . O t h e r d a t a m e n t i o n e d b y E i sl e r a n d o t h e r sc h o l a r s d i d
n o t s e e m r e l e v a n t i n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e p r e s e n t p a p e r a n d h a v e b e e n
o m i t t e d .
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A g a p i u s ' A r a b i e T e x t T h e V u l g a t e G r e e k T e x t
Γ ίν ε τ α ι60
δ ε κ α τ ά τ ο ύ τ ο ν το ν
χ ρ ό ν ο ν5
Ι η σ ο ύ ς σ ο φ ό ς α ν ή ρ61
ε ϊγ ε ά ν δ ρ α α υ τ ό ν λ έ γ ε ιν χ ρ ή
62
η ν γ α ρ π α ρ α δ ό ξ ω ν έ ρ γ ω ν π ο ιη
τ ή ς , δ ιδ ά σ κ α λ ο ς α ν θ ρ ώ π ω ν τ ω ν
ή δ ο ν η τ ά λ η θ ή δ ε χ ό μ ε ν ω ν63
κ α ι
π ο λ λ ο ύ ς μ ε ν Ι ο υ δ α ί ο υ ς ,6
* π ο λ
λ ο ύ ς ôè κ α ι το υ Ε λ λ η ν ικ ο ύ ε π -
η γ ά γ ε τ ο . ό χ ρ ι σ τ ό ς ο ύ τ ο ς ή ν65
κ α ι α υ τ ό ν ε ν δ ε ίξ ε ι τ ω ν π ρ ώ τ ω ν α ν δ ρ ώ ν π α ρ ' ή μ ϊ ν σ τ α υ ρ ω
ε π ι τ ε τ ι μ η κ ό τ ο ς Π ιλ ά τ ο υ ο υ κ
ε π α ύ σ α ν τ ο6 6
ο ΐ τ ό π ρ ώ τ ο ν ά γ α -
π ή σ α ν τ ε ς . έ φ ά ν η γ α ρ α ύ τ ο ί ς
τ ρ ί τ η ν ε χ ω ν61
ή μ έ ρ α ν π ά λ ιν
ζ ώ ν τ ώ ν θ ε ί ω ν π ρ ο φ η τ ώ ν τ α ϋ τ ά
τ ε κ α ι ά λ λ α μ υ ρ ί α π ε ρ ι α ύ τ ο ϋ
θ α υ μ ά σ ι α68
ε ίρ η κ ό τ ω ν . ε ι ς ε τ ι
τ ε ν υ ν69
τ ώ ν Χ ρ ι σ τ ια ν ώ ν α π ό
τ ο ϋ δ ε ώ ν ο μ α σ μ έ ν ο ν ο υ κ ε π έ λ ιπ ε
τ ο φ ϋ λ ο ν {A ntiquitates, X V I I I ,
63-64) .
5 1 A l - M a k ï n , ed. C h e i k h o , p. 3 9 1 : ( o ^ . U ) J o^j^ji ^
5 2 A g a p i u s ' MS: i ^ J I ^ J P ; a l - M a k ï n , loc. cit. J P L ^ T ^JUI
5 3 A l - M a k ï n , loc. cit.: J - ^ U
5 4 A l - M a k ï n ' s t e x t r e a d s J Uix jj
5 5 A l - M a k ï n ' s t e xt r e a d s I j j f
5 6 A l - M a k ï n ' s t e x t r e a d s JU
5 7 uXJS \J>J± \ is the v a r i a n t g i v e n in a l - M a k ï n ' s q u o t a t i o n . The MS of
A g a p i u s , ed i t ed by C h e i k h o and V a s i l i e v , r e a d s A J U J \ y \ \ see a b o v e ,
n . 2 3 , and b e l o w , n. 7 5 .
5 8 A l - M a k ï n ' s te x t r e ad s 1 1 * J * J j . The r e a d i n g IJL* J * l i i s s m o o t h e r t h a n
t h e one f o u n d in the A g a p i u s ' MS .
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T h e following translations are meant to facilitate a first com-
parison between the two versions of the Test imonium with
which for the moment we are concerned. The words written
in Roman type in either of the two renderings have a counter-
part of some sort in the other version.7 0
H . Fel dma n's trans lat ion of the Greek vulgate recension of the
Testimonium has been used; occasionally it has been slightly
modified in order to render it more literal.
59 Al -Makïn's text reads A > » L J V I <S^\. In his version c ^ U V I is
missing.
60 Cedrenus' vers ion reads ή ν ; see Eisler, p. 85, n. 8.
61 Acc ord in g to Mala las, Josephu s describes Jesus as ά ν θ ρ ω π ο ς α γα θ ό ς
κ α ι δ ίκ α ιο ς . How eve r, there is s om e re ason to believe that a passage
other th an the Test im oniu m may be referred to . The last part of Mala
l a s ' sentence (Ioannes Malalas, Chronographia, ed. B. G. Niebu hr,
Bo nn 1831, pp. 247- 248) m ay be rendered as fol lows : . . . Just as Jose-
phus the philosopher of the Hebrews has written this; he has also said
that since the time when the Jews had crucified Jesus, who was a good
and just man, if he is to be called a man and not a god, there had been
no surcease of grief in the country of Judaea (cf. also below, n. 220).
62 Th e word s ε ϊγ ε ά ν δ ρ α α υ τ ό ν λ έ γ ε ιν χ ρ ή have no equivalent in a Latin
versi on of th e Tes ti mon iu m that occurs in a M S written before the
eighth century; see Eisler, p. 85, n. 13.
63 Sozomenos, Historia Ecclesiastica, ed. J. Bidez, Berlin 1960, Lib. I,
C a p . 1, p. 7, reads δ ιδ ά σ κ α λ ο ν λ ώ γ ω ν α λ η θ ώ ν .
64 Eusebius' Demonstratio reads τ ο υ Ι ο υ δ α ϊκ ο ύ ; see Eisler, p. 85, η . 16.
65 Thi s sentence is omi tt ed by Cedren us; see Eisler, p. 86, η . 1.
66 Cedren us has ε π α ύ σ α ν τ ο κ η ρ ύ σ σ ο ν τ ε ς π ε ρ ί α ύ τ ο ϋ ; see Eisler, p. 86, η . 5.
67 ε χ ω ν is omitted in Eusebius' Demonstratio; see Eisler, p. 86, n. 8.
68 π ε ρ ί α ύ τ ο ϋ θ α υ μ ά σ ια is omitted in Eusebius' Demonstratio; see Eisler,
p . 86, n. 10.
69 Other varian ts: ε ισ έ τ ι κ α ι; ε ις hi κ α ι ν υ ν ; ε ισ έ τ ι τ ε ν υ ν ; σ έ τ ι (in one
M S τ ε is written above the line); δ θ ε ν ε ισ έ τ ι (Eusebius' Demon-
stratio); εϊς τ ε ν ϋ ν (Suidas); ε ις δ έ τ ο ν υ ν , or, accordi ng to another
version, îôè τ ο ί ν υ ν (Isidorus Pelusianus); ο ύ κ έ τ ι ν υ ν (Sermo Macarii,
i n : Acta Sanctorum); see Eisler, p. 80, n. 3 ; p. 86, n. 11.
70 Or in the variant s quo ted in the no te s.
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Render ing o f the Arab ic T e x t 7 1
Similarly Josephus the Hebrew.
For he says in the treatises that
he has written on the governance 12 of the Jews:
A t t h i s t i m e there was a wise
m a n who was called J e s u s .
And his conduct1* was good,
and [he] was known to be
virtuous.14 And m a n y p e o p l e
from among t h e J e w s and theother nations became his
disciples. P i l a t e c o n d e m n e d
him to be c ruc i f ied and to die.
And those who had become his
disciples did n o t a b a n d o n his
discipleship.15 They reported
that h e h a d a p p e a r e d t o t h e m
three days after his crucifixion
and that he was a l i v e ; ac
cordingly 16 h e w a s perhaps
t h e M e s s i a h c o n c e r n i n g w h o m
t h e p r o p h e t s have recounted
w o n d e r s . 7 7
Rendering of the Greek Text
A b o u t t h i s t i m e there lived1
*
J e s u s , a w i s e m a n , 7 9 if indeed
one ought to call him a man.For he was one who wrought
surprising feats and was a
teacher of such people as accept
the truth gladly. He won
over m a n y J e w s a n d m a n y of
the Greeks. H e w a s t h e
M e s s i a h . When P i l a t e , uponhearing him accused by men of
the highest standing among us,
h a d c o n d e m n e d h i m t o b e
crucif ied , those who had in
the first place come to love
[him] did not c e a s e . 8 0 On the
third day h e a p p e a r e d t o t h e m
restored to life. For t h e
p r o p h e t s of God had prophesied
these and myriads of other
m a r v e l l o u s [things] a b o u t
h i m . And the tribe of t h e
Christians, so called after
him, has still up to now , not
disappeared.
7 1 T h i s r e n d e r i n g i s s o m e w h a t m o r e l it e r a l t h a n t h e o n e g i v e n a b o v e .
7 2 S e e a b o v e , n . 1 5 , a n d b e l o w , p p . 4 6 ff.
7 3 O r : way of life.
7 4 O r , a c c o r d i n g t o a l - M a k î n : his conduct was good and his learningoutstanding.
7 5 A l - M a k ï n ' s t e x t. T h e M S o f A g a p i u s r e a d s preached his doctrine. T h e
s a m e w o r d , n a m e l y , talmadha, i s t r a n s l a t e d i n t h e r e n d e r i n g o f a l -
M a k ï n ' s t e x t a s discipleship, a n d i n t h e r e n d e r i n g o f t h e M S o f A g a p i u s
a s doctrine.
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I t s e e m s t o m e t h a t b o t h t h e d i v e r g e n c i e s a n d t h e s i m i l a r i t i e s
o f t h e t w o v e r s i o n s a r e i n s t r u c t i v e . H o w e v e r , prima facie, S L
n u m b e r o f d i v e r g e n t c o n c l u s i o n s c o u l d b e d r a w n f r o m t h e s e
d a t a . I t w i l l b e o u r t a sk t o a s se s s t h e i r p r o b a b i l i t y .
W e sh a l l s t a r t w i t h t h e p o i n t s o f s i m i l a r i t y . S o m e o f t h e se a r e
o b v i o u s a n d p r e c l u d e a n y d o u b t a s t o t h e c l o s e r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n
t h e G r e e k a n d t h e A r a b i c v e r s i o n . T h i s r e l a t i o n i s v e r y m u c h
i n e v i d e n c e , i f o n e c o n s i d e r s t h e o p e n i n g r e f e r e n c e t o J e su s ,
a n d t h e s t a t e m e n t s c o n c e r n i n g h i s w i n n i n g d i s c i p l e s , h i s b e i n g
th e M es s i ah , h i s be ing sen tenc ed by P i l a t e , t he fidelity o f h i s
d i s c i p l e s , w h o s u r v i v e d h i s d e a t h , a n d h i s h a v i n g a p p e a r e d t ot h e m o n t h e t h i r d d a y . 8 1
A d e t a i l e d e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e t e x t l e a d s t o t h e l e s s o b v i o u s
d i s c o v e r y t h a t i n s o m e p o i n t s t h e A r a b i c v e r s i o n a g r e e s w i t h
c e r t a i n v a r i a n t s o f t h e G r e e k v e r s i o n t h a t d o n o t a p p e a r i n t h e
p r e d o m i n a n t t e x t u a l t r a d i t i o n .
T h u s , a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e t e x t t h e A r a b i c käna a p p e a r s t o
7 6 O r , a c c o r d i n g t o a l - M a k ï n ' s q u o t a t i o n , and.
7 7 A c c o r d i n g t o a l - M a k ï n ' s q u o t a t i o n : concerning wh om the prophets
have spoken. T h e s a m e v e rb , n a m e l y , qälü, o c c u r s b o t h i n t h e M S o f
A g a p i u s , i n w h i c h c o n t e x t i t h a s b e e n r e n d e r e d related, a n d i n a l - M a
k ï n ' s q u o t a t i o n , i n w h i c h c o n t e x t i t h a s b e e n r e n d e r e d spoken.
7 8 L i t e r a l ly : became ; v a r i a n t : was ( C e d r e n u s ) , w h i c h a g r ee s w i t h A g a p i u s '
t e x t ; c f. a l s o b e l o w , S t . J e r o m e ' s L a t i n v e r s i o n .
7 9 M a l a l a s ' t e x t r e a d s a good and just man; b u t h i s q u o t a t i o n m a y n o t b e
d e r i v e d f r o m t h e T e s t i m o n i u m ; se e a b o v e , n . 6 1 .
8 0 C e d r e n u s h a s t h e v a r i a n t did not cease to preach concerning him.
8 1 S o m e o f t h e s e p o i n t s o f r e s e m b l a n c e a r e b r o u g h t o u t b y t h e w o r d s i n
r o m a n t y p e . W h e n s i m i l a r st a t e m e n t s a r e w o r d e d d if f er e n tl y i n t h e
t w o v e r s i o n s , o r w h e n o n e o f t h e v e r s i o n s o f f e r s a s t a t e m e n t t h a t h a s
n o p a r a l l e l i n t h e s e c o n d v e r s i o n , t h e w o r d s a r e p r i n t e d i n i t a l i c s . T o
c i t e a n e x a m p l e f o r d if f er e n c e o f w o r d i n g , t h e A r a b i c t e x t r e a d s
became his disciples, w h e r e a s t h e G r e e k m a y b e r e n d e r e d he won over.
A s w e s h a l l s e e , t h i s m a y b e d u e t o a n e a r ly d i v e r g e n c e o f t w o
r e c e n s i o n s , a n d n o t m e r e l y t o a t r a n s l a t o r s ' s l i c e n c e .
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a g r e e w i t h ή ν , w h i c h o c c u r s i n C e d r e n u s , 8 2 r a t h e r t h a n w i t h
γ ί ν ε τ α ι .83
T h e f o l l o w i n g p a r a l l e l i s m o r e c o m p l i c a t e d , a n d p e r h a p s a l s o
m o r e s t r i k i n g :
A s h a s b e e n s t a t e d a b o v e , a l - M a k ï n ' s q u o t a t i o n r e a d s lam
yatrukü talmadhatahu - did not abandon his doctrine. Lam ya-
trukü a p p e a r s t o c o r r e s p o n d t o t h e G r e e k ο υ κ ε π α ύ σ α ν τ ο84
- did
not cease, an d ha s fo r th i s r eas on be en p re fe r red t o the va r i an t
o f A g a p i u s ' M S yade
U talmadhatahu-preached his doctrine.
A n e a t s o l u t i o n o f t h i s t e x t u a l p r o b l e m w o u l d , h o w e v e r , h a v e
t o a c c o u n t f o r t h e e x is t e n c e o f t h e l a t t e r v a r i a n t . C e d r e n u s 'v e r s i o n s u g g e s t s s u c h a s o l u t i o n . I t r e a d s : ο υ κ ε π α ύ σ α ν τ ο
κ η ρ ύ σ σ ο ν τ ε ς π ε ρ ί α ύ τ ο ϋ - they did not cease to preach con
cerning him. T h e l a s t t w o w o r d s h a v e n o c o u n t e r p a r t i n t h e
M S o f A g a p i u s , a s i n a l - M a k ï n ' s v e r s i o n . H o w e v e r , t h e i n t e r
e s t i n g p o i n t a b o u t t h e s e n t e n c e i n C e d r e n u s ' v e r s i o n i s t h e t w o
v e r b s , the f i rs t of which , ο ύ κ ε π α ύ σ α ν τ ο - did not cease,
c o r r e s p o n d s t o lam yatrukü i n a l - M a k ï n ' s q u o t a t i o n , w h e r e a st h e s e c o n d , κ η ρ ύ σ σ ο ν τ ε ς - to preach, a g r e e s w i t h yad'ü i n the
M S o f A g a p i u s . T h i s su g g e s t s t h a t t h e e q u i v a l e n t s o f b o t h v e r b s
o c c u r r i n g i n C e d r e n u s ' v e r s i o n m a y h a v e o r i g i n a l l y a p p e a r e d
8 2 Pa r a l l e l s to th i s rjv m a y b e f o u n d i n L a t i n a n d S y r i a c v e r s i o n s o f t h e
T e s t i m o n i u m ; t h e s e v e r s i o n s w i l l b e d i s c u s s e d b o t h w i t h r e g a r d t ot h i s a n d o t h e r p o i n t s .
8 3 I t c o u l d , h o w e v e r , b e a r g u e d t h a t i t i s n o t o u t o f t h e q u e s t i o n f o r
γ ίν ε τ α ι t o h a v e b e e n r e n d e r e d b y käna. W i t h r e ga r d t o t h e i m m e d i a t e
l y f o l l o w i n g s e n t e n c e i n t h e A r a b i c v e r s i o n , i t c o u l d p e r h a p s b e
s u s p e c t e d t h a t t h e w o r d s his conduct was good and he was known to
be virtuous ( t h i s i s t h e t e x t o f t h e M S o f A g a p i u s , w h i c h d i ff e rs f r o m
t h a t o f a l - M a k ï n ' s q u o t a t i o n ) m i g h t h a v e s o m e r e l a t i o n t o M a l a l a s '
α ν θ ρ ω π ο ν α γ α θ ό ν κ α ι δ ί κ α ιο ν . B u t t h i s s e e m s t o m e t o b e d o u b t f u l ( s e e
a b o v e , n . 6 1 ) . His conduct was good m ay , a s w e s h a l l s e e l a t e r , b e r e
l a t e d t o a n e x p r e s s i o n d i f f e ri n g f r o m M a l a l a s ' , w h i c h o c c u r s i n S y r i a c
v e r s i o n s o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m . F u r t h e r m o r e , fatjil - virtuous i s b y n o
m e a n s e q u i v a l e n t t o δ ί κ α ι ο ς .
8 4 A c e r t a i n a w k w a r d n e s s a t t a c h e s t o t h e s e w o r d s i n t h e p r e d o m i n a n t
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i n t h e A r a b i c v e r s i o n . T h e f a c t t h a t o n l y t h e f i r s t o f t h e m
r e m a i n e d i n a l - M a k ï n ' s q u o t a t i o n a n d o n l y t h e s e c o n d i n t h e
M S o f A g a p i u s m a y b e d u e t o s c r i b a l e r r o r s . T h e r e a r e t h u s
so m e g r o u n d s f o r b e l i e v i n g t h a t o n so m e p o i n t s a p a r t o f
C e d r e n u s ' v e r s i o n — t h o u g h p e r h a p s n o t a w e l l - d e f i n e d b r a n c h
o f t h e G r e e k m a n u s c r i p t t r a d i t i o n o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m — c o m e s
c l o s e t o A g a p i u s ' A r a b i c v e r s i o n .
A t t h i s p o i n t t h e d iv e r g e n c ie s b e t w e e n t h i s v e r s i o n a n d t h e G r e e k
tex t have to be d i scussed . Some o f these d ive rgenc ie s a r e
c lea r ly s ign i f i can t :
1. A g a p i u s d o e s n o t q u e s t i o n J e s u s ' b e i n g a m a n .2 . A g a p i u s d o e s n o t r e f e r t o J e su s ' w o r k i n g m i r a c l e s ; i n s t e a d h e
d e s c r i b e s h i m a s b e i n g o f g o o d c o n d u c t a n d v i r t u o u s . 8 5
3 . T h e r o l e p l a y e d b y J e w i s h n o t a b l e s i n J e s u s ' c o n d e m n a t i o n
i s n o t m e n t i o n e d .
4 . In the Greek t ex t Je sus ' appea rance to h i s d i sc ip le s a f t e r h i s
c r u c i fi x i o n i s t r e a t e d a s a f a c t r e c o u n t e d b y t h e a u t h o r ; i n
A g a p i u s ' v e r s i o n t h i s a p p e a r a n c e i s s a i d t o h a v e b e e n r e p o r t e db y h i s d i s c i p l e s . T h e c i r c u m s t a n c e t h a t t h i s s t o r y i s b a se d o n
h e a r sa y e v i d e n c e s t a n d s o u t v e r y c l e a r l y .
5 . I n t h e m i d d l e o f t h e G r e e k t e x t o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m o c c u r s
t h e u n c o m p r o m i s i n g s t a t e m e n t He was the Messiah. T h e
p a r a l l e l s t a t e m e n t i n A g a p i u s ' v e r s i o n o c c u r s a t t h e e n d o f t h e
T e s t i m o n i u m , a n d i t is d u b i t a t i v e : he was perhaps the Messiah? 6
I t c a n b e a s se r t e d w i t h a sh o w o f t r u t h t h a t i t i s t h e C h r i s t i a n
M S S t r a d i t i o n , b e c a u s e t h e y s e e m t o r e q u i re a c o m p l e m e n t , w h i c h
i n t h i s t r a d i t i o n i s l a c k i n g .
8 5 O r , i f w e f o l l o w a l - M a k ï n : exceedingly learned.
8 6 A s h a s b e e n st a t e d a b o v e , t h e r e i s a p o s s i b i l i t y , b u t o n l y a s l i g h t o n e ,
t h a t i n A g a p i u s ' v e r s i o n t h i s d u b i t a t i v e p o s i t i o n w a s a tt r i b u te d t o
J e s u s ' d i s c i p l e s . A s w e s h a l l s e e b e l o w , a S y r i a c v e r s i o n o f t h e T e s t i m o
n i u m l e g i t i m a t e s t h e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t t h e o r i g i n a l f o r m o f t h e d u b i t a t i v e
s t a t e m e n t c o n c e r n i n g t h e M e s s i a h h o o d o f J e s u s w a s sl i g h t ly d i ff er e n t
a n d w a s m o d i f i e d i n t h e t r a n s l a t i o n i n t o A r a b i c . L i k e A g a p i u s ' p h r a s e ,
t h i s h y p o t h e t i c a l o r i g i n a l w o r d i n g c o n t a i n e d n o a s s e r t i o n s u p p o s e d l y
m a d e b y J o s e p h u s a s t o J e s u s ' b e i n g t h e M e s s i a h .
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t e n d e n c y i n t h e p r e se n t a t i o n o f f o u r o r , p e r h a p s , t h r e e o f t h e se
d i ff e rences f in th i s con tex t po in t 3 i s i r r e l eva n t , an d po in t 2
m a y p e r h a p s a p p e a r t o b e m u c h l es s i m p o r t a n t t h a n t h e
r e m a i n i n g t h r e e ) t h a t i s i n t h e m a i n r e sp o n s i b l e f o r t h e p o s i t i o n
t a k e n u p b y t h o s e s c h o l a r s ( t h e y a r e p r o b a b l y t h e m a j o r i ty )
w h o d e n y t h e a u t h e n t i c i t y o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m a n d r e g a r d i t ,
o r p a r t s o f i t , a s C h r i s t i a n i n t e r p o l a t i o n . T h e y r e a so n t h a t i f
J o s e p h u s t e n d e d t o t h i n k t h a t J e s u s w a s s u p e r h u m a n , i f h e
s p o k e o f h i s w o r k i n g m i r a c l e s , 8 7 i f h e p r o c l a i m e d h i m t o b e t h e
Mess iah , and i f he r e l a t ed a s a f ac t h i s appea rance to h i s d i s
c i p l e s a f t e r h i s d e a t h — h e m u s t h a v e b e e n a C h r i s t i a n , o r h a v ec o m e c l o se t o b e i n g o n e , a c o n c l u s i o n t h a t a p p e a r s t o r u n
c o u n t e r t o w h a t w e k n o w o f h i m f r o m h i s w o r k s . I t a l so r u n s
c o u n t e r t o O r i g e n ' s a s s e r t i o n 8 8 t h a t Jo se p h u s d i d n o t b e l i e v e i n
J e s u s .
A c c o r d i n g l y , t h r e e m a i n s c h o o l s of o p i n i o n c a n b e d i s t i n g u i sh e d :
1. T h o se w h o m a i n t a i n , i n sp i t e o f a l l a r g u m e n t s t o t h e c o n t r a r y ,
t h e g e n u i n e n e s s o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m .8 9
2 . T h o se w h o c o n s i d e r t h a t a l l o f i t i s a C h r i s t i a n f a b r i c a t i o n . 9 0
8 7 T a k e n b y itself, t h e r e f e r e n c e t o J e s u s ' m i r a c l e s d o e s n o t , o f c o u r s e ,
c o n s t i t u t e a p r o o f o f J o s e p h u s ' c o m m i t m e n t t o C h r i s t i a n i t y , b u t , i n
c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h t h e o t h e r r e l e v a n t p o i n t s e n u m e r a t e d i n t h e t e x t , i t
s t r e n g t h e n s t h e g e n e r a l i m p r e s s i o n t h a t i f h e w a s t h e a u t h o r o f t h e
v u l g a t e r e c e n s i o n , h e m u s t h a v e h a d , o r h a v e c o m e c l o s e t o , s u c h a
c o m m i t m e n t .
8 8 S e e b e l o w , p . 6 5 .
8 9 T h i s w a s t h e p o s i t i o n o f, a m o n g o t h e r s , F . C B u r k i t t a n d A . G . H a r -
n a c k . A r e c e n t e x a m p l e o f t h i s a t t i t u d e i s p r o v i d e d b y a n a r t i c l e o f
F . D o r n s e i f f , e Z u m T e s t a m e n t u m F l a v i a n u m ' , Zeitschrift für die N eu-
testamentliche Wissenschaft, X L V I ( 19 5 6 ) , p p . 2 4 5 - 2 5 0 . A b i b l i o
g r a p h i c a l s u r v e y o f r e c e n t p u b l i c a t i o n s o n t h i s q u e s t i o n ( u p t o 1 9 6 2 )
m a y b e f o u n d i n t h e b o o k l e t b y L . H . F e l d m a n , Recent Scholarship
on Philo and Josephus (1937-1962), N e w Y o r k 1 9 6 4 .
9 0 E i s l e r ( p p . 1 9 f f. ) s e t s f o r t h s o m e o f t h e a r g u m e n t s p u t f o r w a r d b y t h e
s c h o l a r s w h o m a i n t a i n e d t h i s o p i n i o n , w h i c h s e e m s t o h a v e b e e n
f o r m u l a t e d i n 1 5 3 4 b y H u b e r t v a n G i f f e n ( G i p h a n i u s ) . I t w a s h e l d ,
a m o n g o t h e r s , b y E . N o r d e n a n d E . M e y e r . I m a y a d d t h a t a l l t h e
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3 . T h o s e w h o b e l i e v e t h a t J o s e p h u s ' Antiquitates c o n t a i n e d a
p a s s a g e c o n c e r n i n g J e s u s , b u t t h a t i t w a s n o t t h e o n e k n o w n t o
u s a s t h e G r e e k T e s t i m o n i u m F l a v i a n u m . A c c o r d i n g t o t h i s
v i e w , t h e T e s t i m o n i u m i s t h e r e s u l t o f t h e a d a p t a t i o n s a n d
a l t e r a t i o n s t o w h i c h t h e o r i g i n a l t e x t o f Jo se p h u s w a s su b j e c t e d
b y z e a l o u s C h r i s t i a n s . T h i s o p i n i o n l e d t o s e v e ra l a t t e m p t s b e i n g
m a d e t o r e c o n s t r u c t t h e h y p o t h e t i c a l o r i g i n a l t e x t . S o m e o f
t h e m w e r e v e r y e l a b o r a t e , a n d t h e m o d i f i c a t i o n s p r o p o s e d w e r e
n u m e r o u s a n d i n c i s i v e . E i s l e r ' s 9 1 r e c o n s t r u c t i o n d o e s n o t h a v e
m a n y t r a i t s i n c o m m o n w i t h t h e textus receptus of the Tes t i
m o n i u m . I n a n o t h e r r e c o n s t r u c t i o n , t h e a l t e r a t i o n s a n de m e n d a t i o n s w e r e k e p t d o w n t o w h a t w a s r e g a r d e d a s a
m i n i m u m . 9 2 T h e d i s c o u r a g i n g f a ct a b o u t a l l t h e se a t t e m p t s i s
t h a t t h e s c h o l a r s w h o m a d e t h e m w e r e g u i d e d i n t h e m a i n
( t h o u g h n o t i n a l l c a se s e x c l u s i v e l y ; so m e o f t h e m u se d v a r i o u s
se c o n d a r y so u r c e s t o g o o d p u r p o se ) b y t h e i r p e r so n a l su b j e c t i v e
v i e w o f t h e p r o b a b l e p o s i t i o n o f Jo se p h u s w i t h r e g a r d t o J e su s
a n d o f t h e w a y i n w h i c h h e w a s m o s t l i k e l y t o h a v e s e t f o r t ht h i s p o s i t i o n . I n o t h e r w o r d s , t h e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n s h a d , b y a n d
la rge , on ly a sub jec t ive va l id i ty .
F r o m t h i s p o i n t o f v i e w t h e e v i d e n t i a l s t a t u s o f A g a p i u s ' v e r s i o n
o f th e T es t im on iu m i s w ho l ly d if fe r en t fo r th e fo l lowing r ea so ns :
T h i s v e r s i o n h a s n o t b e e n r e c o n s t r u c t e d a n d t a i l o r e d t o su i t
t h e i d e a s o f m o d e r n s c h o l a r s a s t o w h a t i s p r o b a b l e a n d w h a t i s
n o t . I t i s q u o t e d b y a C h r i s t i a n a u t h o r t o w h o m i t c e r t a i n l y
w o u l d n o t h a v e o c c u r r e d t o o m i t o r w a t e r d o w n r e fe r en c e s t o , a n d
d e sc r i p t i o n s o f , J e su s , w h i c h , b e c a u se o f t h e i r a g r e e m e n t w i t h
a u t h o r s w h o c o n s i d e r t h a t J e s u s w a s a m y t h i c a l r a t h e r t h a n a h i s t o r
i c a l p e r s o n r e g a r d t h e T e s t i m o n i u m a s a C h r i s t i a n f o r g e r y .
9 1 Op. cit., p p . 8 7 - 8 8 .
9 2 C . M a r t i n ' s a r t ic l e , ' L e T e s t i m o n i u m F l a v i a n u m — V e r s u n e s o l u t i o n
déf in i t ive* , Revue Belge de Philologie et d'Histoire, X X ( 1 9 4 1 ), p p .
4 0 9 - 4 6 5 , m a y b e c i t e d a s a n e x a m p l e o f t h i s a p p r o a c h t o t h e T e s t i
m o n i u m . M a n y o t h e r s c h o l a r s c o u l d b e q u o t e d .
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t h e C h r i s t i a n f a i t h , m i g h t b e c o n s i d e r e d a s n o t v e r y l ik e l y t o
h a v e b e e n m a d e b y J o s e p h u s . 9 3
W e m a y a l s o s u p p o s e t h a t e a r li e r C h r i s t i a n a u t h o r s ( f ro m w h o m ,
a c c o r d i n g t o c e r t a i n — n o t q u i t e c o n c l u s i v e — i n d i c a t i o n s ,
A g a p i u s t o o k o v e r h i s v e r s i o n ) t a m p e r e d n o m o r e t h a n h e d i d
w i t h t h e t e x t . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e r e a r e n o g r o u n d s w h a t e v e r
f o r s u p p o s i n g t h a t t h i s v e r s i o n w a s a t s o m e t i m e o r o t h e r
m a n i p u l a t e d a n d a d a p t e d b y J e w s o r b y P a g a n s f o r t h e i r a n t i -
C h r i s t i a n p u r p o s e s . T h e d e c i s i v e a r g u m e n t a g a i n s t t h i s s u p p o s i
t i o n i s t h a t t h i s v e r s i o n i s i n n o w a y h o s t i l e t o J e s u s o r t o
C h r i s t i a n i t y .On the o the r hand , the ob jec t ion tha t has been e f f ec t ive ly
b r o u g h t t o b e a r a g a i n s t t h e a u t h e n t i c i t y o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m
d o e s n o t a p p l y t o A g a p i u s ' v e r s i o n . T h e l a t t e r d o e s n o t e x p r e s s
a n y d o u b t a s t o t h e p r o p r i e t y o f d e s i g n a t i n g J e s u s a s a m a n .
H i s a p p e a r a n c e a f t e r d e a t h i s r e f e r r e d t o a s s o m e t h i n g r e p o r t e d
b y t h e d i s c i p l e s ; i t i s n o t s t a t e d t h a t t h i s a p p e a r a n c e w a s a f a c t .
T h e s e n t e n c e t h a t m e n t i o n s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t h e w a s t h e
M e s s i a h f o r e t o l d b y t h e p r o p h e t s c o n t a i n s t h e d u b i t a t i v e a d v e r b
perhaps - Id alia, w h i c h m a y h a v e b e e n , a s w e s h a l l s e e , t h e n o t
q u i t e a d e q u a t e r e n d e r i n g o f a S y r i a c w o r d .
