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EcotourismWolin National Park, Poland

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Llano del Muerto waterfall inEl Salvador The Cedars in Lebanon Lacandon JungleinMexico Fernando de NoronhainBrazil Wolin National Park,Poland

Gnusandzebras in theMasai Marapark reserve inKenya.

Ecotourism is a form oftourisminvolving visiting fragile, pristine, and relatively undisturbed natural areas, intended

as a low-impact and often small scale alternative to standard commercial (mass) tourism. Its purpose may be to

educate the traveler, to provide funds forecological conservation, to directly benefit theeconomic developmentand

political empowerment of local communities, or to foster respect for different cultures and forhuman rights. Since the

1980s ecotourism has been considered a critical endeavour by environmentalists, so that future generations may

experience destinations relatively untouched by human intervention.[1]Several university programs use this

description as the working definition of ecotourism.[2]

Generally, ecotourism deals with living parts of the natural environments.[3]Ecotourism focuses on socially

responsible travel, personal growth, and environmental sustainability. Ecotourism typically involves travel to

destinations whereflora,fauna, andcultural heritageare the primary attractions. Ecotourism is intended to offer

tourists insight into the impact of human beings on the environment, and to foster a greater appreciation of our natural

habitats.

Responsible ecotourism programs include those that minimize the negative aspects of conventional tourism on the

environment and enhance the cultural integrity of local people. Therefore, in addition to evaluating environmental and

cultural factors, an integral part of ecotourism is the promotion ofrecycling,energy efficiency,water conservation, and

creation of economic opportunities for local communities.[4]

For these reasons, ecotourism often appeals to advocates

of environmental and social responsibility.

History[edit source|editbeta]

An elephant safari through theJaldapara National ParkinWest Bengal,India

Hector Ceballos-Lascurain popularized (and he would say coined) the term 'ecotourism' in July 1983, when he wasperforming the dual role of Director General of Standards and Technology of SEDUE (the Mexican Ministry of UrbanDevelopment and Ecology) and founding president of PRONATURA (an influential Mexican conservationist NGO).PRONATURA was lobbying for the conservation of the wetlands in northern Yucatn as breeding and feeding

habitats of the American Flamingo.[10][11]

Others claim the term was in use earlier: Claus-Dieter (Nick) Hetzer, an academic and adventurer from ForumInternational in Berkeley, CA, coined the term in 1965 and ran the first ecotours in the Yucatn during the early

1970s.[12]

Ecotourism, responsible tourism,jungle tourism, and sustainable development have become prevalent concepts since

the mid-1980s, and ecotourism has experienced arguably the fastest growth of all sub-sectors in the tourism industry.
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The popularity represents