I n i t s o r i g i n a l f o r m t h e s e n t e n c e m a y h a v e r e a d : He was thought
to be the M essiah concerning whom the prophets have related
wonders. A l l t h e s e t r a i t s a p p e a r t o i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e a u t h o r o f
t h i s v e r s i o n n e e d n o t h a v e b e e n a C h r i s t i a n . 9 4 Indeed , i t i s
h a r d l y c o n c e i v a b l e t h a t a C h r i s t i a n , e v e n i f h e s e t o u t t o c o m p o s e
a p i e c e o f w r i t i n g t h a t w a s t o b e p a s s e d o ff a s J o s e p h u s ' , w o u l d
h a v e c o n s i s t e n t l y r e f e r re d t o J e s u s w i t h t h e l u k e w a r m a d m i r a t i o n
9 3 A t a m p e r i n g w i t h t h e v u l g a t e t e x t o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m i n o r d e r t o
l e s s e n — a d m i t t e d l y o n l y i n a s l i g h t m e a s u r e — t h e i m p r o b a b i l i t y o f
i ts h a v i n g b e e n w r i t t e n b y J o s e p h u s h a s b e e n a s c r i b e d b y s o m e s c h o l a r s
t o S t . J e r o m e ( cf . b e l o w , p . 4 3 ) . I n h i s c a s e , t o o , t h i s s u g g e s t i o n s e e m s
t o b e m o s t u n l i k e l y .
9 4 T h o u g h i t m a y h a v e b e e n t a m p e r e d w i t h b y a C h r i s t i a n .
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a n d t h e l a c k o f s u p e r l a t i v e s 9 5 c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f A g a p i u s ' v e r s i o n
a n d w o u l d h a v e t a k e n c a r e ( a s t h e a u t h o r o f t h i s v e r s i o n
e v i d e n t l y h a s d o n e ) t o a v o i d a n y s t a t e m e n t i n w h i c h t h e
a p p e a r a n c e o f J e s u s a f t e r h i s d e a t h a n d h i s M e s s i a h s h i p a r e
un equ ivo ca l ly r e f e r r ed to a s f ac t s 9 6 I n o t h e r w o r d s , t h e m a i n ,
o r t h e p h i l o l o g i c a l l y m o s t v a l i d , o b j e c t i o n t o t h e a u t h e n t i c i t y
o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m d o e s n o t a p p l y t o A g a p i u s ' v e r s i o n . A g a p i u s '
A r a b i c t e x t o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m i s i n a l l p r o b a b i l i t y t r a n s l a t e d
f r o m a S y r ia c v e r s i o n o f t h e G r e e k o r i g i n a l . 9 7 I t i s h igh ly
p r o b a b l e t h a t i n t h e c o u r s e o f t h e s e t r a n s l a t i o n s , a n d a l s o a s a
r e s u l t o f s c r i b a l e r r o r s , s o m e a l t e r a t i o n s , n o t d u e t o a d e l i b e r a t ea t t e m p t a t d i s t o r t i o n , w e r e i n t r o d u c e d i n t o t h e t e x t . R e f e re n c e
h a s a l r e a d y b e e n m a d e t o a S y ri a c v e r s i o n o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m ,
w h i c h s e e m s t o p r o v i d e s o m e p o i n t e r s t o t h e e x i s t e n c e o f s u c h
a l t e r a t i o n s i n A g a p i u s ' t e x t . T h i s v e r s i o n o c c u r s i n M i c h a e l t h e
S y r i a n ' s c h r o n i c l e . 9 8 T h i s a u t h o r w a s b o r n i n 1 12 6 a n d w a s
P a t r i a r c h o f A n t i o c h fr o m 1 16 6 t o 1 1 9 9 ; h e t h u s l i v ed m o r e
t h a n t h r e e c e n t u r i e s a f t e r A g a p i u s . B e c a u s e o f t h e p o i n t s o f
s i m i l a r i t y a s w e l l a s d i v e r g e n c y i t se e m s n e c e s s a r y t o c o m p a r e
h i s v e r s i o n o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m w i t h t h e o n e f o u n d i n t h e
S y r i a c t r a n s l a t i o n o f E u s e b i u s ' Historia Ecclesiastica.
9 5 E x c e p t , p e r h a p s , i n p r a i s e o f J e s u s ' l e a r n i n g ; s e e a b o v e , n . 7 4 .
9 6 T h i s d o e s n o t , o f c o u r s e , m e a n t h a t a C h r i s t i a n m a y n o t h a v e a l t e r e d
t h i s v e r s i o n , w h i c h i n i t s o r i g i n a l f o r m m a y h a v e b e e n l e s s f a v o u r a b l e
t o J e s u s t h a n i s t h e t e x t k n o w n t o u s ; s e e b e l o w , p . 6 9 .
9 7 T h i s S y r i a c v e r s i o n m a y h a v e o c c u r r e d i n t h e h i s t o r i ca l w o r k o f t h e
S y r i a c a u t h o r T h e o p h i l o s , w h o m a y h a v e b e e n A g a p i u s ' m a i n s o u r c e ;
s e e a b o v e , n . 5 .
9 8 T h e S y r i a c t e x t o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m o c c u r s i n J . B . C h a b o t ' s p u b l i c a
t i o n i n f a c s i m i l e a n d t r a n s l a t i o n , V o l . I V , P a r i s 1 9 1 0 , p . 9 1 ; t h e F r e n c h
t r a n s l a t i o n m a y b e f o u n d i n V o l . I , P a r i s 1 8 9 9 , p p . 1 4 4 - 1 4 5 .
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Michael the Syrian 99 The Syriac Translat ion
of Historia Ecclesiastica100
9 9 T h e t e x t ( p u b l i s h e d i n f a c s i m i l e ) i s r a t h e r a p o o r o n e , a s m a y b e s e e n
b y c o m p a r i n g i t w i t h t h e v e r s i o n o f t h e S y r i a c Historia Ecclesiastica,
w h i c h , a s f ar a s a c o n s i d e r a b l e p o r t i o n o f th e T e s t i m o n i u m i s c o n c e r n e d , i s l a r g e l y i d e n t i c a l w i t h t h i s t e x t .
1 0 0 The Ecclesiastical History of Eusebius in Syriac, e d . W r i g h t & M c L e a n ,
p . 4 8 ; c f . Historia Ecclesiastica, I , 1 1 : 7 - 8 .
1 0 1 J o s e p h u s ; s e e W r i g h t & M c L e a n , p . 4 7 , 1 . 5 .
1 0 2 O n e M S r e a d s
1 0 3 O n e M S r ea d s
1 0 4 O n e M S r e a d s ^
1 0 5 O n e M S readsvAXU 1
1 0 6 A t h ir d S y r i a c v e r s i o n o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m , d i ff e r in g f r o m t h e t w o
o t h e r s , o c c u r s i n t h e S y r i a c t r a n s l a t i o n o f E u s e b i u s ' Theophania, t h e
G r e e k o r i g i n a l o f w h i c h i s l o s t . T h i s v e r s i o n r e a d s :
( e d . S . L e e , L o n d o n 1 8 4 2 , V , 4 4 )
T h i s t e x t m a y b e r e n d e r e d a s f o l l o w s :
From Joseph on the Messiah:
At that time there was a wise man b n m = ά ν ή ρ ] named Jesus, if it
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is fitting to call him a man fow iK p r o b a b l y m e a n s ά ν θ ρ ω π ο ς ]. For he
was a worker of marvellous deeds and a teacher of men— [that is] of those
who in truth accept grace [ o r : pleasure; the t e x t s h o u l d p r o b a b l y be
e m e n d e d ; G r e s s m a n n in his G e r m a n t r a n s l a t io n ( s e e b e l o w ) r e p l a c e s t h i s
s e n t e n c e by the p a r a l l e l s e n t e n c e o f t h e G r e e k v u l g a t e r e c e n s i o n , g i v i n ga r e n d e r i n g of the S y r i a c p h r a s e in a f o o t n o t e ] — and he gathered to-
gether many of the Jews and many of the Pagans, And he was the Messiah,
When, according to the example [ G r e s s m a n n a g a i n s u b s t i t u t e s , fo r the
S y r i a c p h r a s e w h i c h he t r a n s l a t e s in a f o o t n o t e , the p h r a s e o f t h e G r e e k
v u l g a t e ; he b e l i e v e s p r o b a b l y c o r r e c t l y t h a t the d i v e r g e n c e of the S y r i a c
t e x t f r o m the G r e e k is du e to a m i s t r a n s l a t i o n o f έ ν δ ε ί ξ ε ι ] of our chief
[and] principal [men], Pilate crucified him, those who had previously
loved him were not silent. For he appeared to them on the third day alive;the divine prophets having said about him this and many other [things].
From then till now the sect of the Christians has not been wanting,
H . G r e s s m a n n ' s t r a n s l a t i o n o f t h e S y r i a c Theophania h a s b e e n p u b l i s h e d
i n the s e r i e s Die griechischen Christlichen Schriftsteller der ersten drei
Jahrhunderte: Eusebius' Werke, Vol . III, P a r t 2 , L e i p z i g 1904. C o m
p a r i n g the S y r i a c t r a n s l a t i o n o f t h e Theophania w i t h t h a t o f t h e Historia
Ecclesiastica, G r e s s m a n n n o t e s t h a t the f o r m e r , in c o n t r a s t to the
l a t t e r , s l a v i s h l y f o l l o w s the G r e e k t e x t . T he T e s t i m o n i u m o c c u r s in hi s
t r a n s l a t i o n on p. 2 5 0 * . H e r e n d e r s KS^ pî O l B ^ D nœnn D O ID - Als
Pilatus ihn,,, zu kreuzigen sich in den Kopf gesetzt hatte. In m y o p i n i o n
t h e o r i g i n a l m e a n i n g of the p h r a s e , w h i c h is p r o b a b l y s o m e w h a t c o r
r u p t , m ay be a s c e r t a i n e d f r o m a c o m p a r i s o n w i t h the p a r a l l e l and
s i m i l a r p h r a s e o c c u r i n g in the S y r i a c v e r s i o n of the Historia Eccle
siastica a n d in t h a t of M i c h a e l : K n ^ S T iWnn DOD1
? Dltt^D m n \ T h i s
p a r a l l e l s e e m s to i n d i c a t e t h a t the p h r a s e o c c u r i n g in the Theophania
v e r s i o n o r i g i n a l l y m e a n t W hen Pilate crucified him; t h i s c o r r e s p o n d s ,
b y and l a r g e , to the s i g n i f i c a t i o n of the S y r i a c w o r d s , w h i c h m e a n
l i t e r a l l y When Pilate put a cross in his head.
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Rendering of Michael 's Text
The writer Josephus also says
in his work on the institutions
of the Jews: In these times
there was a wise man named
Jesus, if it is fitting for us to
call him a man. For he was
a worker of glorious107
deeds
and a teacher of truth.108
Many from among the Jewsand the nations became his
disciples. H e was thought to
be the Messiah.109
But not110
according to the testimony of
the principal [men] of [our]
nation. Because of this, Pilate
condemned him to the cross,
and he died. For those who
had loved him did not cease
to love him. He appeared to
them alive after three days.
For the prophets of God had
spoken with regard to him of
such marvellous things [as
these111
]. And the people of
the Christians, nam ed after
him, has not disappeared till
[this] day.
Rendering of the Syriac Transla
tion of Historia Ecclesiastica
For he [Josephus] also speaks
thus in the book of his
History112
about our Saviour:
In that time there was one
wise man named Jesus — if
[indeed] it is fitting to call
him a man. For he was a worker
of glorious113
deeds and a
teacher of men: [that is] ofthose who accept truth with
desire. And he turned many
of the Jews and likewise many
from among the other nations
into his disciples. For he was
the Messiah. [But] upon the
testimony 114 of the principal
men of our nation, Pilate
condemned him to the cross.
Those who had loved him
did not cease to love him.
For he appeared to them
alive again after three days.
For the prophets of God had
spoken with regard to him of
this and myriads of other
marvellous things of this [kind].
And the people of the
Christians, named after him,
has not disappeared till our day.
1 0 7 O r : praiseworthy, o r : fine.
1 0 8 O n e i s t e m p t e d t o b e l i e v e t h a t t h e o r i g i n a l w o r d i n g c o r r e s p o n d e d t o
t h a t o f E u s e b i u s ' v e r s i o n : a teacher of men [i.e.] of those who receive
truth with desire. O n t h i s s u p p o s i t i o n M i c h a e l ' s p h r a s e a s g i v e n i n t h e
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In a co m pa r i s on o f t he tw o Syr iac ve rs ions w i th wh ich we a re
m o r e p a r t i c u l a r l y c o n c e r n e d , t h a t o f M i c h a e l a n d t h a t o f t h e
S y r i ac t r a n s l a t i o n o f Historia Ecclesiastica ( a t h i r d one be ing
th e recen s ion th a t occu rs i n t h e Syr i ac ve rs ion o f E use b iu s '
Theophania115
), on e fac t s ta nd s ou t ve ry c lea r ly : a s fa r a s th e
gre a te r p a r t of th e tex t i s con cern ed, th ese vers ions a re ve ry
s imi l a r a nd ref le ct t he sam e t ran s l a t i on . Th i s i s i nd ica t ed no t
on ly by the use o f t he same word ing in sen tences tha t r ende r
l i t e ra l ly the Greek vulga te recens ion , but a l so by the use of the
M S c o u l d , p e r h a p s , h a v e b e e n d u e t o t h e p r o b a b l y a c c i d e n t a l o m i s s i o n
o f a f e w w o r d s .
1 0 9 T h e s e n t e n c e m a y a l s o b e t r a n s l a t e d Perhaps he was the Messiah.
1 1 0 law. T h i s s e e m s t o h a v e b e e n t h e r e a d i n g i n t h e t e x t k n o w n t o M i c h a e l .
I t i s a l s o f o u n d i n o n e o f th e M S S o f t h e S y r i a c t r a n s l a t i o n o f Historia
Ecclesiastica, i n s t e a d o f leh, w h i c h p e r h a p s i s t h e c o r r e c t r e a d i n g .
S e e t h e t r a n s l a t i o n o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m a c c o r d i n g t o t h e S y r i a c t e x t o f
E u s e b i u s ' Historia Ecclesiastica.
1 1 1 P r o b a b l y M i c h a e l h a d b e f o r e h i m t h e S y r i a c t e x t o f E u s e b i u s ' Historia
Ecclesiastica a s q u o t e d a b o v e . T h e o m i s s i o n o f t h e w o r d s n i l ^bn
f r o m t h e M S o f M i c h a e l i s p r o b a b l y d u e t o sc r ib a l n e g l i g e n c e .
1 1 2 L i t e r a l l y : in the book of his narrative-niVWin I n t h e S y r i a c
t r a n s l a t i o n o f E u s e b i u s ' Historia Ecclesiastica J o s e p h u s ' Antiquitates
a re re f erred t o by t h i s n a m e o r a re s im ply des ig n a t ed a s n rV OTJ i ; f o r
t h e l a t t e r d e s i g n a t i o n , s e e : The Ecclesiastical History of Eusebius in
Syriac, p . 4 3 , 1 . 5 , w h i c h c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e q u o t a t i o n i n Historia
Ecclesiastica, I , 9 : 2 . n n w i Κ 3Γ Ο o c c u r s o n p . 4 5 , 1 . 7 , w h i c h
p a r a l l e l s t h e q u o t a t i o n i n t h e G r e e k Historia Ecclesiastica, I , 9 : 4 .
Bellum Judaicum i s referred to in The Ecclesiastical History of Eusebius
in Syriac, p . 2 7 , 1 . 2 0 ( c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e q u o t a t i o n i n Historia
Ecclesiastica, I , 5 : 6 ) a s ί Ρ Τ Ι Π Ή * Ο Ί ρ τ Κ Γ Ρ 57Ρ η . O n p . 4 0 , 1 . 1 1
( c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o Historia Ecclesiastica, I , 8 : 9 ) , Bellum Judaicum
i s po s s ib ly re f erred t o a s Nrrnrm Krvswn. O n p . 2 7 , 1 1. 2 - 3 , t h e
w o r d s jy»a m m K I V W O T Ν Ι Π Γ Ο Ο ρ Κ Ϊ Ρ Ύ » m a i o w w orfra
r e n d e r ό τ ω ν π α ρ * Έ β ρ α ίο ι ς ε π ι σ η μ ό τ α τ ο ς Ι σ τ ο ρ ι κ ώ ν (Historia
Ecclesiastica, I , 5 : 3 ) .
1 1 3 O r : praiseworthy; o r : fine.
1 1 4 S e e n . 1 1 0 t o t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g p h r a s e i n M i c h a e l ' s v e r s i o n .
1 1 5 S e e a b o v e , n . 1 0 6 .
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s a m e e x p r e s s i o n in t h r e e c a s e s in w h i c h the r e n d e r i n g is not
q u i t e l i t e r a l and, an e v e n s t r o n g e r a r g u m e n t , by the f a c t t h a t
i n one s e n t e n c e b o t h v e r s i o n s d e v i a t e in e x a c t l y the s a m e
m a n n e r f r o m t h i s v u l g a t e r e c e n s i o n .
T h e i n s t a n c e s of a not q u i t e l i t e r a l t r a n s l a t i o n o c c u r in:
1. The t h i r d s e n t e n c e of the T e s t i m o n i u m , in w h i c h b o t h
S y r i a c v e r s i o n s t r a n s l a t e α π ό τ ο ν Ε λ λ η ν ικ ο ύ - ρ - from
the nations.
2. The f i f th sentence, inw h i c h t h e S y r i a c v e r s i o n s t r a n s l a t e π α ρ *
ή μ ϊ ν - or psn - of the nation, or of our nation.
3 . The l a s t s e n t e n c e , in w h i c h εις ετι τε vvv is r e n d e r e dHaart TO, or Kör*? m TS7 - till our day, or //// [this] day.
I t m a y , of c o u r s e , be a r g u e d t h a t in the first and se c o n d c a se a
l i t e r a l t r a n s l a t i o n m i g h t h a v e b e e n s l i g h t l y a w k w a r d , and t h a t
i n the t h i r d l i t e r a l n e s s is a l m o s t p r e s e r v e d . H o w e v e r , we sh a l l
s e e l a t e r t h a t two of t hese s l igh t d ive rgenc ie s f rom the G r e e k
v u l g a t e m a y c a r r y so m e s i g n i f i c a n c e .
A s u b s t a n t i v e d e v i a t i o n f r o m the G r e e k v u l g a t e f o u n d in the
t w o S y r i a c v e r s i o n s o c c u r s in the se n t e n c e \Ύ Ο Π *Π1 1 6
p7 pam
Π 31Π p V^W tf? - For117
those who had loved him did not cease
to love him. As far as I k n o w , the w o r d s nain p ( t r a n s l a t e d
a b o v e to love him) or t h e i r e q u i v a l e n t o c c u r in no o t h e r v e r
s i o n of the T e s t i m o n i u m .
A s a g a i n s t t h i s , t h r e e p o i n t s of d i v e r g e n c e b e t w e e n the two
S y r i a c v e r s i o n s s h o u l d be m e n t i o n e d : 1 1 8
1. In the s e c o n d s e n t e n c e of the T e s t i m o n i u m , M i c h a e l ' s t e x t
r e a d s M * W T iWö^öl-tf teacher of truth, w h e r e a s E u s e b i u s ' t e x t
r e a d s XTXtih 7h ptapö κ η λ Ί ίΠ pan Ht&ttK M D ^ ö I - a teacher of
men, [i.e.] of those who accept truth with desire. As has b e e n
i n d i c a t e d a b o v e , t h i s d i v e r g e n c e m a y be d u e to the o m i s s i o n by
1 1 6 T h i s w o r d a p p e a r s o n l y in M i c h a e l ' s v e r s i o n ,
1 1 7 T h i s w o r d o c c u r s o n l y i n M i c h a e l ' s v e r s i o n .
1 1 8 O t h e r p o i n t s of d i v e r g e n c e b e t w e e n the t w o v e r s i o n s are t oo s l i g h t a n d
u n i m p o r t a n t to be l i s t e d i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h our e n q u i r y .
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a scribe of a number of words, but since it is paralleled in a
Greek Byzantine version, it may also indicate a différent
tradition.
Even in the latter case, the divergence does not seem to be due
t o a different view of the historical facts or to doctrinal differ-
ences. The two other points of divergence to which we shall
refer are of greater significance.
2 . The fourth sentence of the Testimonium as given by Michael
reads Kin XRHFTFT manOfc- He was thought (or : He seemed) to
be the Messiah. In the Syriac translation of Eusebius' Historia
Ecclesiastica the sentence reads Κ 3Π THIVK γ η WW - For hewas the Messiah. Michael's version mentions that some people
thought that Jesus was the Christ, but does not commit the
author. No pronouncement is made as to the t ruth of this
belief. In Eusebius' version, on the other hand, Jesus' Messiah-
ship is asserted to be a fact.
3 . In Michael's version the last part of the fifth sentence reads:1 1 9 IKrtyr iwma ÖOÖ*? Ö I B ^ D narr - Pilate condemned him to
the cross and he died. Eusebius' version does not have the word
- and he died; it agrees on this point with the Greek vulgate.
Both the statement that Jesus died on the cross and the failure
to make such a statement may quite evidently be due to theo-
logical reasons and have theological implications.
Various hypotheses may be brought forward in order to account
for the existence of the divergences 2 and 3. One may suppose
that the Syriac translation of Eusebius' version of the Testi-
monium as it is known to us has at sometime been brought into
line with the Greek text of Eusebius, having been originally
different, and that Michael's version reflects the original text.
One may mention in this connection A. Merx's view that the
Greek original of the Syriac version was the earliest recension [ofthe Historia Ecclesiastica], afterwards to some extent modified and
119 The reading Ktrmn OOöV is made quite certain by a comparison
wi th the Syriac Historia Ecclesiastica.
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so brought into the form which is now preserved in the Greek
manuscripts} 20 O r o n e m a y s u p p o s e — a n d t h i s m a y , prima
facie, b e a m o r e p l a u s i b l e h y p o t h e s i s — t h a t M i c h a e l ' s v e r s i o n ,
w h i c h m o s t l y a g r e e s w i t h , a n d a p p e a r s t o b e d e r i v e d f r o m , t h e
r e c e n s i o n o f t h e S y r i a c t r a n s l a t i o n o f E u se b i u s ' Historia Eccle
siastica, h a s b e e n c o n t a m i n a t e d b y s o m e o t h e r r e c e n s i o n ,
w h i c h o c c u r r e d i n a n o t h e r s o u r c e .
O n e c a n a l so e n v i s a g e a t h i r d — i n m y o p i n i o n , a v e r y u n
l i k e l y — h y p o t h e s i s , a c c o r d i n g t o w h i c h d i v e r g e n c i e s 2 a n d 3
b e t w e e n M i c h a e l ' s v e r s i o n a n d t h a t o f t h e S y r i a c t r a n s l a t i o n o f
E u s e b i u s ' Historia Ecclesiastica a r e d u e t o t h e f o r m e r t e x t ' sh a v i n g b e e n t a m p e r e d w i t h f o r d o c t r i n a l r e a s o n s , o r i n o r d e r
t o l e n d c o l o u r t o t h e c l a i m t h a t Jo se p h u s i s t h e a u t h o r o f t h e
T e s t i m o n i u m . T o m y m i n d i t i s v e r y i m p r o b a b l e t h a t a S y r i a c
a u t h o r o f t h e p e r i o d e x t e n d i n g f r o m t h e f o u r t h o r t h e b e g i n n i n g
o f the f i f th cen tu ry (when Euseb ius ' Historia Ecclesiastica w a s
t r a n s l a t e d i n t o S y r i a c ) t o t h e t w e l f t h c e n t u r y ( w h e n M i c h a e l
l i v e d ) sh o u l d f o r v a g u e , p r e su m a b l y d o c t r i n a l , r e a so n s h a v ei n s e r te d i n t o t h e T e s t i m o n i u m t h e w o r d r P ö l - and he died.
I t i s pe rh ap s even m or e un l ike ly th a t th i s hy po the t i ca l Sy r i ac
a u t h o r s h o u l d h a v e m o d i f i e d t h e u n c o m p r o m i s i n g a s s e r t i o n o f
J e s u s ' M e s s i a h s h i p f o u n d i n t h e v u l g a t e o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m ,
b e c a u se t h i s a s s e r t i o n m i g h t n o t b e i n k e e p i n g w i t h t h e f a c t t h a t
Jo se p h u s w a s a J e w , a n d m i g h t t h e r e f o r e l e a d t o a d o u b t
c o n c e r n i n g J o s e p h u s ' a u t h o r s h i p o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m . A s f a r a s
w e k n o w , J o s e p h u s ' a u t h o r s h i p o f t h i s d o c u m e n t w a s n o t
q u e s t i o n e d i n t h e S y r i a c m i l i e u d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d ; t h e r e w a s
a c c o r d i n g l y n o r e a s o n t o b u t t r e s s h i s c la i m b y m o d i f y in g t h e
t e x t . A p h i l o l o g i c a l , a n d t h e r e f o r e p e r h a p s a m o r e t e l l i n g ,
a r g u m e n t m a y a l s o b e d r a w n f r o m S t . J e r o m e ' s L a t i n v e r s io n
( see be low, p . 40 ) .
1 2 0 G i v e n i n h i s ' N o t e s o n t h e A r m e n i a n v e r s i o n ' , p u b l i s h e d i n t h e e d i t i o n
o f t h e S y r i a c t r a n s l a t i o n o f E u s e b i u s ' Historia Ecclesiastica b y W r i g h t
a n d M c L e a n , p . x v i i .
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Befo re we go i n t o t h i s , we s h a l l c o m p a r e , in p a r t , M i c h a e l ' s
S y r i a c v e r s i o n of the T e s t i m o n i u m w i t h A g a p i u s ' A r a b i c
r e c e n s i o n . We h a v e r e f e r r e d a b o v e to two po in t s (d ive rgenc ie s
2 and 3) on w h i c h t h e r e s e e m to be signif icant d if ferences
b e t w e e n M i c h a e l ' s t e x t and the S y r i a c t r a n s l a t i o n of E u s e b i u s '
Historia Ecclesiastica. On b o t h t h e s e p o i n t s , the Syr iac t ex t of
w h i c h A g a p i u s ' v e r s i o n i s a t r a n s l a t i o n a p p e a r s ( t h o u g h p e r h a p s
n o t at the first glance) to h a v e b e e n s i m i l a r t o , or i d e n t i c a l w i t h ,
M i c h a e l ' s t e x t . 1 2 1
1 . M i c h a e l ' s t e x t r e a d s Κ ΊΠ ΊΓ Ρ Κ MTOftn manoö - He was thought
to be the Messiah; t h e r e is a n o t h e r p o s s i b l e t r a n s l a t i o n : Itseemed that he was the Messiah, for m a n O B may m e a n it
seemed.122
A g a p i u s ' t e x t r e a d s fa-la*alla huwa al-maslh - Accordingly123
he was perhaps the Messiah.12* The m e a n i n g of t h i s s e n t e n c e
a p p r o x i m a t e s c l o s e l y to t h a t of the Syr iac sen tence if the sec
o n d r e n d e r i n g is a d o p t e d .
T h e r e is, in my o p i n i o n , a d i s t i n c t p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t w h o e v e rt r a n s l a t e d the T e s t i m o n i u m f r o m the S y r i a c i n t o A r a b i c , be it
A g a p i u s h i m s e l f or s o m e b o d y e l s e , f o u n d in the Syr iac t ex t a
p h r a s e i d e n t i c a l w i t h , or v e r y c l o se to, M i c h a e l ' s p h r a s e q u o t e d
a b o v e , and t h a t he r e n d e r e d ananoö by Id alia - perhaps.
2. M i c h a e l ' s t e x t r e a d s : rpöl Κ !Ρ ^2Π w n a DOö1
? OTöV* narr -
Pilate condemned him to the cross and he died.
A g a p i u s ' p a r a l l e l s e n t e n c e r e a d s : c ^ i lj ^ i s J U ^ o\fj -
Pilate condemned him to be crucified and to die.
121 It is s i m i l a r b o t h to M i c h a e l ' s v e r s i o n and to t h a t of the S y r i a c t r a n s
l a t i o n of E u s e b i u s ' Historia Ecclesiastica in h a v i n g in the t h i r d s e n t e n c e
o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m from . . . the other nations as c o m p a r e d w i t h τ ο ν
Ε λ λ η ν ικ ο ύ of the v u l g a t e r e c e n s i o n .
1 2 2 Se e R. P a y n e - S m i t h , Thesaurus Syriacus, s.v.
1 2 3 Or: and.
1 2 4 T h e r e f e re n c e to J e s u s ' M e s s i a h s h i p is p l a c e d in A g a p i u s ' v e r s io n at the
e n d o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m , w h e r e a s it o c c u r s in all th e o t h e r v e r s i o n s , in
c l u d i n g M i c h a e l ' s , in the m i d d l e of the t e x t ; o n t h i s p o i n t , see b e l o w ,
n . 145.
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T h u s , b o t h S y r i a c and A r a b i c r e c e n s i o n s c o n t a i n , c o n t r a r y to
o t h e r v e r s i o n s , 1 2 5an expl ic i t r e ference to J e s u s ' d e a t h . The
d i f f e r ence be tween them may be due to a m i s t r a n s l a t i o n of the
Syr iac tex t re f lec ted in A g a p i u s ' p h r a s e .
T h e r e can be no c e r t a i n t y , but the fo l lowing con jec tu re seems
t o be r a t h e r p r o b a b l e and to i n v o l v e o n l y a m i n i m a l a l t e r a t i o n
o f the t e x t . We may s u p p o s e t h a t the A r a b i c t r a n s l a t o r r e a d ,
p r e s u m a b l y b e c a u s e of a sc r i b a l e r r o r , awna Dorf? Olö^ö nam
m »1 Kir^m ( i n s t e a d of jyö); t h i s c o u l d be r e n d e r e d Pilate
condemned him to be crucified and to die,126 w h i c h is the se n t e n c e
f o u n d in A g a p i u s .T h i s r e c o n s t i t u t i o n is b a s e d on M i c h a e l ' s t e x t , as the s t a t e m e n t
i n A g a p i u s ' v e r s i o n , a c c o r d i n g to w h i c h J e su s was c o n d e m n e d
b o t h to be crucif ied and to die, s e e m s not on ly to run c o u n t e r
t o a l l t h e t r a d i t i o n a l f o r m u l a t i o n s of t h e se n te n c e p r o n o u n c e d by
P i l a t e , but a l s o to be r e d u n d a n t .
M i c h a e l ' s t e x t , on the o t h e r h a n d , m e n t i o n s a c i r c u m s t a n c e t h a t
i s e ssen t i a l to t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e s t o r y , but is on ly a l ludedt o b y i m p l i c a t i o n in the G r e e k v u l g a t e , for έ φ ά ν η γ α ρ α ν τ ο ϊ ς ...
π ά λ ι ν ζ ώ ν - . . . he appeared to them restored to life c e r t a i n l y
i m p l i e s t h a t J e s u s had d i e d ; but, as far as I k n o w , A g a p i u s '
r e c e n s i o n is the o n l y one in w h i c h the fac t is s t a t e d ex
p l i c i t l y . 1 2 7
I r e p e a t t h a t t h i s r e c o n s t r u c t i o n is by no m e a n s c e r t a i n , n e v e r -
1 2 5 E x c e p t the r e c e n s i o n of the s o - c a l le d E g e s i p p u s ' L a t i n v e r s i o n , w h i c h ,
h o w e v e r , r e f e r s to it in a s e n t e n c e t h a t o c c u r s in the T e s t i m o n i u m
af te r the on e w i t h w h i c h w e are d e a l i n g .
1 2 6 T h e f a c t t h a t the f o r m mö is of r a r e o c c u r r e n c e (the u s u a l f o r m b e i n g
Ν mfc) w o u l d n o t , of c o u r s e , be a r e a s o n for a t r a n s l a t o r , who t h o u g h t
t h a t he e n c o u n t e r e d it in a t e x t , to f o r g o r e n d e r i n g it in A r a b i c .
1 2 7 T h e r e is a r e f e r e n c e to it ( w h i c h d o e s n o t a m o u n t to a d i r e c t s t a t e m e n t )
i n the s o - c a l l e d E g e s i p p u s ' L a t i n v e r s i o n (see a b o v e , n. 125, and
b e l o w , n. 156). An e x p l i c i t s t a t e m e n t t h a t J e s u s d i e d may h a v e b e e n
i n c l u d e d in the o r i g i n a l T e s t i m o n i u m ( w h a t e v e r th e l a tt e r 's o r i g i n and
e x a c t w o r d i n g may h a v e b e e n ) , for w i t h o u t it the r e f e r e n c e to his
a p p e a r i n g r e s t o r e d to l i fe is so a b r u p t as to be a l m o s t u n i n t e l l i g i b l e .
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t h e l e s s i t s e e m s w o r t h w h i l e t r a n s l a t i n g A g a p i u s ' r e c e n s io n
m o d i f i e d i n t h e l i g h t o f M i c h a e l ' s v e r s i o n : 1 2 8 Similarly Josephus
the Hebrew. For he says in the treatises that he has written on
the governance of the Jews: At this time there w as a man who
was called Jesus. His conduct was good, and he was known to be
virtuous.129
And many people from among the Jews and the other
nations becam e his disciples. Pilate condemned him to be crucified,
and he died.130
And those who had become his disciples did not
abandon his discipleship. They reported that he had appeared to
them three days after his crucifixion and that he was alive.
Accordingly he was thought131
to be the M essiah, concerningwhom the prophets have related wonders.
D e s p i t e t h e n o t e w o r t h y p o i n t s o f r e s e m b l a n c e b e t w e e n M i c h a e l ' s
S y r i a c v e r s i o n o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m a n d A g a p i u s ' A r a b i c
r e c e n s i o n , t h e t w o c a n n o t b e r e g a r d e d a s b e i n g t w o s p e c i m e n s
o f the same r ecens ion . No t a l l o f the d i f f e r ences be tween the
t w o c a n b e r e g a r d e d a s s c r i b a l e r r o r s o r m i n o r v a r i a t i o n s ,
h a b i t u a l l y p r o d u c e d b y t r a n s p o s i t i o n fr o m o n e l a n g u a g e t o
ano the r o r by o the r causes ; some o f these d i f f e r ences a r e ve ry
s ign i f ican t indeed . I sha l l no te four d ivergencies o f vary ing
d e g r e e s o f i m p o r t a n c e .
1. I n t h e fi rs t s e n t e n c e o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m , A g a p i u s o m i t s
t h e w o r d s f o u n d i n M i c h a e l ' s v e r s i o n i n t h e G r e e k v u l g a t e a n d
i n o t h e r r e c e n s i o n s if it is fitting to call him a man. T h i s m a y b e
an omiss ion due to sc r iba l neg l igence , bu t th i s i s by no means
c e r t a i n . Pace E i s l e r , 1 3 2 t h e w o r d s i n q u e s t i o n c e r t a i n l y s u g g e s t
1 2 8 P e r h a p s i t w o u l d b e m o r e a c c u r a t e t o s a y t h a t t h i s r e n d e r i n g a i m s a t
r e c o n s t r u c t i n g s o m e p a s s a g e s o f t h e S y r i a c t e x t t r a n s l a t e d b y A g a p i u s
i n t o A r a b i c . S e e a l s o t h e n o t e s t o o u r f ir st t r a n s l a t i o n o f A g a p i u s ' t e x t .
1 2 9 O r : His conduct was good and his learning was outstanding.
1 3 0 T h e t r a n s l a t i o n h a s b e e n m o d i f i e d i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h M i c h a e l ' s v e r s i o n .
1 3 1 O r : / / seemed that he was the Messiah. T h e t r a n s l a t i o n c o n f o r m s t o
M i c h a e l ' s v e r s i o n , w h i c h m a y h a v e b e e n i n a g r e e m e n t o n t h i s p o i n t
w i t h A g a p i u s ' S y r i a c s o u r c e .
1 3 2 Op. cit., pp. 55 f f .
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that the author of the phrase tended to believe that Jesus
transcended ordinary humanity, whereas the author of Agapius'
recension gives no indication in any passage of the Testimonium
that he personally was inclined to favour such a view.
2 . In the second sentence there is the following difference:
Agapius' Text
And his conduct was good and
he was known to be virtuous.
Or, according to al-Makin's
quotat ion:And his conduct was good and
his learning was outstanding.
Michael's Version
For he was a worker of
glorious deeds and a teacher of
truth
which may b e1 3 3
a somewhatabridged version of that of
the Syriac text of Eusebius.
The words and his conduct was good - wa-kanat lahu slra hasana
might be interpreted — though perhaps not very convincing
ly — as not being essentially very different from the Syriac
words arrntP*nnsn KTWO Τ Α Kin vnrPK, which may be translated
not as above, but for he was a worker of fine deeds.134
Indeed,
it might be argued (though the contention does not seem to be
very probable) that the Arabic words in question are a free
paraphrase of the Syriac text. There can, however, be no doubt
that whereas the words Κ Γ Ή ΐΡ *Π 35Π Κ Ί1570, like the paral
l e l Greek1 3 5
π α ρ α δ ό ξ ω ν136
έ ρ γ ω ν π ο ι η τ ή ς , possibly refer to
133 This is not certain.
134 T h e rendering of the phrase in the Syriac version of the Testimonium
occuring in the Theophania is — in contradistinction to the versions o f
the Syriac translation o f Historia Ecclesiastica and o f Michael — quite
u n e q u i v o c a l . It has Nmiö^m n n S T K H T D » Τ Ι Κ 1Π - for he was a
doer of marvellous deeds.
135 T he Syriac words do not render with any accuracy the connotation
of the Greek text.
136 Cf. H . G . Liddell & R. Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, Oxford 1961,
s.v.; Eisler, pp. 61 if. In Luke v:2 , π α ρ ά δ ο ξ α appears to denote a mir-
a c l e . It is an interesting fact that Celsus, quoted by Origen (Contra
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e x t r a o r d i n a r y d e e d s p e r f o r m e d b y J e s u s , t h e A r a b i c w o r d s
q u o t e d a b o v e c a n n o t h a v e t h i s m e a n i n g . T h e y d o n o t i n a n y
w a y c o n n o t e m a r v e l l o u s o r e v e n u n u s u a l c o n d u c t o r d e e d s .
T h e l a s t w o r d s i n A g a p i u s ' v e r s i o n o f t h e s e c o n d s e n t e n c e h a v e
even g rea te r s ign i f i cance i f t hey a r e compared wi th the pa ra l l e l
w o r d s i n M i c h a e l ' s v e r s i o n .
M i c h a e l ' s t e x t r e a d s : and he was... a teacher of truth - Kiö^öl
Κ Ί Ί ΐΐΠ . I n o t h e r w o r d s , t h e a u t h o r o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m r e c
ogn ized , acco rd ing to th i s r ecens ion , the t each ing o f Je sus a s
t h e t r u t h . 1 3 7 A s a g a i n s t t h i s , t h e p a r a l l e l w o r d s i n A g a p i u s '
v e r s i o n d o n o t i m p l y i n a n y w a y a n a c c e p t a n c e o f t h e C h r i s t i a np o s i t i o n — i n d e e d , t h e r e i s n o p a s s a g e i n t h i s v e r s i o n t h a t
e x p r e s s e s a s e n t i m e n t o f s o l i d a r i t y o n t h e p a r t o f t h e a u t h o r
w i t h t h e C h r i s t i a n p o i n t o f v i e w . T h e w o r d s i n q u e s t i o n m e r e l y
a d d a n o t h e r p a r t i c u l a r t o t h e l o w - k e y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f J e s u s '
p r a i s e w o r t h y q u a l i t i e s , t h e f irst p a r t o f w h i c h w e h a v e a l r e a d y
d i s c u s s e d : and he was known to be virtuous - wa-ulima annahu
fädil. 138
3 . C o n t r a r y t o M i c h a e l ' s v e r s i o n a n d t o m o s t , o r a l l , o t h e r s ,
A g a p i u s ' r e c e n s i o n d o e s n o t r e f e r i n i t s f o u r t h s e n t e n c e ( o r
a n y w h e r e e l s e ) t o t h e p a r t p l a y e d b y t h e p r i n c i p a l m e n a m o n g
t h e J e w s i n P i l a t e ' s c o n d e m n a t i o n o f J e su s . T h i s i s p e r h a p s a n
omiss ion due to sc r iba l neg l igence , bu t i t m igh t a l so be a t r a i t
t h a t c h a r a c t e r i z e d t h i s r e c e n s i o n f r o m t h e b e g i n n i n g .
Celsum, I , 6 : 1 7 - 1 8 ) , a s s e r t s t h a t J e s u s was able to work by magic the
π α ρ ά δ ο ξ α that he seemed to perform - ώ ς γ ο η τ ε ία δ υ ν η θ έ ν τ ο ς ä ε δ ο ξ ε
π α ρ ά δ ο ξ α π ε π ο ι η κ έ ν α ι. T h e e x p r e s s i o n π α ρ ά δ ο ξ α π ε π ο ι η κ έ ν α ι a p p l i e d
t o J e s u s i s r e m i n i s c e n t o f t h e w o r d s π α ρ α δ ό ξ ω ν έ ρ γ ω ν π ο ι η τ ή ς i n t h e
v u l g a t e r e c e n s i o n o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m .
1 3 7 T h i s i s a l s o p r e s u p p o s e d i n t h e S y r i a c v e r s i o n o f t h e Historia Eccle
siastica, w h i c h r e a d s he was . . . a teacher of men who accept truth with
desire, a s w e l l a s i n t h e G r e e k v u l g a t e r e c e n s i o n δ ιδ ά σ κ α λ ο ς α ν θ ρ ώ π ω ν
τ ω ν ή δ ο ν η τ ά λ η θ ή δ ε χ ό μ ε ν ω ν .
1 3 8 O r , a s i n a l - M a k î n s ' v a r i a n t , his learning wa s outstanding - wa-'ilm
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4 . T h e f i f t h s e n t e n c e o f A g a p i u s ' r e c e n s i o n o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m
r e a d s : They [the disciples] reported that he appeared to them
three days after the crucifixion .- dhakam annahu zahara lahum
ba'da thaläthat ayyam m in çalbihi.
T h u s , i n c o n t r a d i s t i n c t i o n t o M i c h a e l ' s v e r s i o n a n d t o a l l
o t h e r s , 1 3 9 Jesus ' appea rance a f t e r the c ruc i f ix ion i s r e f e r r ed to
i n A g a p i u s ' r e c e n s i o n a s a m a t t e r o f r e p o r t a n d n o t a s a n
i n d u b i t a b l e f a c t . I n t h i s c a se , t o o , t h e a u t h o r o f t h i s r e c e n s i o n
d o e s n o t c o m m i t h i m se l f a n d s t a t e h i s o w n o p i n i o n a s t o t h e
t r u t h o f t h e m a t t e r .
A n o t h e r m u c h l e s s s i g n i f i c a n t d e t a i l p e r t a i n i n g t o t h i s s e n t e n c esh o u l d a l so b e m e n t i o n e d . I n r e f e r r i n g t o t h e d a t e o f J e su s '
a p p e a r a n c e t o h i s d i s c i p l e s , M i c h a e l a n d t h e S y r i a c r e c e n s i o n o f
Historia Ecclesiastica e m p l o y t h e w o r d s after three days} 40
A g a p i u s ' t e x t r e a d s : three days after his crucifixion. T h i s w o r d i n g
i s m u c h c l e a r e r , a n d t h e d i v e r g e n c y m a y h a v e r e su l t e d f r o m a n
a t t e m p t b y w h o e v e r t r a n s l a t e d t h e s e n t e n c e f r o m t h e S y r i a c i n t o
A r a b i c t o a v o i d v a g u e n e s s . H o w e v e r , t h i s i s n o t c e r t a i n , a n di t m a y b e r e l e v a n t t o o b se r v e t h a t E g e s i p p u s u se s a so m e w h a t
s i m i l a r p h r a se ( s e e b e l o w , n . 1 5 6 ) .
5 . I t h a s b e e n su g g e s t e d a b o v e t h a t t h e l a s t s e n t e n c e o f A g a p i u s '
r ecens ion has a po in t o f s imi la r i ty wi th the pa ra l l e l sen tence in
M i c h a e l ' s v e r s i o n , a n d t h a t i t s t r a n s l a t i o n sh o u l d b e m o d i f i e d
i n o n e p a r t i c u l a r b e c a u se o f t h e p o i n t e r p r o v i d e d b y t h e l a t t e r
v e r s i o n a s t o t h e o r i g i n a l S y r i a c t e x t o f A g a p i u s ' A r a b i c s e n t e n c e .
N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e d i v e r g e n c y b e t w e e n t h i s s e n t e n c e a n d t h e o n e
1 3 9 E x c e p t s o m e o f t h o s e t h a t h a v e b e e n p r o p o s e d b y m o d e r n s c h o l a r s ,
w h o h a v e a l t e r e d t h e t e x t o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i r o w n
i d e a o f w h a t w a s p r o b a b l e . M ü l l e r , f o r i n s t a n c e , r e m a r k s : Die logische
Disposition macht es wahrscheinlich, dass Josephus schrieb: sie blieben
ihm treu, denn sie gaben vor, Jesus sei ihnen am dritten Tag aufs neue
lebend erschienen, wie die Propheten es vorhergesagt', s e e G . Α . M ü l l e r ,
Christus bei Josephus Flavius, I n n s b r u c k 1 8 9 5 , p . 1 4 2 ( q u o t e d b y E i s l e r ,
p . 7 8 ) .
1 4 0 T h e G r e e k v u l g a t e v e r s i o n r e a d s τ ρ ίτ η ν ε χ ω ν ή μ έ ρ α ν .
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t h a t c o r r e s p o n d s t o i t i n M i c h a e l ' s S y r ia c v e r s i o n 1 4 1 is of
c o n s i d e r a b l e i n t e r e s t .
A g a p i u s ' s e n t e n c e r e a d s : accordingly 142 he was perhaps [ o r :
he was thought to be 1* 3] the M essiah, concerning whom the
prophets have recounted wonders - fa-la allahu al-masïh alïàdhï
qalat eanhu al-anbiya' al-ajaib. T h i s o n e s e n t e n c e a t t h e
e n d o f A g a p i u s ' r e c e n s i o n c o r r e s p o n d s t o t w o s e n t e n c e s , o n e
i n t h e m i d d l e a n d o n e n e a r t h e e n d , i n M i c h a e l ' s a n d o t h e r
r e c e n s i o n s ( t h a t o f t h e S y r i a c t r a n s l a t i o n o f E u s e b i u s ' Historia
Ecclesiastica, t h e G r e e k v u l g a t e , a n d s o o n ) .
T h e s e t w o s e n t e n c e s a r e :1. He was thought to be the M essiah ( the fou r th sen tence in
M i c h a e l ' s a n d S t . J e r o m e ' s v e r s i o n s ) ; o r : He was the M essiah
( t h e f o u r t h s e n t e n c e i n o t h e r v e r s i o n s ) .
2 . For the prophets of God had spoken with regard to him of
such marvellous things [as these] ( n i n t h s e n t e n c e i n M i c h a e l ' s
v e r s i o n ) ; o r : For the prophets of God had prophesied these and
myriads of other marvellous [things] about him ( seven th sen tencei n t h e G r e e k v u l g a t e a n d o t h e r r e c e n s i o n s ) .
T h i s o n e - t o - t w o c o r r e s p o n d e n c e o b v i o u s l y c al ls f o r a n e x p l a n a
t i o n . A s f a r a s I c a n s e e , t w o a l t e r n a t i v e so l u t i o n s m a y b e
e n v i s a g e d :
a . T h e l a s t s e n t e n c e i n A g a p i u s ' r e c e n s i o n i s t h e r e su l t o f t h e
a m a l g a m a t i o n a t s o m e p e r i o d o f t h e t w o s e n t e n c e s q u o t e d
a b o v e , w h i c h c o r r e s p o n d t o i t .
b . T h e s e n t e n c e i n A g a p i u s ' r e c e n s i o n ( o r a s e n t e n c e t h a t i n
essen t i a l s was s imi la r to i t ) was pa r t o f the o r ig ina l , o r a t l ea s t
1 4 1 T h e s e n t e n c e i n q u e s t i o n i n M i c h a e l ' s v e r s i o n h a s t h e w o r d manOD,
r e n d e r e d a b o v e a s [he was] thought. W i t h r e g a r d t o o t h e r p a r t ic u l a r s ,
w h i c h w i l l n o w b e d i s c u s s e d , i t i s c l o s e t o , t h o u g h n o t q u i t e i d e n t i c a l
w i t h , t h e S y r i a c te x t o f E u s e b i u s ' Historia Ecclesiastica, t h e G r e e k
v u l g a t e a n d o t h e r r e c e n s i o n s .
1 4 2 O r : And.
1 4 3 A s st a t e d a b o v e ( p . 3 1 ) , t h i s c h a n g e i n t h e t r a n s l a ti o n , w h i c h p r o b a b l y
w o u l d h a v e b e e n v a l i d a t e d b y t h e l o s t S y r i a c te x t o f t h i s r e c e n s i o n ,
h a s b e e n m a d e i n t h e l i g h t o f M i c h a e l ' s v e r s i o n .
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o f a n e a r l y , t e x t o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m , 1 4 4 t ha t i s , a t ex t tha t
a n t e d a t e d t h e G r e e k v u l g a t e r e c e n s i o n . E i t h e r d e l i b e r a t e l y o r b y
so m e a c c i d e n t t h e s e n t e n c e w a s d i sm e m b e r e d , a n d o n e o f i t s
p a r t s s h i f t e d t o w a r d s t h e m i d d l e o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m .
O n p u r e l y t e x t u a l g r o u n d s , t h e s e c o n d e x p l a n a t i o n s e e m s t o b e
t h e m o r e p r o b a b l e o n e . T h e r e i s n o d i f f i c u l t y i n i m a g i n i n g a
w a y i n w h i c h A g a p i u s ' s e n t e n c e s c o u l d h a v e b e e n d i v i d e d i n t o
t w o p h r a s e s , o n e o f w h i c h w a s d is p l a c e d . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e
f i r s t e x p l a n a t i o n su p p o se s t h a t t w o w h o l l y s e p a r a t e s e n t e n c e s
o c c u r r i n g i n d i f f é r e n t p a r t s o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m w e r e sm o o t h l y
a n d m e a n i n g f u l l y a m a l g a m a t e d s o a s t o p r o d u c e t h e l u c i d a n ds y n t a c t i c a l l y u n e x c e p t i o n a b l e s e n t e n c e t h a t c o n c l u d e s A g a p i u s '
recension . I f ind i t very d i f f icu l t to conce ive tha t th is was what
h a p p e n e d . 1 4 5 However , no f ina l answer can be g iven .
1 4 4 T h e q u e s t i o n w h e t h e r J o s e p h u s w a s t h e a u t h o r o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m
i s n o t i n v o l v e d . A n o r i g i n a l t e x t o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m m a y b e s u p p o s e d
t o h a v e e x i s t e d , e v e n i f w e a r e d e a l i n g w i t h a l i t e r a ry f o r g e r y .1 4 5 A n o t h e r l i n e o f r e a s o n i n g , su g g e s t e d b y D . F l u s s e r , w h i c h a p p e a r s
t o l e a d l i k e w i s e t o t h e s e c o n d c o n c l u s i o n o u t l i n e d a b o v e , i s p r e d i c a t e d
u p o n t h e a s s u m p t i o n th a t A g a p i u s ' r e c e n s i o n o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m o r i g
i n a l l y h a d a l a s t s e n t e n c e c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h a t o f m o s t o t h e r v e r s i o n s .
A s w e k n o w , t h e s e n t e n c e i n q u e s t i o n i n M i c h a e l ' s v u l g a t e t e x t m a y b e
r e n d e r e d : And the people of the Christians, named after him, has n ot
disappea red till [this] day. T h i s a s s u m p t i o n s e e m s t o m e t o b e v e r y
p r o b a b l e . T h e s u p p o s i t i o n t h a t t h i s s e n t e n c e w a s , b y a c c i d e n t o r f o r
s o m e u n k n o w n r e a s o n , o m i t t e d i n A g a p i u s ' r e c e n s i o n p r e s e n t s n o
d i f f i c u l t i e s . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , i f t h e l a c k o f t h i s s e n t e n c e i n A g a p i u s '
r e c e n s i o n i s r e g a r d e d a s g o i n g b a c k t o t h e o r i g i n a l t e x t o f t h e T e s t i
m o n i u m , t h i s m e a n s t h a t a t l e a s t i n t h i s p a r t i c u l a r c a s e t h i s r e c e n s i o n
i s c o n s i d e r e d a s h a v i n g p r e s e r v e d t h e o r i g i n a l t e x t , f r e e f r o m a l a t e r
i n t e r p o l a t i o n . O n t h i s h y p o t h e s i s t h e s e n t e n c e i n q u e s t i o n m u s t b e r e
g a r d e d a s h a v i n g b e e n a d d e d d e l i b e r a t e l y , i n o r d e r t o l e n d a n a i r o f
a u t h e n t i c i t y t o t h e T e s t i m o n i u m .
L e t u s a s s u m e t h a t t h e s e n t e n c e i n q u e s t i o n b e l o n g s t o t h e o r i g i n a l
t e x t , a n d a d d i t a t t h e e n d o f A g a p i u s ' r e c e n s i o n . I n t h a t c a s e t h e l a s t
t w o s e n t e n c e s o f t h i s r e c e n s i o n w o u l d r e a d : Accordingly he was perhaps
[ o r : he was thought to be] the Messiah [χ ρ ι σ τ ό ς ], con cern in g w ho m th e
prophets have related won ders. And the people of the Christians, named
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I n c i d e n t a l l y , i t m a y b e n o t e d t h a t t h e l a s t s e n t e n c e i n A g a p i u s '
r e c e n s i o n r e f e r s t o t h e p r o p h e t s s p e a k i n g a b o u t t h e M e s s i a h .
I t d o e s n o t e x p l i c i t l y a s s e r t t h a t t h e y s p o k e a b o u t J e s u s , b u t
m e r e l y s t a t e s i n t h i s c o n t e x t t h a t J e s u s w a s perhaps (o r a s we
c o n j e c t u r e d : was thought to be) t h e M e s s i a h . T h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g
s e n t e n c e i n t h e o t h e r r e c e n s i o n s c o n t a i n s t h e u n e q u i v o c a l
s t a t e m e n t t h a t t h e p r o p h e t s p r o p h e s i e d a b o u t J e s u s .
T h e v a r i o u s p o i n t s w i t h w h i c h w e h a v e b e e n d e a l i n g — i . e . t h e
p o i n t s o f d i f f e r e n c e a n d o f r e s e m b l a n c e b e t w e e n A g a p i u s '
r e c e n s i o n a n d t h a t o f M i c h a e l , a n d n o t a b l y t h e f a c t t h a t t h e
f o r m e r t a k e s u p a n o n - c o m m i t t a l p o s i t i o n b o t h w i t h r e g a r d t oJ e s u s ' M e s s i a h s h i p a n d t o h i s h a v i n g a p p e a r e d a f t e r t h e c r u c i
f ix ion to h i s d i sc ip le s , w here as th e l a t t e r t ak es up suc h a po s i t ion
o n l y w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e f i r s t o f t h e s e p o i n t s — s e e m 1 4 6 to f i t in
w i t h o n e o f t h e h y p o t h e s e s m e n t i o n e d a b o v e , n a m e l y , t h a t
wh ich pos tu la te s the ex i s t ence in Sy r iac o f a t l ea s t th r ee ve ry
d if fe re n t r e c e n s i o n s o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m :
1 . T h e S y r i a c r e c e n s i o n o f E u s e b i u s ' Theophania, w h i c h d o e s
n o t s e e m t o h a v e a d i r e c t r e l a t i o n t o t h e o t h e r S y r i a c v e r s i o n s
u n d e r d i s c u s s i o n .
2 . T h e S y r i ac t r a n s l a t i o n o f E u s e b i u s ' Historia Ecclesiastica,
w hic h , in sp i t e o f i t s d ive rgence f ro m th e ve r s ion o f t he
Theophania, r e p r e s e n t s , b y a n d l a r g e , l i k e t h e l a t t e r , t h e G r e e k
v u l g a t e r e c e n s i o n .
3 . T h e S y r i a c o r i g i n a l o f t h e v e r s i o n o f A g a p i u s .
after him, has not disappeared till [this] day. I n t h i s r e c o n s t r u c t e d
t e x t , t h e e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e n a m e o f t h e C h r i s t ia n s f o l l o w s i m m e d i a t e l y
u p o n t h e r e f e r e n c e t o C h r i s t . I n t h e o t h e r r e c e n s i o n s t h e y a r e s e p a r a t e d
b y s e v e r a l s e n t e n c e s , a s t h e t e r m χ ρ ι σ τ ό ς i s m e n t i o n e d in t h e m i d d l e
o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m . T h i s , o f c o u r s e , i s a n a r g u m e n t i n f a v o u r o f t h e
r e c o n s t r u c t e d t e x t . I n c o n s e q u e n c e , i t s t r e n g t h e n s t h e c a s e f o r w h a t
w a s c a l l e d a b o v e t h e s e c o n d e x p l a n a t i o n .
1 4 6 E s p e c i a l l y i f o n e t a k e s i n t o a c c o u n t t h e c l o s e r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n M i c h a e l ' s
r e c e n s i o n a n d t h a t o f t h e S y r i a c t r a n s l a t i o n o f E u s e b i u s ' Historia
Ecclesiastica.
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A c c o r d i n g t o t h i s h y p o t h e s i s M i c h a e l ' s v e r s i o n i s t h e r e s u l t o f
a c o n t a m i n a t i o n o f t h e f o r m e r b y t h e l a t t e r .
A s f a r a s I ca n see , th i s hy po th es i s has f ewer ob v io us flaws
t h a n a n y o f t h e o t h e r s c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e s a m e f a c ts . H o w e v e r ,
i t m a y p e r h a p s b e q u e s t i o n e d i n t h e l i g h t o f S t . J e r o m e ' s L a t i n
v e r s i o n o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m . T h i s v e r s i o n , w h i c h o c c u r s i n
De Viris Illustribus, X I I I , 1 4 7 r e a d s a s f o l l o w s : Scripsit148
autem
de domino in hunc modum : 'Eodem tempore fuit Jesus vir sapiens,
si tarnen virum oportet eum dicere. Erat enim mirabilium patrator
operum et doctor eorum qui libenter vera suscipiunt. Plurimos
quoque tarnen de Judaeis quam de gentibus sui habuit sectatoreset credebatur esse Christus. Cum que invidia nostrorum principum
cruci eum Pilatus addixisset, nihilominus qui eum primum di-
lexerant, perseveraverunt in fide.149
Apparuit enim eis tertia die
vivens, haec et mu lta alia mirab ilia carm inibus prophetarum de eo
vaticinantibus. Et usque hodie Christianorum gens ab hoc sortita
vocabulum non deficit.
O n s o m e p o i n t s t h i s v e r s i o n c o m e s c l o s e r t o M i c h a e l ' s r e c e n s i o n ,
a n d t o a l e s s e r d e g r e e t o t w o o t h e r E a s t e r n r e c e n s i o n s w e h a v e
b e e n d i s c u s s i n g — n a m e l y , t h a t o f t h e S y r i a c t r a n s l a t i o n o f
E u s e b i u s ' Historia Ecclesiastica a n d t h a t o f A g a p i u s — t h a n t o
t h e G r e e k r e c e n s i o n . T h e p o i n t s o f s i m i l a r i t y a r e :
1 . In the th i rd sen tence o f h i s r ecens ion S t . Je rome has de genti
bus, w h e r e a s t h e G r e e k v u l g a t e r e c e n s i o n h a s τ ο ν *Ε λ λ η ν ικ ο ν .
T h e S y r ia c t r a n s l a t i o n o f E u s e b i u s ' Historia Ecclesiastica,
1 4 7 T h e e f f ic i en c y o f t h e C h r i s t i a n c e n s o r s h i p , w h i c h a l m o s t s u c c e e d e d i n
g e t t i n g r i d o f a l l t h e v e r s i o n s o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m t h a t d i f f e r e d i n a
s i g n i f i c a n t m a n n e r f r o m t h e v u l g a t e r e c e n s i o n , i s i l l u s t r a t e d b y t h e f a c t
t h a t t h e G r e e k t r a n s l a t i o n o f De Viris Illustrious c o n t a i n s t h i s v u l g a t e
r e c e n s i o n ; n o n e o f t h e t r a it s i n w h i c h S t . J e r o m e d i v e r g e s f r o m i t h a v e
b e e n r e t a i n e d ; s e e O . v o n G e b h a r d t , ' H i e r o n y m u s — D e V i r i s I n l u s tr i -
b u s i n g r i e c h i s c h e r Ü b e r s e t z u n g ' , Texte und Untersuchungen, X I V ,
L e i p z i g 1 8 9 6 .
1 4 8 J o s e p h u s .
1 4 9 In fide i s n o t f o u n d i n a l l t h e M S S .
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Michael and Agapius use expressions that mean from the
nations, or from the other nations, i.e. correspond to de
gentibus.150
But this resemblance may possibly be due to the
awkwardness of a literal translation of το ν Ε λ λ η ν ικ ο ύ into
Syriac or into Lat in.1 5 1
However, the recension of the Syriac
Theophania shows that ano the r trans lati on was possible, namely,
Κ 03Π ]» - from the pagans. In the period with which we are
dealing, "Ε λ λ η ν ε ς , Έ λ λ η ν ικ ό ν and so on usually denoted
pagans.
2 . In the same sentence St. Jerome has sui habuit sectatores,
which corresponds to the vulgate Greek ε π η γ ά γ ε τ ο . Themeaning of the two expressions does not differ appreciably,
and St. Jerome may have merely given a free rendering of the
Greek verb. However, his wording gains a certain significance
in view of the fact that the parallel expression in the Syriac
translation of Eusebius' Historia Ecclesiastica is almost equiv
alent to the one he uses: Kin 7Qbr\-he turned into his disciples.
Michael apparently has the passive form vrrf?n - became his
disciples', tatalmadha lahu, used by Agapius, has the same
meaning. The Syriac Theophania has WD. In contradistinction
to the other translation quoted here, this seems to be an
attempt (albeit a not very successfully one) accurately to render
the Greek ε π η γ ά γ ε τ ο .
3 . Likewise, in the third sentence of his recension St. Jerome
has credebatur esse Christus, whereas the Greek vulgate
recension has δ χ ρ ισ τ ό ς ο ν τ ο ς ή ν . Credebatur corresponds to
inanöö in Michael's text; as we have seen, let alia in Agapius is
in all probability a not very felicitous translation of the some-
what ambiguous Syriac word.
150 The text of the so-called Egesipp us (Π , 12) reads gentilium plurimi.
151 To quote but one example, St. Jerome, in De Viris Illustribus, X X I X ,
translates the title of Tatian's work π ρ ο ς "Ε λ λ η ν α ς (usually known as
Oratio ad Graecos) as Contra Gentes.
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4 . In the l a s t sen tence o f h i s r ecens ion S t . Je rome has usque
hodie, w h e r e a s t h e G r e e k v u l g a t e r e c e n s i o n h a s ε ι ς ε τ ι τ ε
vvv.152 T h e S y r ia c t r a n s l a t i o n o f E u s e b i u s ' Historia Ecclesiastica
a n d M i c h a e l 1 5 3 have / / / / our day o r till this day, w h i c h c o r r e
s p o n d s t o usque hodie. Both in La t in and in Sy r iac i t i s poss ib le
t o t r a n s l a t e t h e G r e e k e x p r e s s i o n w i t h o u t re f e rr in g t o this day
o r t o our day. A s fa r a s Sy r iac i s con ce rn ed , th i s m ay be
i l lu s t r a t ed by th e r ende r ing o f th i s sen tence in th e Theophania.
O f thes e fou r p o i n t s on ly the th i r d i s in t r in s ica l ly s ign i fi can t. Bu t
t h e t h r e e t a k e n i n c o n j u n c t i o n t e n d t o s u g g e s t t h a t M i c h a e l ' s
r ecens ion , a t t e s t ed in the twe l f th cen tu ry , fo rms a so r t o fc o u n t e r p a r t t o w h a t h a s b e e n d e s c r i b e d a s S t . J e r o m e ' s ' s c e p
t i c a l ' 1 5 4 v e r s i o n .
A s S t . J e r o m e ' s L a t i n v e r s i o n c o u l d n o t h a v e i n f l u e n c e d
M i c h a e l ' s t e x t , t h i s r e s e m b l a n c e 1 5 5 m i g h t i n d i c a t e t h a t b o t h ,
in sp i te o f th e i r d i f fe rences , a r e , in th e las t ana lys is , de
r i v e d f r o m t h e s a m e G r e e k ( o r , l e s s p r o b a b l y , A r a m a i c )
r e c e n s i o n . 1 5 6 T h i s s u p p o s i t i o n w o u l d , o f c o u r s e , b e , inter alia,
1 5 2 T h e r e a r e s e v e r a l v a r i a n t s , b u t n o n e o f t h e m c o m e s c l o s e t o t h e e x
p r e s s i o n u s e d i n S t . J e r o m e ' s r e c e n s i o n .
1 5 3 I n A g a p i u s ' r e c e n s i o n th e c o r r e s p o n d i n g s e n t e n c e i s m i s s i n g .
1 5 4 T h e a d j e ct i v e i s n o t q u i t e a p p r o p r i a t e . A s h a s b e e n p o i n t e d o u t , t h e
p o s i t i o n o f t h i s v e r s i o n w i t h r e g a r d t o J e s u s ' M e s s i a h s h i p i s n o n - c o m
m i t t a l .
1 5 5 O n e s h o u l d n o t , h o w e v e r , l o s e s i g h t o f t h e d i ff e re n c e s b e t w e e n t h e
t w o r e c e n s i o n s ; cf ., f o r i n s t a n c e , S t . J e r o m e ' s p h r a s e Cumque invidia
nostrorum principum cruci eum Pilatus a ddixisset w i t h t h e c o r r e s p o n d
i n g p a s s a g e i n M i c h a e l ' s r e c e n s i o n .
1 5 6 I t i s a c u r i o u s f a c t t h a t a n o t h e r r e l a t i v e l y e a r l y L a t i n v e r s i o n o f t h e
T e s t i m o n i u m — t h a t o f t h e s o - c a l l e d E g e s i p p u s — h a s p o i n t s o f r e
s e m b l a n c e t o M i c h a e l ' s a n d A g a p i u s ' r e c e n s i o n s . W e h a v e s e e n t h a t
t h e first o f t h e s e r e c e n s i o n s i n d u b i t a b l y s t a t e s t h a t J e s u s d i e d , a n d t h a t
A g a p i u s ' r e c e n s i o n s h o u l d p r o b a b l y b e e m e n d e d s o a s t o i n c l u d e t h i s
s t a t e m e n t , w h i c h i s m i s s i n g i n o t h e r r e c e n s i o n s . E g e s i p p u s ' r e c e n s i o n
d o e s n o t c o n t a i n a n e x p r e s s s t a t e m e n t o n t h i s p o i n t , b u t i t d o e s r e f e r
e x p l i c i t l y t o J e s u s ' d e a t h : qui apparu erit discipulis suis post triduum
mortis vivens iter um ( I I , 1 2 ) . T h e f o r m o f t h e e x p r e s s i o n post triduum
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t a n t a m o u n t t o a r e j e c t i o n o f t h e n o t i o n p u t f o r w a r d b y T a n -
néguy Lefèv re , Η . Κ . Α . E ic hs t a d t, Ε . N o rd e n , Α . G o e t h a l s
a n d H . S . J . T h a c k e r a y , 1 5 7 t h a t t h e v e r b credebatur i n the
p h r a s e credebatur esse Christus w a s a d d e d b y S t . J e r o m e
h i m s e l f w i t h a v i e w t o r e n d e r i n g s o m e w h a t l e s s i m p r o b a b l e
J o s e p h u s ' p r o c la i m e d a u t h o r s h i p 1 5 8 o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m a s
f o u n d i n t h e G r e e k v u l g a t e r e c e n s i o n ; t o t h i s e x t e n t S t . J e r o m e ' s
v e r s i o n w o u l d b e r e h a b i l i t a t e d .
A s w e h a v e s e e n , t h e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t M i c h a e l ' s r e c e n s i o n i s ,
b y a n d l a r g e , t h e r e s u l t o f a c o n t a m i n a t i o n o f t h e v u l g a t e
r e c e n s i o n o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m w i t h A g a p i u s ' r e c e n s i o n h a sm u c h t o r e c o m m e n d i t . I t c a n n o t , h o w e v e r ( o r a t l e a s t n o t
w i t h o u t s o m e e l a b o r a t i o n ) , a c c o u n t f o r t h e f a c t , p o i n t e d o u t
a b o v e , t h a t S t . J e r o m e ' s v e r s i o n is c l o s e r t o M i c h a e l ' s t h a n t o
A g a p i u s ' . C a n w e a c c o r d i n g l y d r a w t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t
M i c h a e l ' s v e r s i o n r e f l e c t s m o r e a c c u r a t e l y t h a n A g a p i u s ' t h e
h y p o t h e t i c a l o r i g i n a l t e x t o f t h e r e c e n s i o n i n q u e s t i o n ? I n t h e
co n te x t o f o u r d i s cu ss ion the m os t s ign if ican t d i ff e rences
be tween the two a re found in the f i r s t two sen tences o f the
T e s t i m o n i u m a n d i n t h e s e n t e n c e c o n c e r n i n g t h e a p p e a r a n c e
a f t e r t h e c r u c i f i x i o n : a s w e h a v e s e e n , A g a p i u s ' t e x t s t a t e s t h a t
t h e y ( i .e . t h e d i s c i p l e s ) r e p o r t e d t h a t h e h a d a p p e a r e d , i .e . t h e
a u t h o r d o e s n o t a ffirm t h a t t h i s a p p e a r a n c e r e a l l y d i d h a p p e n ;
t h e t e x t i s n o n - c o m m i t t a l . I n M i c h a e l ' s r e c e n s i o n t h e w o r d
reported - dhakarü d o e s n o t o c c u r .
A s t h e r e i s a c l o s e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n A g a p i u s ' v e r s i o n a n d
M i c h a e l ' s , t h e r e s e m b l a n c e b e t w e e n t h e l a t te r a n d S t . J e r o m e ' s
t ex t migh t , i f one t r i ed ou t a l l poss ib le so lu t ions , l ead to the
mortis i s r e m i n i s c e n t o f t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g p h r a s e i n A g a p i u s ' r e c e n s i o n :
Bet da thaläthat ayyäm min salbihi - three days after his crucifixion
( l i t e r a l l y : after three days from his crucifixion). T h e G r e e k v u l g a t e r e
c e n s i o n r e a d s τ ρ ίτ η ν ε χ ω ν ή μ έ ρ α ν ; t h e S y r i a c t r a n s l a t i o n o f Historia
Ecclesiastica a n d M i c h a e l r e a d par» snVn Ί Π 3 p - after three days.
1 5 7 S e e E i s l e r , p . 6 8 , n . 2 .
1 5 8 W h i c h t h e a b o v e - m e n t i o n e d s c h o l a rs d o n o t b e l i e v e i n .
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c o n c l u s i o n t h a t t h e d i s t i n c t i v e t r a i t s o f A g a p i u s ' v e r s i o n m i g h t
h a v e b e e n p r o d u c e d i n t h e S y r i a c o r A r a b i c p e r i o d . H o w e v e r ,
d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d t h e T e s t i m o n i u m w a s b e i n g t r a n s m i t t e d b y
C h r i s t i a n h i s t o r i o g r a p h e r s . A g a p i u s a n d a l s o , a s f a r a s w e c a n
judge , h i s sou rces accep t in a ve ry devou t sp i r i t a l l t he l egendary
s to r i e s conce rn ing the l i f e o f Je sus . To me i t i s inconce ivab le
t h a t h e o r t h e y c o u l d o f t h e i r o w n a c c o r d h a v e a d d e d t h e
s c e p t i c a l o r n o n - c o m m i t t a l n o t e r e p r e s e n t e d b y t h e w o r d
reported, o r w e a k e n e d t h e r e f e r e n c e s t o J e s u s ' e x t r a o r d i n a r y
qua l i t i e s and ac t ions occu r r ing in the f i r s t two sen tences o f the
v u l g a t e r e c e n s i o n . T h e y m u s t h a v e f o u n d t h e d i s t i n c t i v e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f A g a p i u s ' r e c e n s i o n i n t h e te x t o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m
h a n d e d d o w n t o t h e m .
P o s s i b l y , b o t h S t . J e r o m e ' s a n d M i c h a e l ' s r e c e n s i o n s a r e t h e
r e s u l t o f t h e c o n t a m i n a t i o n i n v a r y i n g d e g r e e s o f t h e v u l g a t e
t e x t o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m w i t h t h e n o n - c o m m i t t a l t e x t r e p r e s e n t e d
b y A g a p i u s ' v e r s i o n . T h e r e m i g h t a l s o b e o t h e r , e v e n m o r e
c o m p l i c a t e d , s o l u t i o n s . B u t a l l t h i s i s m e r e g u e s s w o r k . O n e
p o i n t i s , h o w e v e r , c e r t a i n . A s f a r a s t h e e n q u i r y c o n c e r n i n g t h e
o r i g i n a l t e x t o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m i s c o n c e r n e d , t h e i m p o r t a n c e
o f w h a t u s e d t o b e r e g a r d e d a s S t . J e r o m e ' s f r e a k r e c e n s i o n
a n d o f t h e O r i e n t a l r e c e n s i o n s , t h a t o f A g a p i u s a n d t h a t o f
M i c h a e l , i s e n h a n c e d b y t h e i r p o i n t s o f r e s e m b l a n c e . 1 5 9
F r o m w h a t w o r k o f J o s e p h u s i s t h e T e s t i m o n i u m a s q u o t e d b yA g a p i u s s u p p o s e d t o b e e x t r a c t e d a n d w h a t w e r e t h e i n t e r
m e d i a t e l i n k s , i f a n y , i n t h e c h a i n o f t r a n s m i s s i o n ? T h e f i r s t
q u e s t i o n h a s b e e n t o u c h e d u p o n i n a n o t e a b o v e , b u t c e r t a i n
o f i t s a s p e c t s h a v e n o t y e t b e e n e x a m i n e d . A s w e k n o w , t h e
v u l g a t e G r e e k t e x t o c c u r s i n J o s e p h u s ' Antiquitates, X V I I I , 6 3 - 6 4 ;
i t a l s o a p p e a r s i n s o m e M S S o f Bellum Judaicum. I n t h e o r y ,
a t l ea s t , t he poss ib i l i ty tha t i t was found in o the r lo s t o r
1 5 9 I t h a s a l r e a d y b e e n n o t e d t h a t t h e r e c a n b e n o q u e s t i o n o f S t . J e r o m e ' s
L a t i n t e x t h a v i n g i n f l u e n c e d t h e s e O r i e n t a l r e c e n s i o n s .
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a p o c r y p h a l w o r k s o f Jo se p h u s c a n n o t b e r e j e c t e d o u t o f
h a n d .
W e h a v e s e e n t h a t a c c o r d i n g t o t h e M S o f A g a p i u s t h e
T e s t i m o n i u m i s e x t r a c t e d f r o m a w o r k o f Jo se p h u s r e f e r r e d t o
a s h i s t re a t i s e s , w r i t t e n a b o u t the evil of the Jews-sharr al-Yahüd.
Sharr - evil i s c l e a r l y c o r r u p t a n d sh o u l d b e e m e n d e d . V a s i l i e v
t r a n s l a t e s 1 6 0
les guerres des Juifs ; a p p a r e n t l y h e e m e n d e d
sharr t o hurub. I f a c c e p t e d , t h i s m i g h t m e a n t h a t t h e T e s t i
m o n i u m i s s a i d b y A g a p i u s t o b e e x t r a c t e d f r o m Jo se p h u s '
Bellum Judaicum. H o w e v e r , t h i s e m e n d a t i o n i s , t o m y m i n d ,
u n a c c e p t a b l e f o r t w o r e a so n s , o n e o f w h i c h c a r r i e s m u c h l e s sw e i g h t t h a n t h e o t h e r . T h i s su b s i d i a r y a r g u m e n t d e p e n d s o n
t h e f a c t t h a t J o s e p h u s ' h i s t o r i c a l w o r k Bellum Judaicum d o e s n o t
s e e m t o b e k n o w n t o A g a p i u s u n d e r t h i s n a m e . H e r e f e r s t o
i t 1 6 1 a s the book that he [Josephus] wrote about the destruction
of Jerusalem - 'alä kharab Urshalim }62 T h e m a i n a r g u m e n t ,
p a r t o f w h i c h h a s b e e n a l r e a d y s e t f o r t h a b o v e , i s m o r e c o m p l e x
a n d s e e m s t o m e t o sh o w v e r y c l e a r l y t h a t o n t h e b a l a n c e o fp o s s i b i l i t i e s t h e c o r r u p t t i t l e o f a w o r k o f Jo se p h u s m e n t i o n e d
1 6 0 Op. cit., p . 4 7 1 ; s e e a b o v e , n . 1 5 .
1 6 1 S e e e d . C h e i k h o , p . 2 5 4 .
1 6 2 T h i s n a m e i s t o s o m e e x t e n t r e m i n i s c e n t o f t h e t i t l e s : τ η ς1
Ι ο υ δ α ϊκ ή ς
α λ ώ σ ε ω ς -Of Jewish Captivity; π ε ρ ί α λ ώ σ ε ω ς Ι ο υ δ α ία ς κ α ι τ η ς μ ε γ ά λ η ς
π ό L ·ω ς - About the Captiv ity o f Judah and o f the Great City , 'Ι ο υ δ α ϊ κ ή ς
ισ τ ο ρ ί α ς π ε ρ ί α λ ώ σ ε ω ς - O f Jew ish H istory about th e C aptivity; s e e
N i e s e ' s e d i t i o n o f Bellum Judaicum, p p . x i v - x v , x v n . I t i s e v e n
m o r e r e m i n i s c e n t o f t h e L a t i n s u p e r s c r i p t i o n , Judaicae Historiae de
Destructione, f o u n d i n a M S b e a r i n g t h e G r e e k t it l e m e n t i o n e d l a s t
( s e e N i e s e , op. cit., p . x r v ) .
T h e t i t l e m e n t i o n e d b y A g a p i u s i s , b y a n d la r g e , i d e n t i c a l w i t h t h a t
o f t h e s o - c a l l e d E g e s i p p u s ' L a t i n a d a p t a t i o n o f J o s e p h u s ' w o r k , n a m e l y ,
De Excidio Jerusalem (On the Destruction of Jerusalem); t h e r e a r e a l s o
m i n o r v a r i a n t s o f t h i s L a t i n t i t l e . T h e t i t l e o f t h e O l d R u s s i a n t r a n s l a
t i o n o f J o s e p h u s ' Bellum Judaicum p r o b a b l y b e l o n g s t o t h e s a m e
t r a d i t i o n a s t h e G r e e k t i tl e s m e n t i o n e d a b o v e ; s e e N . A . M e s c e r s k i y ,
Istoriya Yudeyskoy Voyny ν Drevnerusskom Perevode, M o s c o w - L e n i n
g r a d 1 9 5 8 , p . 3 6 ; p . 3 7 , n . 4 5 .
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by Agapius in the introduction to the Testimonium refers to
Josephus' Antiquitates. The argument is based on the following
considerations:
1 . In another passage of Agapius, which will be presently
quoted and which unmistakably refers to Josephus' Antiquitates,
the first two words of the title1 6 3
of this work are tadbîr al-
Yahüd - governance of the Jews.
2. The corruption of tadbîr to sharr (in the title sharr al-Yahüd
in Agapius' introduction to the Testimonium) is graphically
conceivable.
3 . According to Michael's Syriac version of the Testimonium,which, as we have seen, has some sort of connection with
Agapius' version, the quota tion is said to be extracted from a
work of Josephus entitled J P T P I Κ Ί η τ τ (rendered above
Institution, or Institutions, of the Jews). As has been noted, the
word is very obviously derived from the same verbal root as
the Arabic tadbîr. The latter word may very easily be supposed
to have been used to translate anaVT. The conclusion to be
drawn from the last two points is that sharr al-Yahüd in Agapi us'
MS should probably be emended to tadbîr al-Yahüd.
The passage of Agapius referred to in consideration ( 1 ) reads as
follows: When the Romans were [about to] conquer Jerusalem,
Josephus exhorted his people before the destruction (kharäb)
of Jerusalem, saying to them: 'Submit to the Romans and give
obedience164
to their kings. You will [then] praise your future
state of [affairs].' [The Jews] despised and reviled him [so much]
that they tried many times to strike him, and they cast stones
at him. The Romans were informed with reference to him of
these [happenings]. When they got hold of him, they gave him a
post165
at the king's gate. He then composed twenty books on the
163 Or: description of the contents.
164 Literally: enter into the obedience.
165 Th e tran slati on is n o t qu ite certain. Th e Ara bic wo rd is alzamühu; lit
erally: attached.
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governance of the Jews [ t a d b ï r al-Yahüd], their migra tion 166 and
their high priests, and about the wars of the Rom ans and their
capture [ghazw] of Jerusalem . Sixty-two letters of Agrippa
[ G h . r ï f û s ] were in existence; in these he praised Josephus' works,
great knowledge and [excellent] execution. After his [Josephus* ]
death the Rom ans erected in his honour a statue in Rom e.167
T h e b r i e f m e n t i o n o f t h e e x h o r t a t i o n s o f Jo se p h u s a n d t h e
r e a c t i o n s o f t h e J e w s t o t h e m i n t h i s p a s sa g e c o r r e sp o n d s t o
Bellum Judaicum, V , 1 14 , 2 6 1 , 3 6 1 - 4 2 0 , 5 4 1 - 5 4 7 ; V I , 9 4 - 1 1 2 ,
118, 1 2 9 , 3 6 5 . H o w e v e r , A g a p i u s m a k e s a m i s t a k e : t h e r e
m o n s t r a n c e s o f Jo s e p h u s w e r e m a d e af te r h i s su r r e n d e r t o t h eR o m a n s , a n d A g a p i u s p l a c e s t h e m , a s w e h a v e s e e n , b e f o r e
J o s e p h u s ' c a p t u r e .
T h e l a s t p o r t i o n o f t h e p a s sa g e b e a r s t o so m e e x t e n t u p o n o u r
e n q u i r y . T h e r e f e r e n c e t o A g r i p p a ' s l e t t e r s c o r r e sp o n d s t o
J o s e p h u s ' Vita, 3 6 4 - 3 6 7 , a n d a l so t o a p a s sa g e i n E u se b i u s '
Historia Ecclesiastica, I I I , 9 . A c c o r d i n g t o E u se b i u s , t h e se
le t t e r s a r e r e f e r r ed to a t the end o f the Antiquitates. I n t h e s a m ec h a p t e r E u se b i u s m e n t i o n s t h e e r e c t i o n o f a s t a t u e i n R o m e i n
h o n o u r o f Jo se p h u s a n d a l so t h e f a c t t h a t t h e Antiquitates a r e
d i v i d e d i n t o t w e n t y b o o k s . 1 6 8 In f ac t , t h i s chap te r o f Euseb ius
migh t be r ega rded a s by and l a rge the on ly sou rce o f the l a s t
p o r t i o n o f A g a p i u s , p r o v i d e d t h a t t h e r e f e r e n c e t o t h e w o r k
'Alä tadbïr al- Yahüdis n o t t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t . F o r c o n v e n i e n c e ' s
s a k e i t i s r e p e a t e d h e r e : He then composed twenty books on the
governance of the Jews [ t a d b ï r a l - Y a h ù d ] , their migration 169 and
their high priests and about the wars of the Rom ans and their
capture [ g h a z w ] of Jerusalem. T h i s m a y b e c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e
b r i e f r e f e r e n c e i n E u se b i u s ' Historia Ecclesiastica, I I I , 9 , w h i c h
1 6 6 O r : transm itters of traditions - n.q.la. I f t h e w o r d i s e m e n d e d t o naql,
i t m i g h t b e r e n d e r e d tradition, narration.
1 6 7 A g a p i u s , e d . C h e i k h o , p p . 2 5 4 - 2 5 5 . I t h a s b e e n p a rt ly t ra n sl at e d a b o v e .
1 6 8 T h i s fa c t c o u l d , o f c o u r s e , b e a s c e r ta i n e d b y w h o e v e r h a d a c c e s s t o
t h e f u l l t e x t o f t h e w o r k a s w e k n o w i t .
1 6 9 O r : transm itter of tradition; o r : tradition.
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reads in the Syriac t r an sl a t io n1 7 0
as follows: Μ Ί ΐΡ Κ 3Π im
nn»ra mm möirrn Kmjrr TOITI .Π Ο Ο p a o po sa rnnrm rnöip
KSDtPS - ife [ / Ö ^ / ? A W ^ ] compiled the whole ancient history of the
Jews in twenty books, and the story of the wars of the Romans,which occurred in his days, in seven.
Another relevant passage occurs at the beginning of Josephus'
Antiquitates, I, 2: Τ α ν τ η ν ôè τ η ν ε ν ε ιτ ώ σ α ν ε γ κ ε χ ε ίρ ι σ μ α ι
π ρ α γ μ ά τ ε ια ν ν ο μ ίζ ω ν α π α σ ι φ α ν ε ϊσ θ α ι τ ο ις "Ε λ λ η σ ιν α ξ ία ν
σ π ο ν δ ή ς μ έ λ λ ε ι γ α ρ π ε ρ ιέ ξ ε ιν ά π α σ α ν π α ρ ή μ ΐν ά ρ χ α ω λ ο γ ία ν κ α ι
δ ιά τ α ξ ιν το ν π ο λ ι τ ε ύ μ α τ ο ς ε κ τω ν * β ρ α ϊκ ώ ν μ ε θ η ρ μ η ν ε ν μ έ ν ε ν
γ ρ α μ μ ά τ ω ν , "ή δ η μ ε ν ο ν ν κ α ι π ρ ό τ ε ρ ο ν δ ιε ν ο ή θ η ν , δ τ ε το ν π ό λ ε μ ο νσ ν ν έ γ ρ α φ ο ν δ η μ ώ σ α ι τ ίν ε ς δ ν τ ε ς ε ξ α ρ χ ή ς
9
Ι ο υ δ α ί ο ι κ α ι τ ίσ ι
χ ρ η σ ά μ ε ν ο ι τ ν χ α ϊς , ν φ ' ο ΐω τ ε π α ιδ ε ν θ έ ν τ ε ς ν ο μ ο θ έ τη τ α π ρ ο ς
ε ν σ έ β ε ι α ν κ α ι τ ή ν α λ λ η ν α σ κ η σ ιν α ρ ε τ ή ς , π ό σ ο ν ς τε π ο λ ε μ ο ν ς
ε ν μ α κ ρ ο ϊς π ο λ ε μ ή σ α ν τ ε ς χ ρ ό ν ο ι ς ε ις τ ο ν τ ε λ ε ν τ α ϊ ο ν ά κ ο ν τ ε ς
π ρ ο ς *Ρ ω μ α ίο ν ς κ α τ έ σ τ η σ α ν . α λ λ9
ε π ε ιδ ή μ ε ίζ ω ν ή ν ή τ ο ν -
δ ε τ ο ν λ ό γ ο ν π ε ρ ιβ ο λ ή , κ α θ9
α ν τ ο ν ε κ ε ίν ο ν χ ω ρ ίσ α ς τ α ϊς
Ι δ ί α ις ά ρ χ α ϊς α ν τ ο ν κ α ι τω τ έ λ ε ι τ ή ν γ ρ α φ ή ν σ ν ν ε μ έ τ ρ η σ α .-
And now I have undertaken this present work in the belief that
all the Greeks will find it worthy of attention; for it will embrace
our entire ancient history and political constitution translated
from the Hebrew records. I had, indeed, ere now, when writing
the history of the war, already contemplated describing the origin
of the Hebrews, the fortunes that befell them, the great lawgiver
under whom they were trained in piety and the exercise of the
other virtues,111
and all those wars waged by them during lengthy
periods before this last, in which they were involuntarily engaged
against the Romans. However, since the compass of such a
170 Which i n this case is on the whole quite accurate. T he Greek original
reads: ο ύ τ ο ς δ ή π α σ α ν τ ή ν Ί ο ν δ α ικ ή ν ά ρ χ α ιο λ ο γ ία ν ε ν ο λ ο ι ς ε ίκ ο σ ι
κ α τ α τ έ θ ε ιτ α ι σ υ γ γ ρ ά μ μ α σ ιν , τ ή ν δ9
ί σ τ ο ρ ί α ν τ ο ν κ α τ * α υ τ ό ν 'Ρ ω μ α ικ ο ϋ
π ο λ έ μ ο υ ε ν §π τ α .
171 T h e Greek has the singular.
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theme was excessive, I made the war into a separate work with
its own beginning and end, thus duly proportioning my work. 112
T h e m e n t i o n b y A g a p i u s o f t h e f a c t t h a t t h e w o r k o n tadbîr
al-Yahüd c o n s i s t s o f t w e n t y b o o k s d o e s n o t l e a v e m u c h r o o m
f o r d o u b t t h a t J o s e p h u s ' Antiquitates i s m e a n t . T h e q u e s t i o n a s
t o t h e u l t i m a t e so u r c e s o f A g a p i u s ' d e sc r i p t i o n o f t h i s w o r k
r e m a i n s , h o w e v e r , u n r e s o l v e d . T h e a c c o u n t i n t h i s w o r k o f t h e
w a r s o f t h e R o m a n s a n d t h e c a p t u r e o f J e r u s a l e m m i g h t
poss ib ly be de r ived f rom the f i r s t sen tence in the Greek passage
o f J o s e p h u s ' Antiquitates, t h a t h a s j u s t b e e n q u o t e d . S o m e
e x c e r p t e r m i g h t h a v e p a i d n o a t t e n t i o n t o t h e f a c t t h a t i n t h ese n t e n c e t h a t f o l l o w s , Jo se p h u s m a k e s i t c l e a r t h a t h e d e c i d e d
t o d e a l w i t h t h e su b j e c t s h e h a d i n m i n d i n t w o w o r k s r a t h e r
t h a n o n e , a n d t h a t t h e a n c i e n t h i s t o r y a n d c o n s t i t u t i o n o f t h e
J e w s w o u l d n o t b e s e t f o r t h i n t h e v o l u m e d e s cr i b in g t h e R o m a n
W a r a n d t h e f i n a l c a p t u r e o f J e r u s a l e m . 1 7 3
T h e f a c t t h a t t h e p a s sa g e o f A g a p i u s r e f e r s t o d a t a c o n c e r n i n g
h i g h p r i e s t s f o u n d i n J o s e p h u s ' Antiquitates, w h e r e a s n e i t h e rJo se p h u s n o r E u se b i u s r e f e r t o t h e se d a t a i n t h e i r p o r t r a y a l o f
t h i s w o r k , d o e s n o t o f i t s e l f p e r m i t a f a r - r e a c h i n g c o n c l u s i o n ,
b u t i t d o e s su g g e s t t h a t A g a p i u s ' d e sc r i p t i o n d o e s n o t e n t i re l y
d e r i v e f r o m t h e se c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .
T h e m o s t s i g n i f i c a n t f e a t u r e s o f t h i s d e sc r i p t i o n a r e :
1 . I t c o n t a i n s n o c l e a r r e f e r e n c e t o Jo se p h u s ' Antiquitates, t h e3
Ι ο υ δ α ϊκ ή α ρ χ α ιο λ ο γ ία174
(o r , a s the Sy r iac r ecens ion o f Historia
Ecclesiastica r e a d s : Κ Ή Ι Τ Π *Γ Ζ Π ρ Κ Π Ί ΐΡ ), i .e . t h e su b jec t a f te r
w h i c h t h e w o r k w a s c a l l e d in m o s t k n o w n s o u r c e s . I t i s t r u e t h a t
t h e w o r d n.q.la. i n t h e p a s s a g e o f A g a p i u s , i f e m e n d e d t o naql
1 7 2 E x c e p t f o r sl i g h t m o d i f i c a t i o n s , I h a v e f o l l o w e d T h a c k e r a y ' s t r a n s
l a t i o n .
1 7 3 I t i s , h o w e v e r , l i k e w i s e p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e w o r d s u n d e r d i s c u s s i o n i n
A g a p i u s ' p a s s a g e re fe r t o v a r i o u s w a r s o f t h e R o m a n s — i n c l u d i n g
t h e c a p t u r e o f J e r u s a l e m b y P o m p e y — d e a l t w i t h i n J o s e p h u s ' Anti
quitates.
1 7 4 O r : τ ι α ρ ' ή μ ίν ά ρ χ α ιο λ ο γ ία ν .
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a n d i n t e r p r e t e d a s m e a n i n g tradition, m i g h t b e r e g a r d e d , t h o u g h
ra the r doub t fu l ly , a s r e f l ec t ing α ρ χ α ι ο λ ο γ ί α . But even i f th is
r a t h e r d u b i o u s s u p p o s i t i o n i s a c c e p t e d , t h e m o s t c o n s p i c u o u s
f a ct a b o u t A g a p i u s ' d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e Antiquitates i s — a n d t h i s
i s t h e s e c o n d p o i n t I w i s h t o m a k e — t h a t i t i s h e a d e d b y t h e
w o r d s 'alä tadbïr al- Yahüd, which look a s i f t hey were the t i t l e
o f the work . Th i s impress ion i s o f cou r se con f i rmed by the f ac t
t h a t M i c h a e l t h e S y r i a n r e f e r s t o t h e w o r k i n w h i c h t h e
T e s t i m o n i u m o c c u r s a s ι ρ τ π Κ Ί 3Τ Τ . A s h a s b e e n i n d i c a t e d , t h e
A r a b i c tadbïr c o r r e sp o n d s i n o u r c o n t e x t t o m a n and i s qu i t e
c e r t a i n l y a t r a n s l a t i o n o f t h i s S y r i a c t e r m . A s w e h a v e s e e n ,t h e r e a r e a l s o g o o d g r o u n d s f o r e m e n d i n g t h e w o r d s ealä sharr
al-Yahüd, f o u n d i n A g a p i u s ' M S , a s t h e t i t l e o f t h e w o r k o f
J o s e p h u s f r o m w h i c h t h e T e s t i m o n i u m i s e x t r a c t e d t o 'alä
tadbïr al-Yahüd. lls
W e a r e t h u s f a c e d w i t h a t r a d i t i o n i n w h i c h J o s e p h u s ' An
tiquitates w a s c a l l e d On the Institutions of the Jews o r On the
Governance of the Jews.I n m y o p i n i o n , t h e S y r i a c m a n a n d t h e A r a b i c tadbïr, w h i c h
r e n d e r s i t , h a v e n o t b e e n c h o se n a r b i t r a r i l y t o c h a r a c t e r i z e a n d
n a m e t h i s w o r k o f J o s e p h u s ; i n t h e i r v a r i o u s c o n n o t a t i o n s t h e s e
t e r m s c o r r e sp o n d f a i r l y a c c u r a t e l y t o δ ι ά τ α ξ ι ς , w h i c h i s m e n
t i o n e d b y J o s e p h u s i n t h e p a s s a g e q u o t e d a b o v e , 1 7 6 w h e r e h e
s e t s f o r t h t h e m a i n t h e m e s o f h i s Antiquitates. I n t h i s p a s s a g e
δ ι ά τ α ξ ις τ ο υ π ο λ ιτ ε ύ μ α τ ο ς 177 f o l l o w s i m m e d i a t e l y u p o n α ρ χ α ιο
λ ο γ ί α .
T h e t r a d i t i o n w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e t i t l e o f J o s e p h u s ' Antiquitates
t h a t i s f o l l o w e d b y A g a p i u s a n d M i c h a e l t h e S y r i a n c a n t h u s
b e e x p l a i n e d , t h o u g h n o t l e g i t i m a t e d , b y a r e fe r en c e t o J o s e p h u s .
N e v e r t h e l e s s i t i s a s i n g u l a r t r a d i t i o n ; a s f a r a s I k n o w , n o
1 7 5 T h e r e c a n , o f c o u r s e , b e n o a b s o l u t e c e r t a i n t y i n t h i s m a t t e r .
1 7 6 Antiquitates, I , 2 .
1 7 7 A p a s s a g e i n J o s e p h u s ' Antiquitates ( 1 , 1 0 ) s e e m s t o i m p l y t h a t δ ιά τ α ξ ις
τ η ς π ο λ ι τ ε ία ς w a s c o n t a i n e d i n t h e P e n t a t e u c h .
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a u t h o r e x c e p t t h e t w o t h a t h a v e b e e n m e n t i o n e d r e f e r s t o
J o s e p h u s ' Antiquitates by the t i t l e On the Institutions of the Jews
o r On the Governance of the Jews. J o s e p h u s 1 7 8 a n d E u s e b i u s 1 7 9
c e r t a in l y d o n o t d o s o , n o r d o e s O r i g e n . 1 8 0
A s w e k n o w , t h i s s i n g u l a r i t y i s p a r a l l e l e d b y a n o t h e r : A g a p i u s
a n d , t o s o m e e x t e n t , M i c h a e l t h e S y r i a n p r e s e n t r e c e n s i o n s o f
t h e T e s t i m o n i u m w h i c h m a r k e d l y d iffe r f r o m t h e v u l g a t e v e r s i o n
a n d a r e s a i d t o b e c u l l e d 1 8 1 f rom On the Institutions of the Jews
o r 1 8 2 f r o m On the Governance of the Jews. T h u s , t h e u n u s u a l
t i t l e s g i v e n t o J o s e p h u s ' w o r k a n d t h e s e u n u s u a l r e c e n s i o n s
s e e m t o g o t o g e t h e r ; a p p a r e n t l y t h e y b e l o n g ( i n t h e c a s e o fM i c h a e l ' s r e c e n s i o n t h i s m a y a p p l y o n ly t o it s d i v e rg e n c i es f r o m
t h e v u l g a t e ) t o t h e s a m e h i s t o r i o g r a p h i c a l t r a d i t i o n . N o w w e
k n o w t h a t t h i s t r a d i t i o n d o e s n o t de r iv e f r o m t h e k n o w n
r e c e n s i o n s o f J o s e p h u s ' w o r k s o r o f E u s e b i u s ' Historia Ec
clesiastica, i .e . f r o m t h e s o u r c e s t h a t a c c o u n t f o r m u c h o f
t h e h i s t o r i c a l d a t a c o n c e r n i n g , l o o s e l y s p e a k i n g , t h e p e r i o d o f
t h e S e c o n d T e m p l e , n o r i s i t , a s f a r a s w e k n o w , a t t e s t e d i n
o t h e r e x t a n t t e x t s . W e m a y a c c o r d i n g l y a s s u m e t h a t a n u n k n o w n
s o u r c e w a s u s e d b y A g a p i u s . P o s s i b l y a s t u d y o f t h e p o r t i o n o f h i s
w o r k c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e p e r i o d i n q u e s t i o n m a y t h r o w s o m e li g h t
o n t h e c h a r a c t e r o f t h i s s o u r c e . I n t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y , w e m u s t
1 7 8 I n Contra Apionem, I , 1 ; I , 2 , J o s e p h u s m a k e s t h e f o l l o w i n g r e f e re n c e s
t o h i s Antiquitates'. . . . δ ι α τ η ς π ε ρ ί τ ή ν ά ρ χ α ιο λ ο γ ία ν σ υ γ γ ρ α φ ή ς ..
π ε ν τ α κ ισ χ ι λ ίω ν ε τ α η > α ρ ι θ μ ό ν ισ τ ο ρ ία ν . . . σ υ ν ε γ ρ α ψ ά μ η ν ,... τ ο ι ς π ε ρ ί
τ ή ν ά ρ χ α ι ο λ ο γ ία ν ύ π ' ε μ ο ϋ γ ε γ ρ α μ μ έ ν ο ις ...
1 7 9 C f ., f o r i n s t a n c e , t h e r e f e r e n c e s t o J o s e p h u s ' Antiquitates i n E u s e b i u s '
Historia Ecclesiastica, I , 1 0 : 4 ; I , 1 1 : 4 ; t h e first o f t h e s e p a s s a g e s
c o n t a i n s t h e w o r d s κ α τ ά α υ τ ή ν τ η ς9
Α ρ χ α ι ο λ ο γ ία ς γ ρ α φ ή ν , a n d t h e s e c
o n d th e w o r d s ε ν ό κ τ ω κ α ιδ ε κ ά τ φ τ η ς α ρ χ α ιο λ ο γ ία ς .
1 8 0 C f . Contra Celsum, I , 4 7 , w h i c h c o n t a i n s t h e f o l l o w i n g r ef e r en c e t o
J o s e p h u s ' Antiquitates'. 'Ε ν γ α ρ τ φ ό κ τ ω κ α ιδ ε κ ά τ φ τ η ς Ι ο υ δ α ϊκ ή ς1
Α ρ
χ α ι ο λ ο γ ί α ς . T h i s t i t l e i s a l s o g e n e r a l l y u s e d b y l a t e r a u t h o r s .
1 8 1 I n t h e c a s e o f M i c h a e l .
1 8 2 I f w e a c c e p t t h e e m e n d a t i o n o f A g a p i u s ' t e x t p r o p o s e d a b o v e .
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i n t h e m a i n c o n f i n e o u r se l v e s t o a n e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e p a s sa g e
i n A g a p i u s t h a t i m m e d i a t e l y f o l l o w s u p o n t h e T e s t i m o n i u m .
H o w e v e r , a f e w r e m a r k s o n t h e p a s s a g e i m m e d i a t e l y p r e c e d i n g
t h e T e s t i m o n i u m se e m t o b e c a l l e d f o r . T h i s p a s sa g e , w h i c h
h a s b e e n q u o t e d a b o v e , d e a l s w i t h t h e p o r t e n t s t h a t w e r e
w i t n e s se d a t t h e t i m e o f t h e c r u c i f i x i o n , a n d , u p o n P i l a t e ' s
d i sm i s sa l , w e r e su p p o se d t o b e a c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h e c r u ci fi x io n .
Q u i t e c l e a r l y t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n d o e s n o t d e r i v e e i t h e r f r o m
J o s e p h u s o r f ro m E u s e b i u s ' Historia Ecclesiastica. A reference
t o P h l e g o n , w h o s e n a m e i s c o r r u p t e d i n t h i s p a s s a g e t o Iflafin,
w a s , a s w e h a v e s e e n ,1 8 3
f o u n d i n E u s e b i u s ' Chronicon. H o w e v e r ,t h i s p a s sa g e o f A g a p i u s a l so r e f e r s i n t h i s c o n n e c t i o n t o t h e
t e s t i m o n y o f a ' p h i l o s o p h e r ' n a m e d Ür.s.y.w.s.18* N o p a r a l l e l
1 8 3 S e e a b o v e , n . 9 .
1 8 4 T h e n a m e , a s g i v e n b y A g a p i u s , m a y a l s o b e r ea d i n v a r i o u s o t h e r
w a y s ; c f. a b o v e , n . 1 1 , a n d C h a b o t ' s r e a d i n g o f t h e s a m e n a m e i n M i
c h a e l ' s t e x t . M i c h a e l t h e S y r i a n a l s o b r a c k e t s t o g e t h e r t h e t e s t i m o n i e so f P h l e g o n a n d Or.s.y.w.s. C h a b o t ' s t r a n s l a t i o n o f t h e r e l e v a n t p a s s a g e
r e a d s a s f o l l o w s : Phlegon , philosophe profane, écrit ainsi: le soleil s'est
obscurci, et la terre a tremblé; les morts ont ressuscité, sont entrés à Jéru
salem et ont mau dit les Juifs. D ans V ouvrage qu'il écrivit sur les temps
des Olym piades, il dit dans le XH Ie livre: la quatrième année de la
IHe Olympiade, il y eut une obscurité à la sixième heure du jour, un ven
dredi, e t les étoiles apparuren t. Nicée et la région de Bithynie tout entière
furent ébranlées, et beauco up d'autres e ndroits furent renversés. Ursinus
dit aussi dans le livre V: Nous fûmes dans une grande angoisse quand
le soleil s'obscurcit et la terre trembla. On entendit des clameu rs terribles
dans les villes des Hébre ux; nous l'apprenons main tenant et nous le voyons
par la lettre que Pilate envoya de Palestine à l'empereur Tibère. Il dit:
*A la mort d'un homm e que les Juifs on crucifié il survint des choses
terrifiantes.' En apprena nt cela César destitua Pilate pour avoir fait la
volonté des Juifs, et il men aça ceux-ci ( M i c h e l l e S y r ie n , I , p p . 1 4 3 - 1 4 4 ) .
T h i s p a s s a g e i s cl e a rl y c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e p a r a l l el t e xt o f A g a p i u s ,
b u t d o e s n o t d e r i v e f r o m i t , a s i ts q u o t a t i o n f r o m P h l e g o n i s m u c h
l o n g e r . T h e r e f er e n c e i n M i c h a e l ' s q u o t a t i o n t o B i t h y n i a a n d N i c e a ,
n o t f o u n d i n t h e p a r a l l e l p a s s a g e i n A g a p i u s , i s p a r a l l e l e d i n t h e q u o t a
t i o n f r o m P h l e g o n c o n t a i n e d i n E u s e b i u s ' Chronicon ( i n t h e A r m e n i a n
v e r s i o n , loc. cit., a s w e l l a s i n t h a t o f S t . J e r o m e , loc. cit.). B o t h
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t o t h i s r e f e r e n c e o c c u r s i n E u se b i u s ' Chronicon. I t m a y b e n o t e d
t h a t S y n c e l l u s , q u o t i n g Ju l i u s A f r i c a n u s , r e f e r s , i n sp e a k i n g o f
t h e l i t e r a r y t e s t i m o n i e s t o t h e p o r t e n t s a t t h e t i m e o f t h e
c r u c i f i x i o n , n o t o n l y t o P h l e g o n , b u t a l so t o T h a l l u s . 1 8 5
H o w e v e r , e v e n i f o n e a b s t r a c t s f r o m t h e d if fe re n ce o f t h e n a m e s ,
t h e s t a t e m e n t a t t r i b u t e d t o T h a l l u s h a s n o c h a r a c t e r i s t i c t r a i t s
i n c o m m o n w i t h t h e q u o t a t i o n f r o m Vr.s.y.w.s., w h i c h , inter
alia, purpo r t s to g ive a passage f rom a l e t t e r sen t by P i l a t e to
T i b e r i u s . O n e o f t h e p se u d e p i g r a p h i c a l l e t t e r s su p p o se d l y s e n t
b y P i l a t e t o t h e R o m a n e m p e r o r c o n t a i n s a r e m a r k t h a t a l s o
o c c u r s i n t h e p a s sa g e o f A g a p i u s . I n b o t h t e x t s P i l a t e s t a t e st h a t J e su s w a s c r u c i f i e d b y t h e J e w s . 1 8 6
A l l t h i s i s i n c o n c l u s i v e . A s r e g a r d s t h e u l t i m a t e so u r c e o r
s o u r c e s 1 8 7 o f t h e p a s sa g e i n A g a p i u s t h a t c o m e s b e f o r e t h e
Tes t imon ium, the in su f f i c i ency o f the ev idence r ende r s i t
i m p o ss i b l e n o t o n l y t o p r o v e t h e c o r r e c t n e s s o f a h y p o t h e s i s ,
b u t e v e n t o f o r m o n e . 1 8 8
A g a p i u s ' a n d M i c h a e l ' s q u o t a t i o n m a y d e r i v e f r o m a c o m m o n S y r i a c
s o u r c e , p o s s i b l y T h e o p h i l o s .
1 8 5 C f . L a b r i o l l e , op. cit. ( a b o v e , n . 1 0 ) , p p . 2 0 9 - 2 1 0 .
1 8 6 H o w e v e r , t h e l e t t e r i n q u e s t i o n i s s a i d t o h a v e b e e n a d d r e s s e d b y
P i l a t e t o C l a u d i u s a n d n o t t o T i b e r i u s . I t i s i n c l u d e d i n t h e G r e l l e
Acta Apostolorum Apocrypha, e d i t e d b y R . A . L i p s i u s & M . B o n n e t ,
I : Acta Petri et Pauli, 4 0 - 4 2 , e d . L i p s i u s , D a r m s t a d t 1 9 5 9 , p p . 1 9 6 - 1 9 7 ;
c f . W . B a u e r , Das Leben Jesu im Zeitalter der Neutestamentlichen
Apokryphen, D a r m s t a d t 1 9 6 7 , p . 1 9 0 .
1 8 7 T h e i m m e d i a t e s o u r c e m a y h a v e b e e n T h e o p h i l o s ' S y r ia c c h r o n i c l e .
1 8 8 T h e n a m e Ür.s.y.w.s. h a s a r e s e m b l a n c e t o t h a t o f O r o s i u s , t h e L a t i n
h i s t o r i a n , w h o s e w o r k w a s t r a n s l a t e d i n t o A r a b i c a p p r o x i m a t e l y a t
t h e t i m e w h e n A g a p i u s w r o t e h i s w o r k . H i s n a m e i s m o s t l y a l t e r e d i n
A r a b i c t o H.urüs . y .w . s . ,but a t l ea s t in o n e tex t i t i s w ri t ten Urus.y.w.s.;
s e e G . L e v i D e l i a V i d a , ' L a T r a d i z i o n e a r a b a d e l l e s t o r i e d i O r o -
s i o ' , Miscellanea G. Galbiati, Ι Π , M i l a n o 1 95 1 (Fontes Ambrosiani,
X X V I I ) , p . 1 8 8 ; p . 1 8 9 , n . 4 . M o r e o v e r , A g a p i u s d e s c ri b e s Ur.s.y.w.s. a s
a n h i s t o r i a n . H o w e v e r , t h e r e a r e d i f f i c u l t i e s t h a t s e e m t o p r e c l u d e
t h i s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n : ( 1 ) A g a p i u s ' w o r k p r o b a b l y a n t e d a t e s t h e A r a b i c
t r a n s l a t i o n o f O r o s i u s ( se e L e v i D e l i a V i d a , op. cit., p p . 1 8 7 - 1 8 8 ) , a n d
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T h e p o s i t i o n i s so m e w h a t d i f f e r e n t w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e p a s sa g e ,
l i k e w i s e q u o t e d a b o v e , t h a t f o l l o w s i m m e d i a t e l y u p o n A g a p i u s '
v e r s i o n o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m . Q u i t e c l e a r l y t h i s p a s sa g e h a s a
c u r i o u s r e l a t i o n t o J o s e p h u s ' Antiquitates a n d t o E u s e b i u s '
Historia Ecclesiastica. I n t h i s c o n n e c t i o n w e m a y r e c a l l t h a t i t
i s i n c o n se q u e n c e o f a c o m p a r i so n o f t e x t s o f A g a p i u s w i t h
t h e se t w o w o r k s t h a t w e h a v e a s su m e d t h e e x i s t e n c e o f a n
u n k n o w n s o u r c e , X .
A s h a s b e e n s t a t e d a b o v e , t h e p a s s a g e i n q u e s t i o n b e g i n s w i t h
t h e w o r d s : wa-yaqülu ay dan - And he also says. A s t h e s e w o r d s
f o l l o w i m m e d i a t e l y u p o n a q u o t a t i o n f r o m J o s e p h u s , n a m e l yt h e T e s t i m o n i u m , 1 8 9 t h e n a t u r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n w o u l d b e t h a t
t h e y a r e m e a n t t o i n t r o d u c e a n o t h e r q u o t a t i o n f r o m J o s e p h u s .
H o w e v e r , a s w e sh a l l p r e se n t l y s e e , t h e c o n t e n t s o f t h e p a s sa g e
a r e n o t c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h i s s u p p o s i t i o n ; t h e a u t h o r o f t h e t e x t
w a s q u i t e o b v i o u s l y a C h r i s t i a n . I n d e e d , t h e r e a r e g o o d r e a so n s
f o r t h i n k i n g t h a t t h e u l t i m a t e so u r c e o f t h e p a s sa g e m a y b e t h e
Historia Ecclesiastica of Euseb ius , who i s exp l i c i t ly quo ted in a
T h e o p h i l o s , w h o m , a s r e g a r d s t h e p a s s a g e i n q u e s t i o n , w e s u p p o s e t o
b e t h e c o m m o n s o u r c e o f A g a p i u s a n d M i c h a e l t h e S y r i a n , a n t e d a t e s
i t t o a m u c h g r e a t e r e x t e n t . ( 2 ) T h e p a s s a g e q u o t e d b y A g a p i u s a n d
M i c h a e l o c c u r s n e i t h e r i n t h e L a t i n o r i g i n a l o f O r o s i u s ' w o r k n o r i n
t h e A r a b i c v e r s i o n , w h i c h , m o r e o v e r , c o n t a i n s m a n y i n t e r p o l a t i o n s .
I t m i g h t , o f c o u r s e , b e a r g u e d t h a t t h e r e m i g h t h a v e e x i s t e d a n e a r l i e r
A r a b i c o r S y r i a c t r a n s l a t i o n o f O r o s i u s , w h i c h m i g h t h a v e i n c l u d e d t h e
p a s s a g e i n q u e s t i o n , b u t , i n t h e a b s e n c e o f a n y c o n f i r m a t o r y e v i d e n c e ,
t h i s w o u l d b e a v e r y f a r - f e t c h e d a n d u n s a t i s f a c t o r y s o l u t i o n . T h e r e i s
a l s o t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t b o t h A g a p i u s ' a n d M i c h a e l ' s w r i t i n g o f t h e n a m e
Ür.s.y.w.s., o r s o m e v a r i a n t o f i t , i s w r o n g ; a c c o r d i n g t o t h i s h y p o
t h e s i s t h e n a m e o f t h e h i s t o r i a n s w h o m t h e s e t w o a u t h o r s q u o t e m i g h t
h a v e b e e n c o r r u p t e d t o Vr.s.y.w.s. b y s o m e o n e w h o w a s f a m i l i a r w i t h
t h e n a m e o f O r o s i u s . T h i s w o u l d p a r a l le l t h e c o r r u p t i o n o f P h l e g o n t o
Ifläfün ( P l a t o ) f o u n d i n A g a p i u s ( s e e a b o v e , n . 8 ) . O n t h e e v i d e n c e a t
o u r d i s p o s a l t h e r e i s n o w a y o f p r o v i n g o r d i s p r o v i n g t h i s h y p o t h e s i s .
1 8 9 A s w e h a v e s e e n , A g a p i u s e x p l i c i t l y s t a t e s t h a t t h i s t e x t o c c u r s i n a
w o r k o f J o s e p h u s .
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t e x t o f A g a p i u s d e a l i n g w i t h A b g a r , 1 9 0 w h i c h i m m e d i a t e l y
f o l l o w s u p o n t h e p a s sa g e w i t h w h i c h w e a r e c o n c e r n e d . I n f a c t ,
t h e l a t t e r p a s s a g e — w h i c h i n A g a p i u s c o m e s i m m e d i a t e l y
a ft er t h e T e s t i m o n i u m a n d i s t r a n s l a t e d a b o v e — s h o w s b o t h a
marked s imi la r i ty to and s ign i f i can t d ive rgenc ie s f rom a t ex t
i n E u s e b i u s ' Historia Ecclesiastica, I , 1 0 . A c o m p a r i so n o f t h e
t w o t e x t s i s i n s t r u c t i v e .
Agapius (ed. Cheikho) , p . 239,1. 16 to p. 240, 1. 3 1 9 1
And he also says that all the
public activity of our Lord
Christ, may he be glorified, ...
occurred under the high
priesthood of Hannän and
Qayäfä. For [the two]
were high priests in those
years; I mean [to say that hispublic activity occurred] from
the high priesthood of
Qayäfä. The time between
Eusebius, Historia Ecclesiastica,
1 , 1 0 : 2 - 6 1 9 2
The divine Scripture says that
he [Jesus] com pleted the w hole
time of his teaching while
Annas and Caiaphas were
high priests, showing that the
whole time of his teaching
was bounded by the years
which cover their adm inistration. Since, then, he began in
the high priesthood of Annas
and continued to the reign of
1 9 0 T h i s t e x t ( A g a p i u s , e d . C h e i k h o , p . 2 4 0 , 1 . 4 , t o p . 2 4 2 , 1 . 4 . ) d e a l s w i t h
t h e e x c h a n g e o f l e t t e r s b e t w e e n A b g a r , k i n g o f E d e s s a , a n d J e s u s ; a n d
w i t h A b g a r ' s su b s e q u e n t c o n v e r s i o n , t h e l e tt e r h e w r o t e t o t h e E m p e r o rT i b e r i u s a n d T i b e r i u s ' a n s w e r . I t i s i n t r o d u c e d b y t h e w o r d s : Eusebius
[Üsäb.yüs], the bishop of Caesarea, has said. T h e t e x t r o u g h l y c o r r e
s p o n d s t o t h e t a l e o f A b g a r r e c o u n t e d i n E u s e b i u s ' Historia Ecclesiastica,
1 , 1 3 . H o w e v e r , t h e d i v e r g e n c i e s a r e v e r y c o n s i d e r a b l e . T h e m a n n e r o f
t e l l i n g t h e s t o r y i s d i f f e r e n t i n t h e t w o t e x t s . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e Historia
Ecclesiastica d o e s n o t r e f e r t o t h e e x c h a n g e o f l e t t e r s b e t w e e n A b g a r
a n d T i b e r i u s . I n h i s l e t t e r t o J e s u s , A b g a r , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e Historia
Ecclesiastica, a d d r e s s e s h i m a s Ί η σ ο ϋ σ ω τ ή ρ ι ά γ α θ φ ά ν α φ α ν έ ν τ ι ε ν τ ό π φ
Ί ε ρ ο σ ο λ ν μ ί ο ν . I n A g a p i u s ' t e x t t h e f o r m o f a d d r e s s i s to Jesus,
practiser of medicine [ a l - m u t a t a b b i b ] , who has appeared in Jerusalem.
M a n y e x a m p l e s o f s u c h d i v e r g e n c i e s c o u l d b e c i t e d .
1 9 1 T h e t e x t h a s b e e n t r a n s l a t e d a n d a n n o t a t e d a b o v e .
1 9 2 K i r s o p p L a k e ' s t r a n s l a t i o n .
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these two [dates] does not
amount to four years. For
when Herod had charge of
them, he burnt the genealogies
of their tribes, in order that
it should no t be known that
he [was descended] from
undistinguished people. He
[also] took the priestly vest
men t and put it under his
seal. And he did not allowanyone of the high priests to
officiate as such for more than
one year. For this [reason]
there came up four high
[priests] in the [interval of
time] between the high
priesthood of Hannân andthat of Qayâfâ. For after the
dismissal of Hannän, Ismail,
the son of Yahyâ,193 took
his place. W hen he had
finished his year and quitted
his [office], Eliezer, the son of
Hannân the high priest,
replaced him. After he had
terminated h is year, Simon,
the son of Qamîhûd,194 ' suc
ceeded him. Then came after
him [and in his place]
Qayâfâ, on whose order andunder whose high priesthood
Caiaphas, the intervening
time does not extend to a full
four years. For since the
regulations were at that time
already in process of
destruction, the rule had been
relaxed by which the duties of
the service of God were held
for life and by inherited
succession, and the Rom an
governors entrusted the highpriesthood at different times
to different men, who did not
hold this office for more than
one year. M oreover, Josephus
relates that four high priests
intervened in succession
between Annas and Caiaphasand speaks as follows in the
text of the Antiquities
[XVIII, 34-35]: 'Valerius
Gratus, having deprived
Ananus of the priesthood,
appoints as high priest
Ishmael, the son of Phab i.
Him, too, he removes shortly
and nominates as high priest
Eliezer, the son of Ananus the
high priest. But when a year
had passed he removes him
also and hands over the highpriesthood to Simon , the son
1 9 3 T h i s n a m e i s s u b s t i t u t e d f o r s o m e f o r m o f P h a b i ; s e e a b o v e , n . 4 0 .
1 9 4 F o r t h e c o r r e c t f o r m o f t h e n a m e se e a b o v e , n . 4 6 .
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our Lord the Messiah, may he
be glorified, was crucified. Thus
the time between Hannän and
Qayäfä does not [amount] to
more 195 than four years.
of Cam ithus. But neither did
his tenure of office last for
more than a year, and
Josephus, who is also [called]
Caiaphas, was his successor'
Thus the whole time of the
teaching of our Saviour is
shown to be not even a full
four years; since from Annas
to the appointment of
Caiaphas in four years fourhigh priests held the yearly
office.
A s t h i s c o m p a r i s o n s h o w s , t h e r e i s a n e v i d e n t c o n n e c t i o n
b e t w e e n t h e t w o t e x t s , f o r t h e i r c e n t r a l t h e m e i s o n e a n d t h e
sa m e . B o t h seek to p r ov e , by r e f e r r ing to an iden t i ca l l i s t o f fo u r
s u c c e s s i v e h i g h p r i e s t s , 1 9 6 each o f whom i s sa id to have been
a p p o i n t e d f o r o n e y e a r o n l y , t h a t J e su s ' p u b l i c a c t i v i t y d i d n o tl a s t f u l l f ou r yea r s .
T h i s c o n n e c t i o n c a n a l s o b e d e m o n s t r a t e d b y t h e f a c t t h a t t h e
f i r s t sen tence in the passage f rom Euseb ius so lves the d i f f icu l ty
p resen ted in the f i r s t sen tence o f the passage f rom Agap ius .
T h e m e a n i n g o f t h e t w o s e n t e n c e s i s su b s t a n t i a l l y t h e s a m e ,
e x c e p t f o r o n e p o i n t : E u se b i u s i n t r o d u c e s t h e s e n t e n c e w i t h t h e
w o r d s The divine Scripture says, w h e r e a s A g a p i u s b e g i n s t h e
p a s s a g e w i t h t h e w o r d s And he also says, w h i c h , a s n o t e d a b o v e ,
d o n o t m a k e s e n se i n t h e c o n t e x t . T h e r e c a n b e n o d o u b t , I
t h i n k , t h a t o r i g i n a l ly t h e s e n t e n c e b e g a n , a s i n E u s e b i u s ' t e x t ,
w i t h t h e w o r d s The divine [ o r holy] Scripture says,191 a n d t h a t
a t so m e s t a g e i n t h e t r a n sm i s s i o n — o w i n g t o t h e e r r o r o f a
1 9 5 A s s t a t e d a b o v e , t h e M S h a s aqall - less, w h i c h i s a n o b v i o u s e r r o r .
1 9 6 K n o w n t o E u s e b i u s f r o m J o s e p h u s ' Antiquitates, t o w h i c h h e r e f e r s .
1 9 7 T h e G r e e k t e x t h a s φ η σ ϊ ν δ ε α υ τ ό ν ή Θ ε ία γ ρ α φ ή . T h e S y r i a c t r a n s l a
t i o n o f E u s e b i u s ' Historia Ecclesiastica r e a d s For the holy Scripture
says ( p . 4 4 ) .
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c o m p i l e r o r a s c r i b e — t h e w o r d s The divine Scripture w e r e
o m i t t e d . O n t h i s su p p o s i t i o n a l so t h e w o r d aydan w a s i n se r t e d
i n t h e p h r a se wa-qala aydan, i n o rde r to g ive the mu t i l a t ed
p h r a se a s e m b l a n c e o f m e a n i n g . I n t h e l i g h t o f E u se b i u s ' t e x t ,
A g a p i u s ' first s e n t e n c e i n t h e p a s s a g e u n d e r d i s c u s s i o n sh o u l d
r e a d The holy 196 Scripture says that all the public activity of our
Lord Christ, may he be glorified, occurred under the high
priesthood of Hannän and Qayäfä.
T w o p i e c e s o f i n f o r m a t i o n c o n t a i n e d i n t h i s p a s sa g e o f A g a p i u s
d o n o t a p p e a r i n t h e c o r r e sp o n d i n g t e x t o f E u se b i u s , b u t o c c u r
e l sewhere in the Historia Ecclesiastica, f r o m w h e r e t h e y w e r ed o u b t l e s s t a k e n o v e r e i t h e r b y A g a p i u s , o r , m o r e p r o b a b l y , b y
t h e a u t h o r o f t h e S y r i a c Chronicle w h i c h h e u s e d . T h u s , t h e
f a c t t h a t t h e y a r e i n c l u d e d i n t h e A r a b i c p a s s a g e u n d e r d i s c u s s i o n
c a n n o t b y a n y m e a n s s e r v e a s a n a r g u m e n t a g a i n s t t h e v i e w t h a t
t h e p a s sa g e i s e s s e n t i a l l y b a se d u p o n t h e Historia Ecclesiastica.
T h e s e t w o p i e c e s o f i n f o r m a t i o n a r e :
1. Herod... burnt the genealogies of their tribes in order that it
should not be known that he was descended from undistinguished
people. T h i s i n c i d e n t i s m e n t i o n e d b y E u s e b i u s , w h o q u o t e s
A f r i c a n u s ; s e e Historia Ecclesiastica, I , 7 : 1 3 .
2 . [Herod] took the priestly vestment and put it under his seal.
T h i s a c t i o n o f H e r o d i s l i k e w i se r e c o u n t e d b y E u se b i u s {Historia
Ecclesiastica, I , 6 : 1 0 ) , w h o q u o t e s J o s e p h u s . 1 9 9
O n o n e p o i n t , a n d o n e o n l y , A g a p i u s r e f e r s , i n t h e p a s sa g e i n
ques t ion , to a f ac t tha t i s no t found e i the r in the Historia
Ecclesiastica o r i n J o s e p h u s . F r o m J o s e p h u s ' Antiquitates,
X V I I I , 3 3 - 3 5 , i t m a y b e se en t h a t t h e h i g h p r i e s t s a p p o i n t e d
b y t h e R o m a n p r o c u r a t o r G r a t u s d i d n o t h o l d t h e i r o f f i c e f o r
m o r e t h a n a y e a r . O n t h e b a s i s o f t h i s t e x t E u se b i u s s t a t e s i n
t h e p a s sa g e o f t h e Historia Ecclesiastica q u o t e d a b o v e t h a t the
1 9 8 O r : divine.
199 Cf . Antiquitates, X V I I I , 9 2 - 9 3 . I t i s c l e a r t h a t i n t h i s c a s e A g a p i u s ( o r
h i s S y r i a c s o u r c e ) q u o t e s E u s e b i u s r a t h e r t h a n J o s e p h u s d i r e c t l y .
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Rom an governors entrusted the high priesthood at different times
to different men , who did not hold this office for more than one
year. N e i t h e r J o s e p h u s n o r t h e Historia Ecclesiastica i n the
r e c e n s i o n k n o w n t o u s s t a t e s t h a t t h e p r a c t i c e t o a p p o i n t h i g h
p r i e s t s f o r o n e y e a r o n l y w a s a l r e a d y i n t r o d u c e d b y H e r o d , 2 0 0
a s i s e x p l i c i t l y a s se r t e d b y A g a p i u s : And he did not allow any
one of the high priests to officiate as such for more than one year.
W e a r e a c c o r d i n g l y f a c e d w i t h a c o n u n d r u m , f o r s o m e p l a u s i b l e
e x p l a n a t i o n m u s t b e f o u n d f o r t h e f a c t t h a t o n e s i n g l e s t a t e m e n t
i n t h e p a s sa g e i n A g a p i u s d o e s n o t u l t i m a t e l y d e r i v e f r o m t h e
Historia Ecclesiastica as i t i s known to u s . Bu t fo r the ex i s t enceo f t h i s s t a t e m e n t , t h i s w o r k o f E u se b i u s c o u l d h a v e b e e n
r e g a r d e d a s t h e o b v i o u s s o u r c e o f t h e w h o l e p a s s a g e . 2 0 1
2 0 0 J o s e p h u s , w h e n s p e a k i n g o f H e r o d ' s p o l i c y w i t h re g ar d t o t h e a p p o i n t
m e n t o f h i g h p r i e s t s , s t a t e s t h a t t h i s p o l i c y w a s a l s o f o l l o w e d b y t h e
R o m a n s , b u t h e d o e s n o t r e f er i n t h i s t e x t t o t h e l i m i t a t i o n o f t h e h i g h
p r i e s t s ' t e n u r e o f o ff ic e t o o n e y e a r . S e e Antiquitates, X X , 2 4 7 - 2 5 0 :
Herod, when the kingdom was comm itted to him by the Rom ans, aban
doned the practice of appointing those of Asamon aean lineage as high
priests, and, with the exception of Aristobulus, alone assigned the office
to some insignificant persons who were merely of priestly descent...
After Aristobulus* death Herod ceased to entrust the high priesthood
to the descendants of the sons of Asamon aios. Herod's son Archelaus
also followed a similar policy in the appointment of high priests, as did
the Rom ans after him when they took over the government of the Jews.
Now those who held the high priesthood from the times of Herod up to
the day on which Titus captured and set fire to the temple and the city
numb ered twenty-eight in all, covering a period of one hundred an d seven
years ( t r a n s i. L . H . F e l d m a n ) . T h e f ac t t h a t n e w h i g h p r i es t s w e r e
a p p o i n t e d e v e r y y e a r i s a l s o r e f er r e d t o i n t h e T a l m u d i c l i t e r a t u r e ; t h e
p a s s a g e s a r e q u o t e d a n d d i s c u s s e d i n G . A l o n , bïCW* n n V i n a D n p n a{Studies in Jewish History), I , J e r u s a l e m 1 9 5 7 , p p . 4 8 if. T h i s f a c t a l s o
a c c o u n t s f o r t h e r e f er e n c e s i n t h e G o s p e l o f J o h n to the high priest of
that year: ά ρ χ ιε ρ ε ύ ς ώ ν τ ο υ ε ν ια ν τ ο ϋ ε κ ε ίν ο υ ( x i : 4 9 ) ; ά λ λ α ά ρ χ ι ε ρ ε ύ ς
ώ ν τ ο υ ε ν ια ν τ ο ϋ ε κ ε ίν ο ν ( x i : 5 1 ) ; δ ς ή ν ά ρ χ ι ε ρ ε ύ ς τ ο υ ε ν ια υ τ ο ϋ ε κ ε ίν ο υ
( x v i i i : 1 3 ) .
2 0 1 T h e f a c t t h a t t h e Historia Ecclesiastica w a s i n a l l p r o b a b i l i t y n o t t h e
i m m e d i a t e s o u r c e o f t h e p a s s a g e t h a t m a y h a v e b e e n t a k e n f r o m t h e
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I t m a y b e n o t e d t h a t a s i m i l a r s t a t e m e n t c o n c e r n i n g H e r o d ' s
p o l i c y o c c u r s i n M i c h a e l t h e S y r i a n ' s Chronicle.202
I n J . B . C h a b o t ' s t r a n s l a t i o n i t r e a d s : / / y eut trois grands-
prêtres après Hannan jusqu'à Caïphe: Ismaël, Eléazar et Simeon.
Puis vint Josephe qui est Caïphe . Hérode, en effet, ne laissait
chacun d'eux en fonction que pendan t un an.
T h i s s t a t e m e n t se e m s t o s u g g e s t t h a t H e r o d w a s a c o n t e m p o r a r y
o f t h e t h r e e h i g h p r i e s t s w h o a r e n a m e d ; t h i s c o u l d b e d u e
e i t h e r t o c o n f u s i o n o f H e r o d t h e G r e a t w i t h h i s n a m e s a k e , w h o
r e i g n e d a t t h e t i m e o f J e su s ' p u b l i c a c t i v i t y , o r t o t h e
c h r o n i c l e r ' s u n t h i n k i n g l y c o p y i n g h i s so u r c e s w i t h o u t a n ye f f o r t t o m a k e so m e se n se o u t o f t h e m .
T h e p a s sa g e o f A g a p i u s i s , I t h i n k , l e s s c o n f u se d , o r , a t l e a s t ,
t he con fus ion i s l e ss ev iden t . Never the le ss , bu t fo r one f ac to r ,
i t c o u l d e a s i l y b e a r g u e d t h a t t h e s t a t e m e n t t h a t H e r o d d i d n o t
pe rmi t h igh p r i e s t s to ho ld the i r o f f i ce fo r more than one yea r
sh o u l d b e i m p u t e d t o a s c r i b e ' s e r r o r o r t o a c o m p i l e r ' s o r
t r a n s l a t o r ' s m i s t a k e a n d t h a t , in t h e l a s t a n a l y s i s , i t r e su l t e d f r o ma c o r r u p t i o n o r m i su n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e r e l e v a n t p a s sa g e s o f
E u s e b i u s ' Historia Ecclesiastica. T h e f a c t o r t h a t d o e s n o t
p e r m i t t h i s f a c i l e so l u t i o n i s a p a s sa g e o f a n o t h e r w o r k o f
E u s e b i u s , Demonstratio, V I I I , 2 : 9 9 . I n t h i s p a s s a g e E u s e b i u s
exp l i c i t ly s t a t e s 2 0 3 t h a t H e r o d w a s t h e f i r s t — t h e R o m a n s
f o l l o w i n g h i s e x a m p l e — t o a p p o i n t h i g h p r i e s t s , 2 0 4 c o n t r a r y
to the Law, and to t r a f f i c in the o f f i ce , g iv ing i t t o common
a n d u n d i s t i n g u i s h e d m e n a n d c h a n g i n g t h e i n c u m b e n t s e v e r y
S y r i a c c h r o n i c l e u s e d b y A g a p i u s h a r d l y a f fe c t s t h e d i ff ic u l ty m e n t i o n e d
a b o v e . W h o e v e r i n t h e first p l a c e c o m p i l e d t h e p a s s a g e a p p e a r s t o
h a v e d e r i v e d a l l s t a t e m e n t s b u t o n e f r o m t h e Historia Ecclesiastica.
2 0 2 I , p . 1 4 3 .
2 0 3 T h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n p r e s u p p o s e s t h a t t h e s e n t e n c e s h o u l d b e c o n s t r u e d
a c c o r d i n g t o o r d i n a r y s y n t a c t i c r u l e s .
2 0 4 T h e t ex t h a s ι ε ρ ε ί ς - p riests , b u t i n t h e c o n t e x t o n l y high priests m a k e s
s e n s e .
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y e a r . 2 0 5 A f e w l i n e s f u r t h e r o n E u s e b i u s q u o t e s t h e p a s s a g e o f
J o s e p h u s ' Antiquitates9 X V I I I , 3 4 - 3 5 , a l s o f o u n d i n t h e t e x t o f
t h e Historia Ecclesiastica c i t e d a b o v e , c o n c e r n i n g t h e a p p o i n t
m e n t s a n d d i s m i s s a l s o f h i g h p r i e s t s b y V a l e r i u s G r a t u s .
A c a s e c o u l d b e m a d e o u t f o r t h e s u p p o s i t i o n t h a t t h e s t a t e m e n t s
i n t h i s p a s s a g e c o n c e r n i n g t h e p o l i c y , w h i c h a r e n o t f o u n d i n
o u r r e c e n s i o n o f J o s e p h u s ' Antiquitates, ar e in ferences f rom
Antiquitates, X X , 2 4 7 , w h e r e J o s e p h u s a s s er t s t h a t t h e R o m a n s
f o l l o w e d H e r o d ' s p o l i c y i n t h e a p p o i n t m e n t o f h i g h p r i e s t s ,
c o m b i n e d w i t h Antiquitates, X V I I I , 3 4 - 3 5 , w h e r e J o s e p h u s
d e s c r i b e s V a l e r i u s G r a t u s ' p r a c t i c e s i n t h i s m a t t e r . I t m a y ,h o w e v e r , a l s o b e a r g u e d t h a t t h e p a s s a g e s h o w s t h a t , w h e n
w r i t i n g t h i s p a s s a g e o f t h e Demonstratio, E u s e b i u s u s e d s o m e
h i s t o r i c a l t e x t 2 0 6 u n k n o w n t o u s , w h e r e h e f o u n d , inter alia,
t h e ex p l ic i t s t a t e m e n t t h a t H e r o d , l ik e t h e R o m a n s , a p p o i n t e d
a h i g h p r i e s t f o r o n e y e a r o n l y ; a s t a t e m e n t w h i c h , a s w e h a v e
2 0 5 . . . π ρ ώ τ ο ς μ ε ν Η ρ ώ δ η ς , έ π ε ιτ α δ ε κ α ι ' Ρ ω μ α ίο ι μ ε τ ά τ ο ύ τ ο ν ά κ ρ ίτ ω ςκ α ι ο ύ κ α τ ά τ ο ν ν ό μ ο ν τ ο υ ς Ι ε ρ ε ίς κ α β ί ο τ ω ν , ο ϋ ς ε δ ό κ ε ι α ύ τ ο ϊ ς
δ η μ ο τ ι κ ο ΐ ς τ ισ ι κ α ι ά σ ή μ ο ι ς ά ν δ ρ ά σ ι τ ή ν τ ιμ ή ν χ α ρ ιζ ό μ ε ν ο ι, ε π ί -
π ρ α σ κ ο ν τ ε κ α ι ε κ α π ή λ ε ο ν τ ο ϋ ν ο μ α , ά λ λ ο τ ε ά λ λ ο ις έ ν ι α σ ια ΐο ν τ α
α ξ ίω μ α δ ω ρ ο ύ μ ε ν ο ι.
A l o n {pp. cit., η . 2 0 0 , p . 5 8 , η . 3 7 ) c o n s i d e r s th a t E u s e b i u s ' o p i n i o n , a s
e x p r e s s e d i n t h e Historia Ecclesiastica i n r e g a r d t o t h e t i m e w h e n
h i g h p r i e s t s b e g a n t o b e a p p o i n t e d f o r o n e y e a r o n l y , i s i n c o r r e c t .
H e c o n s i d e r s t h a t H e r o d , r a t h er t h a n a n y o n e e l s e , m u s t h a v e b e e n
r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h i s i n n o v a t i o n , a n d q u o t e s , i n o r d e r t o c o r r o b o r a t e
h i s v i e w , A g a p i u s a n d B a r H e b r a e u s ' Chronicon Ecclesiasticum a n d
Chronicon Syriacum. I t s e e m s t o h a v e e s c a p e d h i s n o t i c e t h a t i n h i s
Demonstratio a l s o E u s e b i u s s u b s c r i b e s t o t h i s o p i n i o n . T h e t ra f fi ck in g
i n t h e h i g h p r i e s t ' s o f f i c e m e n t i o n e d i n t h i s p a s s a g e o f t h e Demonstratio
i s a l s o r e f e r r e d t o i n T a l m u d i c l i t e r a t u r e ; s e e A l o n , op. cit., p p . 4 8 f f .
T h e r e i s a l s o a n a l l u s i o n t o i t i n J o h n C h r y s o s t o m , In Inscriptione
Altaris ( M i g n e , Patrologia Graeca, L I , C o l . 7 3 ) , q u o t e d b y A l o n , op .
cit., p . 5 8 .
2 0 6 T h i s c o u l d , o f c o u r s e , h a v e b e e n a s l i g h t l y d i ff e r en t t e x t o f J o s e p h u s '
Antiquitates', o r E u s e b i u s m i g h t h a v e d r a w n u p o n J u l i u s A f r i c a n u s ,
w h o , i n h i s t u r n , m a y , a s s u g g e s t e d b y H . G e l z e r ( s e e b e l o w , n . 2 0 8 ) ,
h a v e o c c a s i o n a l l y m a d e u s e o f J u s t u s o f T i b e r i a s .
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s e e n , d o e s n o t o c c u r i n t h e Historia Ecclesiastica. But a l l t h i s
i s , o f c o u r s e , m e r e s p e c u l a t i o n . T h e p a s s a g e i n E u s e b i u s '
Demonstratio d o e s , h o w e v e r , l e a d t o a n i n d u b i t a b l e c o n c l u s i o n :
t h e s t a t e m e n t o f A g a p i u s a n d M i c h a e l t h e S y r i a n 2 0 7 t h a t H e r o d
l imi ted the t enu re o f the o f f i ce o f the h igh p r i e s t s he appo in ted
c a n n o t b e d u e t o t h e m i s t a k e o f a n o r i e n t a l c o m p i l e r , t r a n s l a t o r
o r s c r i b e , s i n c e t h i s s t a t e m e n t i s a l r e a d y m a d e b y E u s e b i u s ;
t h e s u g g e s t i o n m o o t e d a b o v e i s t h u s p r e c l u d e d . O n t h e o t h e r
h a n d , i t i s i m p r o b a b l e t h a t A g a p i u s , M i c h a e l a n d t h e S y r i a c
c h r o n i c l e r s t h e y u s e d t o o k o v e r t h e s t a t e m e n t c o n c e r n i n g
H e r o d ' s a p p o i n t m e n t o f h i g h p r i e s t s f r o m E u s e b i u s ' Demonstratio, w h i c h i s n o t a h i s t o r i o g r a p h i c a l w o r k ; t h e r e a r e , I
t h i n k , s t r o n g g r o u n d s f o r s u p p o s i n g t h a t t h e y t o o k t h e i r
i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m h i s t o r i c a l w o r k s a n d n o t f r o m t h e o l o g i c a l
t r e a t i s e s . M o r e o v e r , a s w e h a v e s e e n , t h e p a s s a g e i n A g a p i u s
w h e r e t h e s t a t e m e n t i n q u e s t i o n o c c u r s d e r i v e s i n a l l o t h e r
r e s p e c t s f r o m t h e Historia Ecclesiastica. T h i s m i g h t l e g i t i m a t e
t h e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t t h e s t a t e m e n t i n q u e s t i o n w a s a l s o f o u n d
i n t h i s w o r k : i t m i g h t h a v e a p p e a r e d i n a l o s t r e c e n s i o n o f i t .
T h i s h y p o t h e s i s i s c l e a r l y s t r e n g t h e n e d b y t h e f a c t t h a t a
s i m i l a r s t a t e m e n t c o n c e r n i n g H e r o d ' s p o l i c y w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e
a p p o i n t m e n t o f h i g h p r i e s t s w a s i n s e r t e d b y E u s e b i u s i n t o
a n o t h e r w o r k : t h e Demonstratio; t h e e x t a n t r e c e n s i o n o f t h e
Historia Ecclesiastica i s o n t h i s p o i n t i n c o n s o n a n t w i t h t h e
Demonstratio, b u t t h e h y p o t h e t i c a l l o s t r e c e n s i o n m i g h t h a v e
b e e n i n a g r e e m e n t w i t h t h e l a t t e r .
T h i s l i n e o f r e a s o n i n g c a n b e f o l l o w e d u p : I f t h e r e a r e s t r o n g
a r g u m e n t s i n f a v o u r o f t h e s u r m i s e t h a t a n u n k n o w n r e c e n s i o n
o f t h e Historia Ecclesiastica was the sou rce o f a p iece o f
i n f o r m a t i o n c o n c e r n i n g H e r o d f o u n d i n A g a p i u s a n d i n M i c h a e l ,
i t c o u l d a l s o b e a r g u e d t h a t t h i s r e c e n s i o n m i g h t b e s o u r c e Xw h o s e e x i s t e n c e w a s p o s t u l a t e d a b o v e ; i t m i g h t b e s u p p o s e d
t h a t a t s o m e s t a g e i n i t s r e d a c t i o n t h e Historia Ecclesiastica
2 0 7 A s a l s o o f B a r H e b r a e u s ; s e e a b o v e , n . 2 0 5 .
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m i g h t h a v e c o n t a i n e d a n u n c h r i s t i a n i z e d v e r s i o n o f t h e
T e s t i m o n i u m — o r o n e l e s s C h r i s t i a n i z e d t h a n t h a t o f t h e
v u l g a t e ( p o p u l a r i z e d b y E u se b i u s ) — a n d t h a t t h a t v e r s i o n w a s
u se d b y A g a p i u s , a n d t o so m e e x t e n t b y M i c h a e l t h e S y r i a n .
Th i s i s , o f cou r se , on ly a g l immer o f a poss ib le so lu t ion — a
v e r y h y p o t h e t i c a l o n e — t o o n e o f s e v e r a l p r o b l e m s p o se d b y
A g a p i u s ' v e r si o n o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m . 2 0 8
2 0 8 T h e f a c t t h a t A g a p i u s i n h i s a c c o u n t o f t h e p e r i o d o f t h e S e c o n d
T e m p l e u s e d o t h e r w i s e u n k n o w n m a t e r i a l m a y b e v e r i f i e d b y a n e x a m
i n a t i o n o f t h e s t o r y o f t h e k i l l i n g o f H e r o d ' s w i f e a s r e l a t e d b y h i m :Herod died [w hile suffering] from great and bitter pain. A nd it is said that
he killed his wife, w hile she was sleeping in a bed with him. In fact, a quarrel
broke out between them. The exchange of angry words w ent on and on.
Finally she started to rail at him. T hereupon he went out of his mind,
took a cushion, put it upon her face, sat upon it, and did not stand up until
she was dead. After that he killed his own son [ I e m e n d ibnatohu t o ib~
nahu] and some of his relatives ( e d . C h e i k h o , p . 1 4 0 ) .
T h i s s t o r y i s f o l l o w e d b y a n a c c o u n t o f H e r o d ' s l a s t i l l n e s s , w h i c h i s
c l e a r l y d e r i v e d f r o m J o s e p h u s ' t w o a c c o u n t s o f t h i s i ll n e s s (Bellum
Judaicum, I , 6 5 6 ; Antiquitates, X V I I , 1 6 8 - 1 6 9 ) , b o t h o f w h i c h a r e
q u o t e d i n E u s e b i u s ' Historia Ecclesiastica, I , 8 : 5 - 9 . A g a p i u s a l s o m e n
t i o n s i n t h i s c o n n e c t i o n H e r o d ' s a t t e m p t t o k i l l h i m s e l f r e c o u n t e d i n
Bellum Judaicum, I , 6 6 2 , q u o t e d b y E u s e b i u s i n h i s Historia Ecclesi
astica, I , 8 : 1 4 , a n d h i s o r d e r t o h i s s i s t e r S a l o m e (Shälüm) t o k i l l
a f t e r h i s d e a t h t h e J e w s a s s e m b l e d a t t h e p l a c e w h e r e h e l a y d y i n g .
T h i s i s c l e a r l y d e r i v e d f r o m t h e s t o r y t o l d i n Bellum Judaicum, I ,
660 (c f . Antiquitates, X V I I , 1 7 4 - 1 7 7 ) a n d q u o t e d b y E u s e b i u s i n h i s
Historia Ecclesiastica, I , 8 : 1 3 .
T h e s t a t e m e n t t h a t H e r o d k i l l e d h i s o w n s o n s e e m s t o r e f e r t o t h e
e x e c u t i o n , r e c o u n t e d b y J o s e p h u s (Bellum Judaicum, I , 6 6 3 - 6 6 4 ; Anti
quitates, X V I I , 1 8 7 , 1 9 1 ) , o f H e r o d ' s s o n A n t i p a t e r , o r d e r e d b y H e r o d
s h o r t l y b e f o r e h e d i e d . I n r e f e r r i n g t o t h i s e v e n t , E u s e b i u s (Historia
Ecclesiastica, I , 8 : 1 5 ) d o e s n o t m e n t i o n t h e n a m e A n t i p a t e r ; h e m e r e l y
s a y s t h a t b e f o r e h i s d e a t h H e r o d k i l l e d a l e g i t i m a t e s o n o f h i s . T h i s
m a y b e a n i n d i c a t i o n t h a t i n t h e p a s s a g e u n d e r d i s c u s s i o n A g a p i u s ,
o r r a t h e r h i s S y r i a c s o u r c e , u s e d E u s e b i u s ' Historia Ecclesiastica.
T h u s m a n y e l e m e n t s i n t h i s p a s s a g e o f A g a p i u s a p p e a r t o b e d e r i v e d
f r o m J o s e p h u s , p r o b a b l y t h r o u g h t h e i n t e r m e d i a r y o f E u s e b i u s .
H o w e v e r , t h e s t o r y c o n c e r n i n g t h e k i l l i n g o f H e r o d ' s w i f e i s n o t f o u n d
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A n o t h e r q u e s t i o n i s t h a t o f t h e r e l a t i o n , f r o m t h e t e x t u a l p o i n t
o f v iew, o f th i s ve r s ion to the ea r l i e s t p r e -Euseb ian r ecens ion
o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m , t h e o n e w h i c h m a y — i t i s a m o o t
p o i n t — h a v e b e e n c o m p o s e d b y J o s e p h u s himself.
I n t h i s c o n n e c t i o n , t h e r e l e v a n t p a s sa g e s o f O r i g e n sh o u l d b e
m e n t i o n e d . I n t h r e e p a s s a g e s O r i g e n m e n t i o n s 2 0 9 J o s e p h u s '
a l lu s ions to Je sus ; a l l t h r ee r e f e r to the desc r ip t ion , found in
Antiquität es, X X , 2 0 0 , o f J a m e s a s the brother of Jesus, who was
called the Christ210 - τ ο ν α δ ε λ φ ο ν τ ο ν λ ε γ ο μ έ ν ο ν χ ρ ι σ τ ο ϋ ,1
Ι ά κ ω β ο ς δ ν ο μ α α ν τ ω . I n t h e s e p a s s a g e s O r i g e n a l s o r e m a r k s
t h a t J o s e p h u s w a s w r o n g ( t h o u g h a c c o r d i n g t o Contra Celsum,1 , 4 7 , not far from the truth) i n s u p p o s i n g t h a t t h e c o n d e m n a t i o n
i n e i t h e r o f t h e s e a u t h o r s . J o s e p h u s g i v e s t w o a c c o u n t s {Bellum Judai
cum, 4 4 1 - 4 4 4 ; Antiquitates, X V , 2 1 8 - 2 3 9 ; cf. X V , 6 8 - 8 7 ) o f t h e e x e c u
t i o n o f H e r o d ' s w i f e M a r i a m n e . T h e s e a c c o u n t s d iff er f r o m o n e a n
o t h e r , b u t e v e n m o r e s o f r o m A g a p i u s ' s t o r y ; i n b o t h , M a r i a m n e i s
k i l l e d b y H e r o d ' s o r d e r , b u t n o t b y h i s o w n h a n d . A c c o r d i n g l y , t h i s i s
a n o t h e r e x a m p l e o f A g a p i u s ' u t i l i z a t io n o f a n u n k n o w n , p o s s i b l y e a r ly
s o u r c e w i t h i n a p a s s a g e th a t o t h e r w i s e a p p e a r s , i n t h e l a s t a n a l y s i s ,
t o s t e m f r o m J o s e p h u s a s q u o t e d b y E u s e b i u s . I t m a y b e r e l e v a n t t o
p o i n t o u t th a t s i m i l a r p r o b l e m s a re p o s e d b y t h e B y z a n t i n e h i s t o r i o
g r a p h er S y n c e l l u s , w h o s e a c c o u n t o f t h e H a s m o n e a n p e r i o d c o n t a i n s
m a t e r i a l t h a t i s n o t d e r i v e d f r o m J o s e p h u s . G e l z e r m e n t i o n s t h e p o s
s i b i l i t y t h a t t h i s m a t e r i a l m a y h a v e o c c u r r e d i n t h e h i s t o r i c a l w o r k o f
J o s e p h u s ' c o n t e m p o r a r y a n d o p p o n e n t , J u s t u s o f T i b e r i a s ; a c c o r d i n g
t o t h i s h y p o t h e s i s , S y n c e l l u s ' i m m e d i a t e s o u r c e w a s J u l i u s A f r i c a n u s ,
w h o d r e w u p o n J u s t u s , a n d w a s i n t u r n u s e d b y S y n c e l l u s ; s e e
H . G e l z e r , Sextus Julius Africanus und die Byzantinische Chronographie,
I , L e i p z i g 1 8 8 0 , p p . 2 5 6 - 2 6 5 , e s p . p . 2 6 5 .
S i m i l a r c o n j e c t u r e s c a n c l e a r l y b e m a d e c o n c e r n i n g t h e s o u r c e s o f
A g a p i u s ; p o s s i b l y t h e y c o u l d , a t l e a s t t o s o m e e x t e n t , b e c o r r o b o r a t e d
o r d i s p r o v e d , a s t h e c a s e m a y b e , b y m e a n s o f a d e t a i l e d c o m p a r i s o n
o f A g a p i u s ' h i s t o r i o g r a p h y w i t h t h a t o f S y n c e l l u s a n d o t h e r B y z a n
t i n e h i s t o r i a n s .
2 0 9 C o m m e n t a r y o n M a t t h e w i : 1 7 ; Contra Celsum, I , 4 7 ; Π , 1 3 . T h e
p a s s a g e s a r e q u o t e d i n f u ll b y C . M a r t i n , ' L e " T e s t i m o n i u m F l a v i a -
n u m " ', Revue Beige de Philologie et d'Histoire, X X ( 1 9 4 1 ) , p p . 4 1 9 - 4 2 0 .
2 1 0 O r : the Messiah.
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o f J a m e s b r o u g h t a b o u t t h e c a p t u r e o f J e r u s a l e m a n d t h e
d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h e T e m p l e — a n o p i n i o n t h a t i s a l s o a s c r i b e d
t o J o s e p h u s b y E u s e b i u s , 2 1 1 bu t wh ich i s no t found in ou r t ex t
o f the Antiquitates. A c c o r d i n g t o O r i g e n , 2 1 2 J o s e p h u s s h o u l d
h a v e p u t t h e b l a m e f o r t h i s n a t i o n a l c a t a s t r o p h e o n t h e J e w i s h
a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s J e s u s .
I n t w o o f t h e s e p a s s a g e s O r i g e n a l s o s t a t e s t h a t J o s e p h u s d i d
n o t b e l ie v e t h a t J e s u s w a s t h e M e s s i a h . A c c o r d i n g t o O r i g e n ' s
c o m m e n t a r y o n M a t t h e w i : 17, he did not accept our Jesus as
the M essiah -τ ο ν Ί η σ ο ϋ ν η μ ώ ν ov κ α τ α δ ε ξ ά μ ε ν ο ς ε ίν α ι χ ρ ισ τ ό ν .
I n Contra Celsum, 1 ,4 7 , h e s a y s , s p e a k in g of J o s e p h u s , . . . thoughdisbelieving in Jesus [regarded] as the Messiah - κ α ί τ ο ι γ ε ά π ι σ
τ ω ν τ ω Ί η σ ο ν ώ ς χ ρ ισ τ ώ . . .
D o t h e s e s t a t e m e n t s c o n c e r n i n g t h e d i sb e l ie f o f J o s e p h u s i n
J e s u s ' M e s s i a h s h i p i n d i c a t e t h a t O r i g e n h a d k n o w l e d g e o f a
T e s t i m o n i u m F l a v i a n u m , i .e . o f a p a s s a g e o f J o s e p h u s r e fe r ri n g
to J e su s th a t w as d if fe r en t f rom th e vu lg a te t e x t? — fo r , a s
w e m a y r e c a l l , t h i s t e x t c o n t a i n s t h e u n c o m p r o m i s i n g a s s e r t i o n
t h a t H e was the M essiah.
O b v i o u s l y t h e o t h e r p o s s i b l e h y p o t h e s i s i s t h a t t h e h i s t o r i c a l
w o r k s o f J o s e p h u s , a s k n o w n t o O r i g e n , c o n t a i n e d n o p a s s a g e
d i r e c t l y d e a l i n g w i t h J e s u s ; i t c a n b e a r g u e d t h a t O r i g e n m i g h t
h a v e i n f e rr e d f r o m t h i s h y p o t h e t i c a l c i rc u m s t a n c e t h a t J o s e p h u s
w a s a n u n b e l i e v e r . 2 1 3
O n t h e w h o l e , t h e first s u p p o s i t i o n s e em s t o m e t o b e m o r e
p r o b a b l e ; O r i g e n ' s a s s e r t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g J o s e p h u s ' u n b e li e f a r e
so posi t ive tha t i t i s d i f f icu l t to main ta in tha t they are so le ly
b a s e d o n a n argumentum ex silentio.
2 1 1 Historia Ecclesiastica, I I , 2 3 .
2 1 2 S e e Contra Celsum, I , 4 7 ; I I , 1 3 .
2 1 3 B e c a u s e h i s s i l e n c e c o u l d b e t a k e n a s i n d i c a t i n g a c o m p l e t e l a c k o f
i n t e r e s t i n J e s u s . T h e c u r s o r y r e f e r e n c e i n Antiquitates, X X , 2 0 0 , t o
J a m e s ' b e i n g the brother of Jesus, who was called the Christ - τ ο ν ά δ -
ε λ φ ό ν Ί η σ ο ϋ τ ο υ λ ε γ ο μ έ ν ο υ χ ρ ι σ τ ο ύ , c a n , i f o n e i s i n c l i n e d t h a t w a y ,
b e e a s i l y b r o u g h t i n t o l i n e w i t h t h i s v i e w .
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I f w e a d m i t t h a t O r i g e n w a s a c q u a i n t e d w i t h a r e c e n s i o n o f t h e
T e s t i m o n i u m , i t f o l l o w s f r o m h i s r e m a r k s , a s h a s b e e n p a r t l y
ind ica ted , tha t th i s r ecens ion mus t have d i f f e r ed f rom tha t o f
t h e v u l g a t e i n a t l e a s t t w o i n t e r c o n n e c t e d p a r t i c u l a r s :
1 . I t d id no t con ta in the sen tence He was the M essiah.
2 . I t con ta ined e i the r a scep t i ca l o r a nega t ive r e f e rence to the
c l a i m t o M e s s i a h s h i p m a d e o n J e s u s ' behalf.
In th i s con tex t i t may be r eca l l ed tha t the r ecens ions o f S t .
J e r o m e a n d M i c h a e l c o n t a i n e d t h e s e n t e n c e He was believed214
to be the Messiah. T h i s s e n t e n c e ( w h i c h p r o b a b l y a l s o a p p e a r e d
i n A g a p i u s ' S y r i a c s o u r c e ) s t r i k e s a m i l d l y d u b i t a t i v e n o t e a n dm a y acco rd in g ly fill t h e b i l l . I t ca n be a rgued th a t i t m a y h av e
b e e n t h e p h r a s e t o w h i c h O r i g e n a l l u d e d .
I t m a y , h o w e v e r , b e m a i n t a i n e d t h a t O r i g e n ' s r e m a r k a p p e a r s
t o i n d i c a t e a m u c h m o r e o u t s p o k e n s c e p t i c i s m o n t h e p a r t o f
J o s e p h u s , e v e n a d o w n r i g h t d e n i a l o f J e s u s ' M e s s i a h s h i p . I f t h i s
con ten t ion i s accep ted , the sen tence in the r ecens ions o f S t .
J e r o m e a n d M i c h a e l c o u l d b e h e l d t o b e a w a t e r e d - d o w n
v e r s i o n o f t h e p h r a s e k n o w n t o O r i g e n .
I t m a y b e n o t e d t h a t t h e r e c e n s i o n o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m w i t h
w h i c h , a c c o r d i n g t o o u r s u r m i s e , O r i g e n m a y h a v e b e e n a c
q u a i n t e d d o e s n o t s e e m t o h a v e c o n t a i n e d d e r o g a t o r y r e m a r k s
re fe r r ing to Je sus ; O r i g e n w o u l d h a v e p r e t t y c e rt a in l y a n i m a d
v e r t e d u p o n t h e m .
T o s u m u p : T h e p e c u l i a r v e r s i o n o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m F l a v i a n u m
f o u n d i n t h e c h r o n i c l e o f t h e t e n t h - c e n t u r y J a c o b i t e h i s t o r i a n
A g a p i u s s e e m s t o b e r e l e v a n t t o t h e d i s c u s s i o n c e n t r e d o n t h i s
J o s e p h i n e o r p s e u d o - J o s e p h i n e t e x t . I t s i m p o r t a n c e r e s i d e s i n
the fac t tha t i t i s so d i f fe ren t f rom the vu lga te vers ion tha t
h a r d l y a n y o f t h e a r g u m e n t s ( o r , p e r h a p s , n o n e ) d i s p r o v i n g t h e
au then t i c i ty o f the l a t t e r have any va l id i ty wi th r ega rd to i t .I n t h e m a i n , t h i s a u t h e n t i c i t y h a s b e e n q u e s t i o n e d b e c a u s e o f
t h e p r o n o u n c e d C h r i s t ia n t r a i t s o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m ; i n A g a p i u s '
2 1 4 O r : thought.
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v e r s i o n t h e s e t r a i t s a r e c o n s p i c u o u s b y t h e i r a b s e n c e , a n o n
c o m m i t t a l a t t i t u d e b e i n g t a k e n u p .
Th i s ve r s ion r e fe r s to the r epo r t o f the d i sc ip le s conce rn ing
J e s u s ' a p p e a r a n c e a f t e r t h e c r u c i f i x i o n , b u t , c o n t r a r y t o t h e
v u l g a t e r e c e n s i o n , d o e s n o t p o s i t i v e l y s t a t e t h a t t h i s a p p e a r a n c e
was a f ac t . Nor does i t a f f i rm the t ru th o f the c l a im tha t Je sus
w a s t h e M e s s i a h ; t h e re l e v a n t p h r a s e — r e t r a n s l a t e d i n t o
S y r i a c — m e r e l y i n f o r m s u s t h a t h e w a s t h o u g h t t o b e t h e
M e s s i a h . T h e r e i s n o d e r o g a t o r y r e f e r e n c e t o J e s u s , a n d h i s
h u m a n q u a l i t i e s a r e a c c o r d e d p r a i s e . B u t t h i s a p p r e c i a t i o n i s
c o m p a r a b l e i n k i n d t o J o s e p h u s ' e v a l u a t i o n o f o t h e r p e r s o n a l i t i e s . O n i a s , f o r i n s t a n c e , i s s a i d t o b e a righteous man and
dear to God.215
I n t h e r e c e n s i o n o f t h e t w e l f t h - c e n t u r y S y r i a c Chronicle o f
M i c h a e l t h e S y r i a n w e a l s o e n c o u n t e r t h e f o r m u l a t i o n t h a t
J e s u s w a s t h o u g h t t o b e t h e M e s s i a h . M i c h a e l ' s r e c e n s i o n h a s
a l s o s o m e o t h e r t r a i t s i n c o m m o n w i t h t h a t o f A g a p i u s ; h o w
eve r , in many r e spec t s i t i s c lo se to the vu lga te r ecens ion o f the
T e s t i m o n i u m f o u n d i n t h e S y r ia c t r a n s l a t i o n o f E u s e b i u s '
Historia Ecclesiastica. I t c o u l d b e r e g a r d e d a s a n a m a l g a m o f
t h e t w o , b u t i t i s n o t c e r t a i n t h a t t h i s i s t h e s o l u t i o n .
S t . J e r o m e ' s r e c e n s i o n o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m , w h i c h i s o n e o f t h e
e a r l i e s t k n o w n t o u s , h a s a s i m i l a r f o r m u l a t i o n : He was believed
to be the Messiah.216
T h i s m a y b e c o n s i d e r e d a s a p e r h a p s
s o m e w h a t s u p e r e r o g a t o r y i n d i c a t i o n t h a t t h e p a r a l l e l s e n te n c e s
i n A g a p i u s ' a n d M i c h a e l ' s r e c e n s i o n s h a v e n o t b e e n c o i n e d i n
t h e n i n t h c e n t u r y o r t h e r e a b o u t , b u t g o b a c k t o a m u c h e a r l i e r
p e r i o d .
2 1 5 R . M a r c u s ' t r a n s l a t i o n ; Antiquitates, X I V , 2 2 : δ ί κ α ιο ς ά ν ή ρ κ α ι Θ ε ο
φ ιλ ή ς . A c o m p a r a b l e m e e d o f p r a i s e i s p o s s i b l y m e t e d o u t b y
J o s e p h u s t o J o h n t h e B a p t i s t (Antiquitates, X V I I I , 1 1 7 ) , b u t t h e ref
e r e n c e t o h i m h a s b e e n r e g a r d e d b y s o m e s c h o l a r s a s a C h r i s t i a n
i n t e r p o l a t i o n .
2 1 6 S t . J e r o m e ' s r e c e n s i o n is a l s o r e m i n i s c e n t o f t h e O r i e n t a l r e c e n s i o n s
c i t e d h e r e i n s o m e s i g n i f i c a n t p a r t i c u l a r s .
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T h e r e a r e s o m e i n d i c a t i o n s t h a t a n u n k n o w n r e c e n s i o n o f
E u s e b i u s ' Historia Ecclesiastica m a y h a v e b e e n t h e u l t i m a t e
s o u r c e o f t h e p a s s a g e i n A g a p i u s im m e d i a t e l y f o l lo w i n g u p o n
t h e T e s t i m o n i u m . 2 1 7
C o n c e i v a b l y , A g a p i u s ' v e r s i o n o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m c o u l d h a v e
b e e n t a k e n f r o m t h i s h y p o t h e t i c a l v e r s i o n o f t h e Historia
Ecclesiastica. H o w e v e r , t h i s i s a m e r e s u p p o s i t i o n , w h i c h m a y
t o s o m e e x t e n t b e v e r i f i e d o r d i s p r o v e d b y a n e x a m i n a t i o n o f
t h e s o u r c e s o f t h e p o r t i o n o f A g a p i u s ' c h r o n i c l e d e a l i n g w i t h
t h e p e r i o d o f t h e S e c o n d T e m p l e a n d t h e e a r l y c e n t u r i e s o f
C h r i s t i a n i t y .O r i g e n ' s r e m a r k s o n t h e d i s b e l i e f o f J o s e p h u s p r o v e t h a t h i s
c o p y o f t h e Antiquitates d i d n o t i n c l u d e t h e v u l g a t e r e c e n s i o n
o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m . T h e s e r e m a r k s c a n e a s i l y b e m a d e t o f i t i n
w i t h A g a p i u s ' v e r s i o n . I t c a n , h o w e v e r , b e a r g u e d t h a t t h e
v e r s i o n o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m k n o w n t o O r i g e n 2 1 8 m a n i f e s t e d ,
w i t h r e g a r d t o C h r i s t i a n i t y , a m o r e p r o n o u n c e d l y s c e p t i c a l o r
n e g a t i v e a t t i t u d e t h a n t h e n o n - c o m m i t t a l v e r s i o n o f A g a p i u s .
I s t h e r e a n y p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t t h i s v e r s i o n s h o u l d b e i d e n t i c a l
w i t h , o r c o m e c l o s e t o , t h e o r i g i n a l t e x t o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m a s
c o m p o s e d b y J o s e p h u s ? T h i s m i g h t h a v e s e e m e d t o b e t h e m a i n
qu es t i on a r i s ing f rom th e ex i s t ence o f th i s ve r s io n , i f t h e re h ad
n o t b e e n a s c h o o l o f t h o u g h t t h a t c o n s i d e r s t h a t t h e T e s t i m o n i u m
is w ho l ly a Ch r i s t i a n fo rge ry . In the l igh t o f th e fac t th a t th i s
v i e w i s , o r h a s b e e n , s t r o n g l y r e p r e s e n t e d a m o n g s c h o l a r s , a
p r e l i m i n a r y q u e s t i o n s e e m s t o b e n e c e s s a r y ; i t m a y b e p u t a s
f o l l o w s : d o e s t h e e x i s t e n c e o f A g a p i u s ' v e r s i o n ( w h i c h w a s
gene ra l ly l e f t ou t o f accoun t in the d i scuss ion o f the Tes t i
m o n i u m ) t e n d t o s h o w t h a t t h e s c e p t i c i s m o f t h e s c h o l a r s i n
qu es t ion w as un jus t i f i ed?
N o c lea r - cu t o r final ans w ers to these tw o in te r r e la t e d qu es t ion s
2 1 7 A n d , a t l e a s t , o f o n e o t h e r p a s s a g e .
2 1 8 O n t h e w h o l e , i t s e e m s p r o b a b l e t h a t h e d i d k n o w a r e c e n s i o n o f t h e
T e s t i m o n i u m .
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c a n b e l o o k e d f o r ; t h e r e a r e t o o m a n y u n k n o w n f a c t o r s. H o w
e v e r , c e r t a i n c o n s i d e r a t i o n s s p r i n g t o m i n d .
A s h a s b e e n s t a t e d , n o n e o f t h e m a i n o b j e c t i o n s p u t f o r w a r d
aga ins t the au then t i c i ty o f the vu lga te r ecens ion o f the Tes t i
m o n i u m w o u l d h o l d w a t e r i f t h e y w e r e l e v e ll e d a g a i n s t A g a p i u s '
v e r s i o n . I n o r d e r t o c o m p o s e t h e l a t t e r J o s e p h u s n e e d n o t h a v e
been a Chr i s t i an . In f ac t , a s f a r a s p robab i l i t i e s go , no be l i ev ing
C h r i s t i a n c o u l d h a v e p r o d u c e d s u c h a n e u t r a l t e x t ; f o r h i m t h e
on ly s ign if i can t po i n t ab ou t i t co u l d hav e be en i t s a t t e s t in g th e
h i s to r i c a l ex i s t ence o f Je su s . Bu t th e f ac t i s th a t un t i l m od er n
t i m e s t h i s p a r t i c u l a r h a r e w a s n e v e r s t a r t e d . E v e n t h e m o s tb i t t e r o p p o n e n t s o f C h r i s t i a n i t y n e v e r e x p r e s s e d a n y d o u b t a s
to Je su s ' ha v in g r ea l ly l ived . T he y con f ined them se lves to
dep lo r in g th e con seq uen ces o f th i s f ac t , an d , in ce r t a in case s ,
J e s u s ' b e h a v i o u r . J o s e p h u s , h o w e v e r , w h o , w i t h i n c e r t a i n l i m
i t s c l a im ed to be a n ob jec t ive h i s to r i an , cou ld have w r i t t en
th i s t ex t .
I t m i g h t , h o w e v e r , a l s o b e t h e re s u l t o f a C h r i s t i a n a d a p t a t i o n
o f a p a s s a g e , i n c l u d e d i n J o s e p h u s ' Antiquitates, w h i c h w a s
o r i g i n a l l y m u c h m o r e h o s t i l e t o , o r c r i t i c a l of, C h r i s t i a n i t y .
B o t h t h e s e a l t e r n a t i v e s u r m i s e s e v i d e n t l y i m p l y t h a t J o s e p h u s '
Antiquitates d i d o ri g i n a l ly c o n t a i n a T e s t i m o n i u m o f s o m e s o r t
d e a l i n g w i t h J e s u s . T h i s m a y b e r e g a r d e d a s a n a n s w e r t o t h e
p r e l i m i n a r y q u e s t i o n f o r m u l a t e d a b o v e . W e m u s t , h o w e v e r , n o t e
t h a t b o t h s u r m i s e s a r e p r e d i c a t e d u p o n t h e a s s u m p t i o n , w h i c h
s e e m s t o m e j u s ti fi e d , t h a t A g a p i u s ' v e r s i o n d o e s n o t s t e m f r o m
t h e v u l g a te r e c e n s i o n . N o C h r i s t i a n w o u l d h a v e t a m p e r e d w i t h
th e t ex t w i th a v iew to e l im ina t in g a l l t h e ph ras es th a t a r e
c o n c e r n e d w i t h J e s u s ' s u p e r h u m a n n a t u r e a n d a c t i o n s a n d t o
r e p l a c i n g t h e a u t h o r ' s a f fi rm a t i o n o f J e s u s ' M e s s i a h s h i p a n d
h i s a p p e a r a n c e a ft er d e a t h b y n o n - c o m m i t t a l s t a t e m e n t s t h a tm e r e l y m e n t i o n t h a t s u c h c l a i m s w e r e m a d e o n b e h a l f o f J e s u s .
A n d t h e r e i s n o i n d i c a t i o n w h a t e v e r t h a t t h e t e x t h a d b e e n
m a n i p u l a t e d b y a J e w , a J e w i s h C h r i s t i a n o r a P a g a n . M o r e o v e r ,
a l l t h e d a t a w e p o s s e s s c o n c e r n i n g A g a p i u s ' a c c o u n t o f t h e
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r e l e v a n t p e r i o d o f h i s t o r y a p p e a r t o s h o w t h a t h e o b t a i n e d h i s
f a c t s f r o m C h r i s t i a n s o u r c e s . 2 1 9
I t i s admi t t ed ly d i f f i cu l t to accep t the idea tha t a t en th -cen tu ry
A r a b i c c h r o n i c l e h a s p r e s e r v e d a v e r s i o n o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m
t h a t c o m e s c l o s e r t o J o s e p h u s ' o r i g i n a l t e x t t h a n t h e v u l g a t e
r e c e n s i o n a t t e s t e d i n t h e f o u r t h c e n t u r y . T h e o d d s s e e m t o b e
v e r y h i g h t h a t a p a s s a g e o f t h i s n a t u r e , t r a n s l a t e d i n a l l p r o
b a b i l i t y f r o m t h e G r e e k i n t o S y r i a c a n d f r o m t h e S y r i a c i n t o
A r a b i c , w o u l d i n t h e c o u r s e o f c e n t u r i e s h a v e b e e n a l t e r e d
ou t o f a l l r ec og n i t io n . H ow eve r , th i s d if fi cu lty seem s to m e t o
b e m a i n l y o f a p s y c h o l o g i c a l n a t u r e . T h e r e a p p e a r s t o b e n ov a l i d r e a s o n w h y a v e r s i o n o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m p r e s e r v e d i n
A r a b i c s h o u l d n o t h a v e e s c a p e d C h r i s t i a n c e n s o r s h i p t o a
g r e a t e r e x t e n t t h a n t h e v u l g a t e v e r s i o n , o r e v e n a l t o g e t h e r .
M o r e o v e r , a s w e h a v e s e e n , a n i m p o r t a n t t r a i t o f A g a p i u s '
v e r s io n i s c o r r o b o r a t e d b y S t . J e r o m e ' s t h i r d - o r f o u r t h - c e n t u r y
r e c e n s i o n .
W e a r e t h u s l e f t w i t h t w o p o s s i b i l i t i e s : e i t h e r t h e v e r s i o n o f
A g a p i u s is t h e p r o d u c t o f C h r i s t i a n c e n s o r s h i p a p p l i e d t o t h e
o r i g i n a l t e x t i n a l e s s t h o r o u g h g o i n g f o r m t h a n i n t h e c a s e o f
t h e v u l g a t e r e c e n s i o n , o r i t d i d n o t u n d e r g o c e n s o r s h i p a t a l l ;
i n t h a t c a s e t h e d e v i a t i o n s f r o m t h e o r i g i n a l t e x t w h i c h i t m a y
b e a s s u m e d t o c o n t a i n s h o u l d b e s e t d o w n a s t h e u s u a l a l t e r a
t i o n s d u e t o t h e m i s t a k e s o f s c r i b e s a n d t r a n s l a t o r s . T h e f i r s t
h y p o t h e s i s se e m s t o m e t o b e t h e m o r e p r o b a b l e o n e , b u t f o r
n o v e r y c o n c l u s i v e r e a s o n . A t t h e m o m e n t t h i s i s a n y b o d y ' s
g u e s s .2 2 0
2 1 9 E u s e b i u s ' Historia Ecclesiastica w a s , a s w e h a v e s e e n , a m a i n s o u r c e
f o r A g a p i u s o r t h e S y r i a c C h r o n i c l e r h e u s e d . A s h a s b e e n s u g g e s t e d
a b o v e , t h e r e l a ti o n b e t w e e n A g a p i u s ' w o r k a n d B y z a n t i n e h i s t o r i o
g r a p h y s h o u l d b e e x a m i n e d .
2 2 0 I t h a s b e e n s u g g e s t e d t h a t a r e f e r e n c e t o a v e r s i o n o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m
d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h e v u l g a t e r e c e n s i o n ( a n d , a s I m a y a d d , a l s o f r o m t h a t
o f A g a p i u s ) i s t o b e f o u n d i n a d i a l o g u e p u r p o r t i n g t o g i v e a n a c c o u n t
o f a r e l i g i o u s d e b a t e a t t h e c o u r t o f t h e S a s s a n i d s ; s e e E . B r a t k e , Das
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In th i s connec t ion the fo l lowing spec i f i c po in t shou ld a l so be
n o t e d . T h e l a s t s e n t e n c e o f A g a p i u s ' v e r s i o n , c o r r e c t e d b y a
c o m p a r i s o n w i t h M i c h a e l ' s v e r s i o n , c o u l d b e r e a d : He was
thought to be the M essiah, concerning whom the prophets have
recounted wonders. The l a s t words o f the sen tence o f f e r a so r t o f
e x p l a n a t i o n , a l b e i t n o t a v e r y e n l i g h t e n i n g o n e , o f t h e t e r m
M essiah - χ ρ ισ τ ό ς , w hic h c lea r ly h a d t o b e exp la ined in a
w o r k d e s t i n e d f o r r e a d e r s o f G r e e k ; a t t h e t i m e o f J o s e p h u s
m o s t o f t h e s e c o u l d h a v e m a d e n o t h i n g o f t h e p h r a s e o f t h e
v u l g a t e r e c e n s i o n δ χ ρ ι σ τ ό ς ο ύ τ ο ς ή ν . T h i s i s a n a d d i t i o n a l
r e a s o n — o v e r a n d a b o v e t h e o b v i o u s o n e , n a m e l y , h i s u n b e l i e f — f o r m a i n t a i n i n g t h a t h e c o u l d n o t h a v e w r i t t e n t h i s ;
w h e r e a s t h e s e n t e n c e o f A g a p i u s a n d o f M i c h a e l c o u l d c o n
c e i v a b l y b e a u t h e n t i c .
I t h a s o f t e n b e e n n o t e d t h a t , o u t s i d e t h i s v u l g a t e v e r
s i o n — w h o s e a u t h e n t i c i t y w a s , t o s a y t h e l e a s t , d o u b t f u l — t h e
t e r m χ ρ ι σ τ ό ς i s u s e d b y J o s e p h u s i n o n e p a s s a g e o n l y ,
Antiquitates, X X , 2 0 0 , w h e r e h e s p e a k s o f J a m e s , t h e b r o t h e r o f
J e s u s , w h o w a s c a l l e d the M essiah - τ ο ν λ ε γ ο μ έ ν ο υ χ ρ ισ τ ο ύ .
S o m e t i m e s i t h a s b e e n a s s u m e d t h a t t h e f a c t t h a t i n s p e a k i n g
o f t h e c h i e f s o f t h e J e w i s h i n s u r r e c t i o n a r y m o v e m e n t s J o s e p h u s
sogenannte Religionsgespräch am Hofe der Sassaniden (Texte und Unter
suchungen, X L I I I ) , L e i p z i g 1 8 9 9 , p . 3 6 ; c f . M . G o g u e l , Jesus and the
Origins of Christianity ( E n g l i s h t r a n s i . ) , N e w Y o r k 1 9 6 0 , p . 7 8 , n . 4 .
G o g u e l ' s t r a n s l a t i o n o f t h i s r e f e r e n c e r e a d s : Josephus spoke of Christ
as a just and good man, manifested by grace divine by means of miracles
and signs, and who did a great deal of good to many p eople. O n a n o t h e r
p o s s i b l e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h i s p a s s a g e , s e e B r a t k e , op. cit., pp. 223 f f .
T h e w o r d s a just and good man - α ν δ ρ ό ς δ ι κ α ίο υ κ α ΐ α γ α θ ο ύ m a y
b e r e g a r d e d a s s o m e w h a t r e m i n i s c e n t o f A g a p i u s ' d e s c r i p t i o n ( a c c o r d
i n g t o o n e v e r s i o n ) : his conduct was good and he was known to be vir
tuous. I t s e e m s , h o w e v e r , t o b e m o r e s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t t h e s e w o r d s a r e ,
a s i s n o t e d b y B r a t k e (op. cit., p . 2 3 0 ) , v e r y s i m i l a r i n d e e d t o t h e e x
p r e s s i o n o c c u r i n g i n M a l a l a s ' q u o t a t i o n f r o m J o s e p h u s ( s e e a b o v e ,
η . 6\):ά ν θ ρ ω π ο ν α γ α θ ό ν κ α ί δ ίκ α ιο ν . A p a r t f r o m t h i s , t h e q u o t a
t i o n i n t h e d i a l o g u e h a s n o p o i n t o f r e s e m b l a n c e w i t h A g a p i u s ' v e r
s i o n o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m .
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d o e s n o t r e f e r t o a n y o n e a m o n g t h e m a s b e i n g r e g a r d e d a s t h e
M e s s i a h i s d u e t o t h e w i s h n o t t o i r r i t a t e t h e R o m a n s a n d t o
f o s t e r t h e i r s u s p i c i o n s w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e J e w s . H o w e v e r , t h e r e
a r e n o ind ica t io ns th a t any o f the se ch ie fs c l a im ed t o b e th e
M e s s i a h .
As f a r a s the ev idence we possess goes , i t cou ld be supposed tha t
th i s t i t l e , w h ich ha d been use d in spe ak in g o f r e ign ing k ings
a n d o f h i g h p r i e s t s , w a s n o t , i n t h e R o m a n p e r i o d p r i o r t o
J e s u s , a p p l i e d t o a n e s c h a t o l o g i c a l s a v i o u r o r d e l iv e r e r w h o
h a d a c t u a l l y l iv e d a n d m a n i f e s te d h i m s e l f d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d . 2 2 1
A c c o r d i n g t o t h i s h y p o t h e s i s J e s u s w a s d e s c r i b e d b y J o s e p h u s( j u s t a s h e w a s b y M a t t h e w i : 16) as δ λ ε γ ό μ ε ν ο ς χ ρ ι σ τ ό ς n o t
on ly beca use h i s ad he ren t s con s ide red th a t th i s ti t l e w as right
f ul ly h i s , b u t a l s o b e c a u s e a t t h a t t i m e e v e r y o n e , b o t h a d h e r e n t s
a n d o p p o n e n t s , k n e w t h a t t h i s w a s a c o g n o m e n p e c u l i a r t o
J e s u s . T h e f a c t t h a t a s e n t e n c e o f A g a p i u s ' v e r s io n , w h i c h m a y
b e a u t h e n t i c , r e c o r d s t h a t J e s u s w a s t h o u g h t t o b e t h e M e s s i a h
a n d g iv e s s o m e s o r t o f e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e t e r m d o e s n o t , o f
co u r s e , con f li c t w i th th i s h yp o t he s i s ; i t i s , i n f ac t , f avo urab le
to i t .
221 I n a p e r i o d p o s t e r i o r t o J e s u s i t a p p e a r s t o h a v e b e e n a p p l i e d t o B a r
K o k h b a b y t h o s e w h o b e l i e v ed i n h i s m i s s i o n .
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Appendix
G A L E N O N C H R I S T I A N S , A C C O R D I N G T O A G A P I U S
I N A P O R T I O N of a book bea r ing the t i t l e Galen on Jews and
Christians,1 P r o f e s so r W a l z e r t r e a t s o f a t e x t a t t r i b u t e d t o G a l e n
b y so m e O r i e n t a l , M o s l e m , a n d C h r i s t i a n a u t h o r s , w h i c h r e f e r s
ve ry f avou rab ly to the Chr i s t i an way o f l i f e . A l l these au tho r s
b u t o n e s t a t e t h a t t h e t e x t o c c u r r e d i n G a l e n ' s su m m a r y o fP l a t o ' s Republic. T h e s i n g l e e x c e p t i o n i s B a r H e b r a e u s , w h o
b o t h i n a S y r i a c a n d i n a n A r a b i c w o r k 2 te l l s us tha t the tex t i s
e x t r a c t e d f r o m G a l e n ' s s u m m a r y o f t h e Phaedo. W a l z e r g i v e s
n o c r ed i t w ha te ve r to th i s p iece o f in fo rm a t io n , h i s r ea so ns be ing
a s f o l l o w s : 3
Now here else are Ga len's words attributed to his summ ary of the
P h a e d o . It is, moreover, highly improbable that Bar Hebraeus,or his imm ediate predecessor, had access to more writings of
Galen than were known in the ninth century to Hunain Ibn Ishäq,
who was already unable to trace Galen's summary of the P h a e d o
and could not translate it into either Syriac or Arabic. Hence it
is almost certain that the substitution of the P h a e d o for the
R e p u b l i c is due to Bar Hebraeus' notorious carelessness in such
matters and of no significance whatever. In addition, Bar Hebraeus
is by no means an 'independent witness', since his discussion of
Galen's life is nothing but an abridged copy taken from the
H i s t o r y o f L e a r n e d M e n by Ibn al-Qifti {published after 1227
C.E.), who , again, attributes the statement to Ga len's summary of
1 R . W a l z e r , Galen on Jews and Christians ( h e n c e f o r t h : W a l z e r ) , O x f o r d
1 9 4 9 , p p . 1 5 - 1 6 , 5 7 ff., 8 7 - 9 8 ; c f. P . K r a u s & R . W a l z e r , Galeni Com
pendium Tima ei Piatonis, (Plato Arabus, I ) , L o n d o n 1 9 5 1 , p p . 3 7 - 3 8
o f t h e A r a b i c t e x t a n d p p . 9 9 - 1 0 0 o f t h e L a t i n t r a n s l a t i o n .
2 E x t r a c t e d f r o m t h e S y r i a c .
3 W a l z e r , p . 9 3 .
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the R e p u b l i c . Bar Hebraeus can therefore be eliminated from
future discussions of this statement.
W a l z e r ' s a s s e r t i o n t h a t nowhere else are Ga len's words attributed
to his summ ary of the P h a e d o . . . i s i n c o rr e c t, a s i s p r o v e d b y
t h e f o l l o w i n g p a s s a g e o c c u r r i n g i n A g a p i u s ' c h r o n i c l e : 4
He 5 also said in his com mentary on a book of Plato called the
P h a e d o : 6
The people called Christians have built their doctrine
upon enigmatic indications1 and miracles. [As far as] the way
they act8 [is concerned], they are not inferior9 to the genuine
philosophers. For they love continence, keep fasts10 and prayers,11
and avoid unjust actions. Am ong them there are men w ho do notpollute themselves with wom en.12
B a r H e b r a e u s ' v e r s i o n 1 3 i s in va r iou s de ta i l s c lo se r to A ga p iu s
t h a n t o t h a t o f t h e M o s l e m w r i t e r q u o t e d b y W a l z e r , 1 4 even i f
o n e a b s t r a c t s f r o m t h e a t t r i b u t i o n o f t h e t e x t t o t h e c o m m e n t a r y
o n t h e Phaedo. I n a d d i ti o n , b o t h A g a p i u s 1 5 a n d B a r H e b r a e u s 1 6
q u o t e — i n o r d e r t o p r o v e t h a t G a l e n w a s n o t a c o n t e m p o r a r y
o f J e su s — a p a s sa g e o f G a l e n ' s Anatomy, s t a t i n g , inter alia,
t h a t t h i s w a s c o m p o s e d in t h e r e ig n of A n t o n i n u s C a e s a r . B u t
t h e r e a r e a l so d iv e r g e n ci e s b e t w e e n t h e t w o t e x t s . M o r e o v e r ,
A ga p iu s do es no t r e f er to a sec ond p ro o f o f the f ac t th a t G a le n
4 E d . C h e i k h o , p p . 1 8 0 - 1 8 1 .
5 G a l e n .
6 O n e M S h a s När.n, a n d t h e o t h e r Nädän. C h e i k h o i s c e r t a i n l y c o r r e c t
i n e m e n d i n g t h e l a t t e r n a m e t o Fädän - Phaedo.
7 Rumüz.
8 A'mal; l i t e r a l l y : actions.
9 Aqall; l i t e r a l l y : less.
1 0 I n t h e s i n g u l a r .
1 1 I n th e s i n g u l a r .
1 2 A g a p i u s a d d s : / s a y that he means by enigmatic indications the parables
concerning the Kingdom of God formulated in the pure Gospel.
1 3 A L a t i n t r a n s l a t i o n o f t h i s v e r s i o n o c c u r s i n W a l z e r , p . 9 3 .
1 4 Ibid., p p . 1 5 - 1 6 .
1 5 E d . C h e i k h o , p . 9 3 , c l o s e t o t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e t e x t q u o t e d a b o v e .
1 6 W a l z e r , p p . 9 2 - 9 3 .
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l i v e d a f t e r J e su s , w h i c h i s a d d u c e d , a s W a l z e r p o i n t s o u t , 1 7 n o t
o n l y b y B a r H e b r a e u s , b u t a l s o b y I b n a l - Q i f t i 1 8 a n d I b n A b i
U s a y b f a i n t h e i r w o r k s o n t h e h i s t o r y o f p h y s i c i a n s . A c c o r d i n g
t o t h i s proof, G a l e n m u s t h a v e l i v ed af te r J e su s , b e c a u se i n t h e
t e x t u n d e r d i s c u s s i o n G a l e n sp e a k s o f C h r i s t i a n m o n a s t i c i sm ,
a p h e n o m e n o n t h a t o n l y a p p e a r e d o n e h u n d r e d y e a r s a f t e r
J e s u s .
I t f o l l o w s t h a t i f A g a p i u s w a s , w i t h r e g a r d t o o u r p a s sa g e , a
so u r c e o f B a r H e b r a e u s , h e w a s n o t t h e o n l y so u r c e . P o s s i b l y ,
h o w e v e r , h e d i d n o t u s e A g a p i u s , b u t s o m e o t h e r w o r k — o n e
c o u l d t h i n k o f t h e S y r ia c so u r c e o f A g a p i u s , b u t th i s is o n l y o n ep o s s i b i l i t y a m o n g m a n y — t h a t a l s o n a m e d G a l e n ' s s u m m a r y
of the Phaedo a s t h e w o r k f r o m w h i c h t h e t e x t c o n c e r n i n g t h e
C h r i s t i a n s o c c u r r e d i n t h e s u m m a r y o f t h e Phaedo, w h e r e a s
a c c o r d i n g t o t h e o t h e r so u r c e s i t o c c u r r e d i n t h e su m m a r y o f t h e
Republic. T h e e v i d e n c e f o r t h e s e c o n d t r a d i t i o n i s l a t e r t h a n t h e
ev idence fo r th e f ir st . Fo r Aga p iu s l ived be fo re a l l t h e au th o r s
m e n t i o n e d b y W a l z e r a s q u o t i n g G a l e n ' s t e x t .1 9 e
U b a y d A l l a hI b n J i b r ä ' i l I b n c U b a y d A l l a h I b n B a k h t ï s h û , w h o , a s W a l z e r
n o t e s , w r o t e a t r e a t i s e c o n c e r n i n g G a l e n w h i c h w a s t h e so u r c e
o f the passages in Ibn a l -Qi f t i and Ibn Ab î Usayb i ' a r e f e r r ed
t o a b o v e , l i v e d i n t h e e l e v e n t h c e n t u r y ; a n d t h e C h r i s t i a n
p h i l o s o p h e r I b n Z u r c a , w h o i n a t r e a t i s e Concerning the Main
Questions Discussed Between Christians an d Jews g ives a sho r t
v e r s i o n o f t h e t e x t o f G a l e n , w h i c h , a c c o r d i n g t o h i m , o c c u r r e d
a t t h e e n d o f t h e su m m a r y o f t h e Republic, d i e d i n 1 0 0 8 , 2 0
m o r e t h a n s i x t y y e a r s a f t e r t h e d a t e a t w h i c h A g a p i u s ' c h r o n i c l e
o r a p a r t o f i t w a s b e i n g w r i t t e n . H o w e v e r , t h i s c h r o n o l o g i c a l
p o i n t d o e s n o t s e e m t o b e o f p r i m a r y i m p o r t a n c e , s i n ce A g a p i u s
1 7 Ibid., p . 9 4 .
1 8 I b n a l - Q i f tï , Ta'rikh al-hukamä 9, L e i p z i g 1 9 0 3 , p . 1 2 8 ; I b n A b i U s a y b i e a ,
Kitäb 'uyürt al-anba fi fabaqät al-htukamä\ e d i t e d b y M ü l l e r , K ö n i g s
b e r g 1 8 8 4 , I , p p . 7 6 - 7 7 .
1 9 S e e , h o w e v e r , b e l o w , n . 2 5 .
2 0 S e e W a l z e r , p . 9 1 .
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a n d all the a u t h o r s q u o t e d by W a l z e r i n d u b i t a b l y m a d e use of
e a r l i e r w r i t e r s .
W a l z e r m a k e s the p o i n t t h a t it is highly improbable that Bar
Hebraeus or his immediate predecessor had access to more
writings of Galen than were known in the ninth century to Hunain
Ihn Ishâq, who was already unable to trace Galen's summary of
the P h a e d o and could not translate it into either Syriac or
Arabic.21
It s e e m s to me t h a t the a r g u m e n t is i r r e l e v a n t , for it is
m o r e t h a n p r o b a b l e t h a t the q u o t a t i o n s of p h i l o s o p h i c a l t e x t s
m a d e by A g a p i u s an d by Bar H e b r a e u s in his h i s t o r i c a l w r i t i n g s
a re not e x t r a c t e d d i r e c t l y f r o m p h i l o so p h i c a l w o r k s , but f romh i s t o r i c a l c h r o n i c l e s , w h i c h , in the l a s t a n a l y s i s , d r e w m o s t of
t h e i r m a t e r i a l s f r o m C h r i s t i a n h i s t o r i o g r a p h y w r i t t e n in
G r e e k .
T h e r e is, of c o u r s e , no difficulty in s u p p o s i n g t h a t a C h r i s t i a n
h i s t o r i o g r a p h e r w r i t i n g in G r e e k q u o t e d a t e x t — w h i c h may
h a v e b e e n e i t h e r g e n u i n e or s p u r i o u s — p u r p o r t i n g to be
d e r i v e d f r o m G a l e n ' s s u m m a r y of the Phaedo.A s a m a t t e r of f ac t , the t r e a t i s e of
e U b a y d Allah Ibn J i b r ä ' i l ,
r ight ly regarded by W a l z e r as the s o u r c e of Ibn a l -Qif t i ' s and
I b n Abi U s a y b i V s q u o t a t i o n s of the t e x t of G a l e n , was l i k e
w i se b a se d on h i s t o r i o g r a p h i c a l w o r k s d e a l i n g w i t h c h r o n o l o g y .
T h e t r e a t i s e was w r i t t e n bye U b a y d Allah in o r d e r to a n s w e r a
q u e s t i o n p o s e d to him as t o the t i m e in w h i c h G a l e n l i v e d , t h i s
b e i n g a c o n t r o v e r s i a l t o p i c . In t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h i s t r e a t i s e q u o t e d
b y Ibn Abi U s a y b i ' a , 2 2 c U b a y d Allah s t a t e s t h a t he f o u n d his
m a t e r i a l in a c h r o n o l o g i c a l w o r k w r i t t e n by I l y ä the M e t r o
p o l i t a n of N i s i b i s 2 3
and in a sh o r t h i s t o r y w r i t t e n by H ä r ü n
I b n e A z z û r . 2 4
Ibn a l - Q i f t i 2 5 s t a t e s — and he may very we l l be
2 1 Ibid., p. 93.
2 2 I, p. 72.
2 3 He d i e d in 1049 .
2 4 Ibn a l - Q i f f i , p. 136: Ά ζ ΰ η . The t r a n s c r i p t i o n of the n a m e g i v e n in the
t e x t is t h a t of Graf; see b e l o w , n. 25.
2 5 He ['Ubayd Allah] relied on it [the treatise in question] in speaking of
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r i g h t — t h a t ' U b a y d Allah r e l i ed ma in ly on H ä r ü n . T h e r e
a r e a l s o s o m e r e a s o n s for b e l i e v i n g , as W a l z e r d o e s , 2 6 t h a te U b a y d Allah may h a v e u s e d I s h ä q Ibn H u n a y n ' s History of
the Physicians.
W a l z e r a l s o s u r m i s e s 2 7 t h a t I s h ä q ' s w o r k was u s e d by
I b n Z u r e a w h e n he q u o t e s G a l e n ' s t e x t . In his c a se the
e v i d e n c e is less c lear . He may have u t i l i zed a h i s t o r i o g r a p h i c a l
w o r k . It is e v e n c o n c e i v a b l e t h a t , b e i n g a p h i l o s o p h e r , he may
h a v e r e a d a m a n u s c r i p t of G a l e n ' s s u m m a r y of the Republic,
a p o s s i b i l i t y w h i c h is a p p a r e n t l y d i s c o u n t e d by W a l z e r . If one
a b s t r a c t s f r o m t h i s p o s s i b i l i t y , it may a p p e a r t h a t the ev idencein f avou r of e a c h of the two t r a d i t i o n s , the one m a i n t a i n i n g
t h a t the t e x t of G a l e n is e x t r a c t e d f r o m the s u m m a r y of the
Republic and the o t h e r t h a t the t e x t a p p e a r e d in the s u m m a r y
of the Phaedo, are s u p p o r t e d by e v i d e n c e of a p p r o x i m a t e l y
e q u a l s t r e n g t h . The f a c t t h a t the f i r s t t rad i t ion is a d o p t e d by a
g r e a t e r n u m b e r of a u t h o r s is o b v i o u s l y of no g r e a t i m p o r t a n c e
i n t h i s c o n t e x t . And, as we h a v e i n d i c a t e d , the f ac t tha t the
s e c o n d t r a d i t i o n is a t t e s t e d e a r l i e r t h a n the first is a l so not very
s ign i f ican t .
O n e of t h e s e t r a d i t i o n s m a y , of c o u r s e , be due to a s i m p l e e r r o r
i n t r a n s m i s s i o n . If it is not, se v e r a l w a y s of i n t e r p r e t a t i n g the
d a t a are l e f t o p e n : It is c o n c e i v a b l e t h a t G a l e n may h a v e
i n se r t e d s i m i l a r t e x t s i n t o the two s u m m a r i e s in q u e s t i o n ; or
t h a t the t e x t mayh a v e o r i g i n a l l y o c c u r r e d in one s u m m a r y o n l y ,
h a v i n g b e e n a d d e d to the o t h e r by i n t e r p o l a t o r s ; in b o t h
Galen [namely] on a history written by the monk Härün Ibn 'Azün, in
which the latter enumerated the kings and Caesars from the time of Alex
ander, [giving] the duration of the reign of every one of them (loc. cit).
G . G r a f l i s t s H ä r ü n Ibn ' A z z ü r a m o n g the C h r i s t i a n A r a b i c a u t h o r s
w h o li v e d p r i o r t o I J u n a y n I b n I s r i ä q . S e e hi s Geschichte der Christlichen
arabischen Literatur, II, C i t t à del V a t i c a n o 1947, p. 112. As he p o i n t s
o u t , a MS of H ä r ü n Ibn ' A z z ü r ' s h i s t o r i c a l w o r k is e x t a n t . It is l i s t e d
i n S b a t h ' s Fihris, u n d e r N o . 2 6 9 6 .
2 6 P. 94.
2 7 Loc. cit.
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s u m m a r i e s t h e t e x t s w o u l d b e s p u r i o u s , h a v i n g b e e n c o m p o s e d
b y C h r i s t i a n i n t e r p o l a t o r s . T h e r e i s a l s o t h e p o s s ib i l it y t h a t o n e
o f t h e s u m m a r i e s , o r b o t h , o r i g in a l l y i n c l u d e d a r e fe r en c e m a d e
b y G a l e n t o t h e C h r i s t i a n s , a n d t h a t t h e t e x t t h a t w e a r e a c
q u a i n t e d w i t h i s t h e r e s u l t o f a n a m p l if i ca t io n a n d , p e r h a p s ,
a l s o a n a l t e r a t i o n d u e t o C h r i s t i a n i n t e r p o l a t o r s .
In th i s con tex t , t he f ac t tha t a l l , o r nea r ly a l l , s t a t emen ts made
i n G a l e n ' s t e x t 2 8 c a n b e m a t c h e d b y a s s e r t i o n s m a d e b y
C h r i s t i a n s o f t h e e a r l y c e n t u r i e s o f C h r i s t i a n i t y a b o u t t h e m
se lves i s , i t seem s to m e , r e l eva n t . A m or e p rec i se ob se r va t ion
m a y b e e v e n m o r e s o . I t c a n b e s h o w n t h a t t h e r e i s a g r e a ts i m i l a r i t y b e t w e e n G a l e n ' s t e x t a n d s o m e p a s s a g e s o f P h i l o ' s
des c r ip t io n , in th e t r ea t i se De Vita Contemplativa, of the way
o f li fe o f t h e T h e r a p e u t a e . T h i s s i m i l a ri t y c o m e s o u t r a t h e r
c l e a r l y i f o n e c o m p a r e s s o m e p o r t i o n s o f t h i s d e s c r i p t i o n a s
s u m m a r i z e d i n t h e Historia Ecclesiastica 2 9 b y E u s e b i u s ( w h o
e q u a t e d , a s d i d o t h e r C h u r c h F a t h e r s , t h e T h e r a p e u t a e w i t h
t h e C h r i s t i a n s ) w i t h t h e f u l l t e x t o f G a l e n , a s r e c o n s t r u c t e d b y
W a l z e r , 3 0 o r w i t h A g a p i u s ' v e r s i o n o f t h i s , o r t h e p a r a l l e l t e x t
g i v e n a b o v e .
E u s e b i u s , Historia Ecclesiastica:
I I , 1 7 : 1 0 They31
study the sacred scriptures and expound
their national philosophy by allegory, for they regard the literal
interpretation as symbolic of a concealed reality indicated in
what is beneath the surface.
I I , 1 7 : 1 6 - 1 7 Having laid down for the soul continence as a
foundation, they build the other virtues on it. None of them wou ld
take food or drink before sunset, for they think that philosophy
2 8 T h e s t a t e m e n t i n c l u d e d i n t h e first s e n t e n c e o f W a l z e r ' s r e c o n s t r u c t i o n
o f t h e te x t h a s b e e n m a i n t a i n e d b y C h r i s t i a n p h i l o s o p h e r s a s w e l l a s
b y t h o s e o f o t h e r r e l i g i o n s . I t i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f m e d i a e v a l A r a b i c
p h i l o s o p h y i n g e n e r a l ; s e e b e l o w , p . 8 1 .
2 9 I n K i r s o p p L a k e ' s t r a n s l a t i o n ; o n e w o r d h a s b e e n c h a n g e d .
3 0 P . 1 5 ; W a l z e r ' s t r a n s l a t i o n h a s b e e n m o d i f i e d i n s o m e d e t a i l s.
3 1 T h e T h e r a p e u t a e .
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deserves the daylight and the necessities of the body darkness;
for this reason they allot the day to the one, and a sma ll portion
of the night to the others. Som e of them neglect food for three
days for the great love of knowledge dwe lling in them, and some
so delight and luxuriate in the banque t of doctrine, so richly and
ungrudgingly presided over by wisdom , that they abstain for twice
that time, and are accustom ed scarcely to taste necessary food
every six days.
I I , 1 7 : 1 9 - 2 0 For he32
says that women belong also to those
under discussion and that most of them are aged virgins who kept
their chastity from no compulsion, like some of the priestessesamong the Greeks, but rather from voluntary opinion,
33
from zeal
and yearning for wisdom , with which they desired to live, and
paid no attention to bodily pleasures, longing not for m ortal but
for imm ortal children, which only the soul that loves God is
capable of bearing of itself. He then proceeds to expound this
more clearly: 'But the interpretations of the sacred scriptures are
given them figuratively in allegories'
W a l z e r ' s r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f G a l e n ' s t e x t :
M ost people are unable to follow any demonstrative argument
consecutively; hence they need enigmatic indications and bene fit
from them — and he {Galen) understands by enigmatic indications
tales of reward and punishment in a future life — just as now we
see the people called Christians drawing their faith from parables
3 2 P h i l o .
3 3 C f . O r i g e n , Contra Celsum, V I I , 4 8 . I n t h i s p a s s a g e O r i g e n r e fe r s t o
C h r i s t i a n m e n w h o a b s t a i n f r o m s e x u a l c o n g r e s s a n d t o C h r i s t i a n w o m
e n w h o p r e s e r v e t h e i r v i r g i n i t y a l l t h e i r l i f e . A c c o r d i n g t o h i m , t h e s e
w o m e n c o m p a r e f a v o u r a b l y w i t h th e f e w p a g a n w o m e n w h o k e e p t h e ir
v i r g i n i t y i n h o n o u r o f t h e g o d s t h e y b e l i e v e i n . O r i g e n s t a t e s t h a t h e
w i l l n o t g o i n t o t h e q u e s t i o n w h e t h e r t h e r e a s o n f o r t h e i r d o i n g t h i s i s
o r i s n o t t h a t t h e y a r e g u a r d e d b y m e n . T h i s m a y a l l u d e t o t h e s t a t e m e n t
o f P h i l o (De Vita Contemplativa, 6 8 ) , q u o t e d b y E u s e b i u s i n t h e p a s
s a g e c i t e d i n t h e t e x t , t h a t u n l i k e t h e a g e d v i r g i n s , w h o a r e m e m b e r s
o f t h e c o m m u n i t y o f T h e r a p e u t a e , G r e e k p r ie s t e ss e s p r e s e rv e t h e i r
v i r g i n i t y o n l y u n d e r c o n s t r a i n t .
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and miracles, and yet sometimes acting in the same way as those
who philosophize?* For their lack of fear of death 25 is patent to
us every day, and likewise their restraint in cohabitation. For they
include not only men but also women who refrain from cohabiting
all through their lives; and they also number individuals who, in
self-discipline and self-control in ma tters of food and drink and
in their keen pursuit of justice, have attained a pitch not inferior
to that of genuine philosophers.
A g a p i u s ' v e r s i o n of G a l e n ' s t e x t h a s f o u r m a i n p o i n t s : t h e
C h r i s t i a n u s e o f a l l e g o r y ; 3 6 t h e C h r i s t i a n f a s t 3 7 (a t ra i t r e fer red
to in o the r ve r s ions o f the t ex t a s the i r se l f - con t ro l in ma t t e r so f f o o d a n d d r i n k ) ; t h e i m p o r t a n c e t h e C h r i s t i a n s a t t r i b u t e t o
c o n t i n e n c e ; a n d C h r i s t i a n m o n a s t i c i sm ( i n t h i s c o n n e c t i o n h e
sp e a k s o f m e n o n l y ; o t h e r v e r s i o n s o f t h e te x t sp e a k o f m e n a n d
w o m e n ) .
A l l o f t h e se p a r t i c u l a r s a r e f o u n d i n E u se b i u s ' su m m a r y o f
P h i l o ' s d e sc r i p t i o n o f t h e T h e r a p e u t a e . T h e fa c t t h a t i n r e f e rr i n g
t o c o m p l e t e s e x u a l a b s t i n e n c e t h r o u g h o u t l i f e t h i s t e x t m e n t i o n so n l y w o m e n se e m s t o m e t o b e o f s e c o n d a r y i m p o r t a n c e . I t i s
a l so n o t e w o r t h y t h a t n o v e r s i o n o f G a l e n ' s t e x t a n d , f o r o b v i o u s
r e a s o n s , a l s o n o t t h e s u m m a r y o f P h i l o ' s d e s c r i p t i o n , r e f e r s
in any way to Je sus o r to any spec i f i c Chr i s t i an belief. T h e
r e f e r e n c e , w h i c h i s f o u n d i n I b n a l - Q i f t ï , I b n A b i U sa y b i ' a a n d
A b u ' 1 - F i d ä ' , b u t n o t i n A g a p i u s o r B a r H e b r a e u s , t o t h e l a c k
o f f e a r o f d e a t h , w h i c h m a k e s t h e C h r i s t i a n s s i m i l a r t o t h e
3 4 O r : doing things similar to the achievements of genuine philosophers
( s e e W a l z e r , p . 5 7 , n . 5 ) .
3 5 S o m e s o u r c e s a d d w o r d s w h i c h c a n b e r o u g h l y t r an s la t ed and of its
sequel; c f. W a l z e r , p . 1 6 ; p . 6 7 , n . 1 .
3 6 T h e v i e w t h a t C h r i s t i a n f o r m u l a t i o n s h a v e t o r e c e i ve a n a l l e g o r i c a l
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s c u r r e n t i n C h r i s t i a n w r i t i n g s . I t i s f o u n d , inter alia, i n
a m a n i f e s t C h r i s t i a n f o r g e ry , t h e c o r r e s p o n d e n c e o f S a i n t P a u l a n d
S e n e c a ; i n t h e t h i r t e e n t h l e t te r S e n e c a re f er s t o t h e a l l e g o r i c a l a n d
e n i g m a t i c c h a r a c t e r o f m a n y o f P a u l u s ' t e x t s .
3 7 H e a l s o a d d s p r a y e r s , a p a r t i c u la r w h i c h i s n o t f o u n d e l s e w h e r e .
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p h i l o s o p h e r , c a n n o t b e f o u n d i n E u s e b i u s ' s u m m a r y , b u t c a n
b e p a r a l l e l e d i n r e l a t i v e l y e a r l y C h r i s t i a n w r i t i n g s . 3 8
T h e n o t i o n e x p r e s se d , a c c o r d i n g t o W a l z e r ' s r e c o n s t r u c t i o n , i n
the f i r s t sen tence — found on ly in Abu '1 -F idä 9 — t h a t m o s t
p e o p l e , b e i n g i n c a p a b l e o f f o l lo w i n g a d e m o n s t r a t i v e a r g u m e n t ,
n e e d a l l e g o r i e s , i s a c o m m o n p l a c e o f A r a b i c p h i l o s o p h y , w h i c h
p r o b a b l y t o o k i t f r o m t h e G r e e k s . T h e r e i s n o r e f e r e n c e t o i t i n
E u s e b i u s ' s u m m a r y , n o r i n o t h e r u n d u b i t a b l y g e nu i n e p a s s a g e s
o f G a l e n i n w h i c h h e sp e a k s o f M o se s , t h e J e w s a n d t h e
C h r i s t i a n s . 3 9 A s o m e w h a t s i m i l a r s t a t e m e n t i s , h o w e v e r , m a d e
b y O r i g e n .
4 0
O n t h e w h o l e , t h e r e se m b l a n c e s b e t w e e n t h e t e x t a t t r i b u t e d t o
G a l e n a n d E u s e b i u s ' s u m m a r y o f P h i l o ' s t r e a t is e s e em t o m e
3 8 T h u s , a c c o r d i n g t o O r i g e n {Contra Celsum, Π , 4 5 ) , t h e a p o s t l e s s u r
p a s s e d i n c o u r a g e a n d e n d u r a n c e th e p h i l o s o p h e r s o f w h o m t h e G r e e k ss p e a k . I t m a y b e n o t e d t h a t b e f o r e G a l e n a n o t h e r P a g a n p h i l o s o p h e r ,
n a m e l y , E p i c t e t u s , r e f er r e d t o t h e i n d i f f e r e n c e o f t h e C h r i s t i a n s , w h o m
h e c a l l s G a l i l a e a n s , t o d e a t h . A c c o r d i n g t o h i m , t h i s a t t i tu d e r e s u l te d
f r o m h a b i t {ύ π ό ε θ ο ν ς ); s e e E p i c t e tu s , I V , 7 : 6 .
3 9 S e e W a l z e r , p p . 1 0 - 1 5 .
4 0 O r i g e n r e m a r k s t h a t i f i t w e r e p o s s i b l e f o r a l l m e n t o g i v e u p t h e b u s i
n e s s o f th e i r l i v e s , d e v o t i n g t h e ir l e is u r e t o p h i l o s o p h y , n o o n e w o u l d
h a v e n e e d e d t o t a k e a n y o t h e r r o a d . F o r w i t h i n C h r i s t ia n i t y , t o o , t h e
r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f s a r e i n v e s t i g a t e d a n d t h e e n i g m a s o f t h e p r o p h e t s ,
t h e G o s p e l p a r a b l e s a n d m y r i a d s o f s y m b o l i c e v e n t s a n d c o m m a n d
m e n t s i n t e r p r e t e d . T h i s , h o w e v e r , i s i m p o s s i b l e b e c a u s e o f th e n e c e s s i
t i e s o f l i f e a n d a l s o b e c a u s e o f h u m a n i n c a p a c i t y , a s o n l y v er y f e w m e n
t u r n d e v o t e d l y t o r e a s o n {logos). T h i s b e i n g s o , w h a t b e t te r w a y i s
t h e r e t o h e l p t h e m a j o r i t y o f p e o p l e t h a n t h e o n e t r a n s m i t t e d b y J e s u s
t o t h e n a t i o n s ? W h a t i s b e t t er f o r t h e m a s s o f t h e b e l i e v e r s : s o m e w h a t
t o a m e n d t h e i r h a b i t s , b e i n g h e l p e d b y t h e ir f a i t h i n p u n i s h m e n t s f o r
s i n a n d r e w a r d s f o r g o o d , o r n o t t o a c c e p t c o n v e r s i o n b a s e d o n s i m p l e
f a i t h , a n d p u t i t o f f u n t i l t h e y c a n e x a m i n e t h e d o c t r i n e s ? E v i d e n t l y ,
p r a c t i c a ll y a l l m e n w i t h v e ry f e w e x c e p t i o n s w o u l d n o t , i f t h e y c h o s e
t h e s e c o n d p o s s i b i l i t y , a c h i e v e t h e r e s u lt s t h a t m a y b e o b t a i n e d f r o m
s i m p l e f a it h a n d c o n t i n u e ( t o c l i n g t o ) a v e r y e v i l w a y o f l i f e .
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t o b e s i g n i f i c a n t ; 4 1 t h e y m a y j u s t if y t h e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t w h e n
t h i s t e x t w a s c o m p o s e d , 4 2 e i the r by Ga len h imse l f o r by a
C h r i s t i a n i n t e r p o l a t o r , t h e t r e a t i s e i n q u e s t i o n o r so m e C h r i s
t i a n s u m m a r y o f i t w a s d r a w n u p o n .
A r e c a p i t u l a t i o n o f t h e m a i n c o n c l u s i o n s t h a t h a v e e m e r g e d
se e m s t o b e r e q u i r e d . T h e se c o n c l u s i o n s m a y b e f o r m u l a t e d a s
f o l l o w s :
1. T h e r e i s a n i n d e p e n d e n t t r a d i t i o n t h a t m a i n t a i n s t h a t G a l e n ' s
t e x t c o n c e r n i n g t h e C h r i s t i a n s o c c u r r e d i n t h e su m m a r y o f t h e
Phaedo.
T h e e v i d e n c e i n f a v o u r o f t h i s t r a d i t i o n is c o m p a r a b l e i n v a l i d i t yt o t h e e v i d e n c e t h a t a t t e s t s t h a t t h e t e x t o c c u r r e d i n t h e su m m a r y
o f t h e Republic.
2. T h e i m m e d i a t e s o u r c e s o f e U b a y d Allah I b n J i b r ä ' i l B a k h -
t i sh u ' s t r e a t i s e w e r e t w o h i s t o r i o g r a p h i c a l w o r k s t r e a t i n g o f
c h r o n o l o g y . T h i s t r e a t i s e m a y h a v e b e e n a l so i n f l u e n c e d b y
I s h ä q I b n H u n a y n ' s History of the Physicians.
3 . A s su p p o se d b y W a l z e r , t h e p a s sa g e w e h a v e r e f e r r e d t o a sG a l e n ' s t e x t w a s p r o b a b l y c o m p o s e d i n G r e e k .
4 . T h e r e i s a c l o se r e se m b l a n c e b e t w e e n G a l e n ' s t e x t a n d so m e
p a s s a g e s i n P h i l o ' s d e s c r i p ti o n o f t h e T h e r a p e u t a e . T h e s e p o i n t s
s t a n d o u t i n t h e s u m m a r y o f t h i s d e s c r i p t i o n m a d e b y E u s e b i u s ,
w h o , l i k e o t h e r C h r i s t i a n a u t h o r s , b e l i e v e s t h a t P h i l o sp e a k s o f
t h e e a r l y C h r i s t i a n s . T h i s r e s e m b l a n c e s h o u l d b e t a k e n i n t o
accoun t in a d i scuss ion o f Ga len ' s t ex t . I t does no t necessa r i ly
p r o v e t h a t t h e t e x t i s sp u r i o u s , t h o u g h , o n t h e w h o l e , i t t e n d s
to g ive g rea te r c r ed ib i l i ty to th i s thes i s 4 3
4 1 T h e y a r e m u c h c l o s e r t h a n t h e r e s e m b l a n c e s b e t w e e n G a l e n ' s t e x t a n d
a p a s s a g e o f A l e x a n d e r o f L y c o p o l i s c o n c e r n i n g t h e C h r i s t i a n s w i t h
w h i c h t h e t e x t i s c o m p a r e d b y W a l z e r ( p . 7 2 ) . L i k e t h e t e x t a n d l i k e
E u s e b i u s ' s u m m a r y , t h i s p a s s a g e d o e s n o t m e n t i o n J e s u s o r a n y s p e ci fi c
C h r i s t i a n belief, b u t i t d o e s n o t m e n t i o n C h r i s t i a n a s c e t i c i s m e i t h e r .
4 2 O r a m p l i f i e d a n d g i v e n i t s fin al f o r m ; s e e b e l o w , n . 4 3 .
4 3 A s i n d i c a t e d a b o v e , t h e r e i s a p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t ' G a l e n s ' t e x t ' i s t h e r e s u lt
o f a n a m p l i f i c a t io n o f a s h o r t e r g e n u i n e p a s s a g e o f G a l e n d e a l i n g
w i t h t h e C h r i s t ia n s . T h i s p a s s a g e m a y h a v e b e e n a l te r e d i n t h e p r o c e s s .
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S E L E C T E D B I B L I O G R A P H Y
Agapius: Kitäb al-Unwän / Agapius Episcopus Mabb ugensis: HistoriaUniversalis (Corpus Scriptorum Christianorum: Scriptores Arabici, X ) ,
e d i t e d b y L . C h e i k h o , L o u v a i n 1 9 5 4 ( re p r in t ). [ = A g a p i u s , e d . C h e i k h o ]
Agapius: Kitäb al- Unw än / Histoire Universelle, écrite par Agapius (Mafrboub )
de Men bidj (Patrologia Orientalis, V , 4 ) , e d i t e d w i t h F r e n c h t r a n s l a t i o n
b y A . V a s i l i e v , P a r i s 1 9 1 2 . [ = A g a p i u s , e d . V a s i l i e v ]
R . E i s l e r , Ι η σ ο ύ ς Β α σ ι λ ε ύ ς ο ΰ Β α σ ιΧ ε ύ σ α ς , I , H e i d e l b e r g 1 9 2 9 . [ = E i s l e r ]
Eusebius: Demon stratio Evangelica (Die griechischen Christlichen Schrift
steller der ersten drei Jahrhunderte: Eusebius' Werke, V I ) , e d i t e d b yI . A . H e i k e l , L e i p z i g 1 9 1 3 . [ = Demonstratio]
Euseb ius: Historia Evan gelica (Die griechischen Ch ristlichen Schriftsteller
der ersten drei Jahrhunderte: Eusebius* Werke, I I ) , e d i t e d b y Ε . S c h w a r t z ,
L e i p z i g 1 9 0 3 .
Eusebius: Historia Ecclesiastica, L o e b C l a s s i c a l L i b r a r y , e d i t e d b y
E . S c h w a r t z , tr a n s la t ed b y K . L a k e , L o n d o n - C a m b r i d g e ( M a s s . ) 1 9 5 9 .
The Ecclesiastical History of Eusebius in Syriac, e d i t e d b y W . W r i g h t &
N . M c L e a n , C a m b r i d g e 1 8 9 8 .Josephus: Opera, I - V I I I , e d i t e d b y B . N i e s e , B e r l i n 1 8 8 7 - 1 8 9 4 .
Josephus: Antiquitates Judaicae, L o e b C l a s s ic a l L i b r a r y , I V - I X , t e x t b a s e d
o n N i e s e ' s e d i t i o n , w i t h c o r r e c t i o n s b y H . S . J . T h a c k e r a y a n d o t h e r
s c h o l a r s , t r a n s l a te d b y T h a c k e r a y , R . M a r c u s & L . H . F e l d m a n n ,
C a m b r id g e ( M a s s . ) - L o n d o n 1 9 6 1 - 1 9 6 5 .
Josephus: Bellum Judaicum, L o e b C l a ss ic a l L ib r ar y , Ι Ι - Π Ι , t ex t b a s e d o n
N i e s e ' s e d i t i o n , w i t h c o r r e c t i o n s b y H . S . J. T h a c k e r a y a n d o t h e r s c h o l a r s ,
t ra n s l at ed b y T h a c k e r a y , C a m b r i d g e ( M a s s . ) - L o n d o n 1 9 5 6 - 1 9 5 7 .
De Vita Sua — Flavius Josephe: Autobiographie, e d i t e d a n d t r a n s l a t e d b y
A . P e l l e t ie r , P a r i s 1 9 5 9 . [ = Vita]
Michel le Syrien: Chronicle, e d i t e d i n f a c s i m i l e w i t h F r e n c h t r a n s l a t i o n b y
J . B . C h a b o t ; V o l . I : T r a n s l a t i o n , P a r i s 1 8 9 9 ; V o l . I V : S y r i a c T e x t ,
P a r is 1 9 1 0 . [ = M i c h a e l t h e S y r i a n ]
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I N D E X O F N A M E S
A b g a r 5 5
A b u ' 1 - F i d ä * 8 1
A g a p i u s p a s s i m
A g h ä b i y ü s — s e e A g a p i u s
A g r i p p a 4 7
A l e x a n d e r o f L y c o p o l i s 8 2
A l - M a k î n 7 8 1 0 1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6
1 7 1 8 1 9 3 4 3 5
A l - M a n b i j ï — s e e A g a p i u s
A l o n , G . 5 9 6 1
A n a n u s — s ee H a n n ä n
A n n a s — s e e H a n n ä n
A n t i p a te r 63
A n t o n i n u s C a e sa r 7 4
A r c h e l a u s 5 9
A r i s t o b u l u s 5 9
A s a m o n a i o s 5 9
B a r H e b r a e u s 6 1 6 2 7 3 7 4 7 5
7 6 8 0
B a r K o k h b a 7 2
B a u m s t a r k , A . 6
B r a t k e , E . 7 0 7 1
B u r k i t t, F . C . 2 0
C a i a p h a s — s e e Q a y ä f ä
C e d r e n u s 1 5 1 7 1 8 1 9C e l s u s 3 4
C h a b o t , J . B . 9 5 2
C h e i k h o , L . p a s s i m
C h .r ïf ÏÏ s — s e e A g r i p p a
C h r i st p a s s i m
C l a u d i u s 5 3
Dornseiff, F . 2 0
E g e si p p u s 3 2 3 6 4 2 4 5
E i c h s t a d t , Η . Κ . Α . 4 3
Ei s l e r , R . 1 3 1 5 2 0 2 1 3 3 3 4
E l i e z e r , s o n o f P l a n n ä n ( A n a n u s )
1 2 5 6 6 0
E p i c t e t u s 8 1
E u s e b i u s p a s s i m
E u t y c h i u s I b n S a ' ïd 6
F e l d m a n , L . H . 2 0
F l o r i n u s 6
F l u s s e r , D . 3 8
G a l e n 7 3 ff.
G e l z e r , H . 6 1 6 4
G o e t h a l s , A . 4 3
G o g u e l , M . 7 1
Graf, G . 7 6 7 7
G r e s s m a n n , H . 2 5
G i p h a n i u s — s e e V a n G i f f e n ,
H u b e r t
tfa nn ân 1 1 1 2 1 3 5 5 5 6 5 7 5 8 6 0
H a r n a c k , A . G . 2 0H ä r ü n I b n e A z z ü r ( e A z ü n ) 7 6 7 7
H i e r o n y m u s — s e e J e r o m e , S t .
H e r o d 1 1 5 6 5 8 5 9 6 0 6 1 6 2
6 3 6 4
H u n a i n I b n I s l j äq 7 6
H . u r û s . y . w . s . — s e e Ü r . s . y . w . s .
I b n A b î U s a y b i e a 7 5 7 6 8 0
I b n a l - Q i ft ï 7 3 7 5 7 6 8 0I b n Z u r e a 7 5
I f l ä tü n — s e e P l a t o ; c f. P h l e g o
I l y ä 7 6
I r e n a e u s 6
I s h m a e l , s o n o f P h a b î — s e e
I s m ä ' i l , s o n o f Y a h y ä
I s h ä q I b n ï J u n a y n 7 7 8 2
I s i d o r u s P e l u s i a n u s 1 5I s m ä ' i l , s o n o f Y a l r y ä 1 2 5 6
6 0
J e s u s p a s s i m
J a m e s 6 4 6 5 7 1
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J e r o m e , S t . 7 1 3 1 7 2 2 3 0 3 7
4 0 4 1 4 2 4 3 4 4 5 2 6 6 6 7 7 0
J o h n t h e B a p t i s t 6 7
J o h n C h r y s o s t o m 6 1
J o s e p h u s p a s s i m ; s e e a l s o Q a y à f âJ u l i u s A f r i c a n u s 7 5 3 5 8 6 1 6 4
J û r j i s a l - M a k ï n I b n a l - e A m ü d —
s e e a l - M a k ï n
J u s t u s o f T i b e r i a s 6 1 6 4
M a h b ü b Q u s t a n t ï n a l M a n b i j ï —
s e e A g a p i u s
M a l a l a s , I o a n n e s 1 5 1 7 1 8 7 1
M a r i a m n e 6 4M a r t i n , C . 2 1
M e r x , A . 2 9
M e s s i a h p a s s i m
M e S c e r s k i y , Ν . Α . 4 5
M e y e r , Ε . 2 0
M i c h a e l t h e S y r i a n p a s s i m
M o s e s 8 1
M ü l l e r , G . Α . 3 6
N o r d e n , Ε . 2 0 4 3
O n i a s 6 7
O r i g e n 7 2 0 3 4 5 1 6 4 6 5 6 6
68 79 81
O r o s i u s 5 3 5 4
P a u l , P a u l u s 8 0
P h a b i — s e e Y a h y ä
P h i l o 7 8 7 9 8 0 8 2
P h l e g o ( P h l e g o n ) o f T r a l l e s 7 5 2
5 3 5 4
P i l a t e 8 9 1 6 1 7 2 5 2 6 2 9 3 1
3 2 3 3 3 5 4 0 4 2 5 2 5 3
P l a t o 7 5 4 7 3 7 4
P o m p e y 4 9
Q a y ä f ä 1 1 1 3 5 5 5 6 5 7 5 8 6 0
S a l o m e 6 3S c h a l lt , A . 1 2
S e n e c a 8 0
S h ä l ü m — s e e S a l o m e
S i m o n , s o n o f Q a m î h u d ( C a m i t h u s )
1 2 5 6 6 0
S i m o n b e n K i m b i t — s e e S i m o n ,
s o n o f Q a m f l i ü d
S o z o m e n o s 1 5S u i d a s 1 5
S y n c e l l u s 7 5 3 6 4
T h a c k e r a y , H . S . J . 4 3
T h a l l u s 53
T a n n é g u y L e f è vr e 4 3
T a t i a n 4 1
T h e o p h i l o s o f E d e s s a 6 2 3 5 3
T i b e r i u s 7 8 5 2 5 3 5 5T i t u s 5 9
e U b a y d A l l a h I b n Jibrà'u I b n
' U b a y d A l l a h I b n B a k h t î s h u 7 5
7 6 7 7 8 2
Ü r . s . y . w . s . 8 5 2 5 3
V a l e r i u s G r a t u s 5 6 5 8 6 1
V a n G i ff e n, H u b e r t 2 0V a s i l ie v , A . p a s s i m
V o n G e b h a r d t , Ο . 4 0
W al z e r , R . 73 ff.
Y a b y ä 1 2
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L I S T O F M A I N P A SS A G E S A N D W O R D S Q U O T E D *
A g a p i u s
e d . C h e i k h o , p . 1 4 0 6 3
p p . 1 8 0 - 1 8 1 7 4 p p . 2 3 9 - 2 4 0
7 f f . l 4 1 6 5 5 ff. p p . 2 5 4 - 2 5 5
4 6 f . p . 2 5 5 9
A l - M a k ï n
e d . C h e i k o , p . 3 9 1 8 1 0 1 4 1 5
E g e s i p p u s
Π , 1 2 4 1 4 2
E u s e b i u s
Demonstratio, V I I I , 2 : 9 9 1 2 6 1
Historia Ecclesiastica, I , 5 : 3 2 7
I , 5 : 6 2 7 1 , 8 : 4 1 2 1 , 8 : 9 2 7
I , 9 : 4 2 7 I , 1 0 : 2 - 6 55ff.
I , 1 0 : 4 5 1 I , 1 0 : 5 1 2 I , 1 1 : 4
5 1 I , 1 3 5 5 I I , 1 7 : 1 0 7 8
Π , 1 7 : 1 6 - 1 7 7 8 f. 1 1 , 1 7 : 1 9 - 2 07 9 Π Ι , 9 4 8
The Ecclesiastical History of
Eusebius in Syriac, e d . W r i g h t &
M c L e a n , p . 2 7 , 11. 2 - 3 2 7
p . 2 7 , 1 . 2 0 2 7 p . 4 0 , 1 . 11 2 7
p . 4 3 , 1 . 5 2 7 p . 4 4 5 7 p . 4 5 , 1 . 7
2 7 p . 4 7 , 1. 5 2 4 p . 48 2 4 ff .
Theophania, ed . S . Lee , V , 4 4 2 4 f .G e r m a n t ra n s i, b y H . G r e s s m a n n
2 5
G a l e n
e d . R . W a lz er , p . 1 5 7 9 f. p . 9 3
76 f .
I b n a l - Q i f t i
Tdrikh al-frukamä, p . 136 7 6 f.
J e r o m e , S t .
De Viris Illustribus, Χ Π Ι 4 0 4 1
J o s e p h u s
Antiquitates, I , 2 4 8 X I V , 2 2 6 7
X V I I I , 3 4 1 2 X V H I , 3 4 - 3 5 5 6 f.
X V I I I , 6 3 - 6 4 1 4 1 6 X X , 2 0 0
6 4 6 5 7 1 X X , 2 4 7 - 2 5 0 5 9
Bellum Judaicum, e d . N i e s e , p p .
x r v - x v , χ ν π 4 5
Contra Apionem, I , 1 5 1 I , 2 5 1
J o h n
x i : 4 9 5 9 x i : 5 1 5 9 x v i i i : 1 3 5 9
L u k e
i i i : 2 1 1 v : 2 3 4
M a l a l a s , I o a n n e s
Chronographia, e d . B . G . N i e b u h r ,
p p . 2 4 7 - 2 4 8 1 5 7 1
M a t t h e w
i: 16 7 2
M i c h a e l t h e S y r i a n
Chronicle, e d . J . Β . C h a b o t , I ,
p . 1 4 3 6 0 p p . 1 4 3 - 1 4 4 5 2 I V ,
p . 91 24 f f .
O r i g e nC o m m e n t a r y o n M a t t h e w i : 17 65
Contra Celsum, I , 6 : 1 7 - 1 8 3 5
I , 4 7 5 1 6 4 6 5
S o z o m e n o s
Historia Ecclesiastica, e d . J . B i d e z ,
L i b . I , C a p . 1 , p . 7 1 5
TB Yoma 4 7 a 1 2
* B o l d t y p e i n d i c a t e s p a g e - n u m b e r s i n t h i s w o r k .
[ 8 7 ]
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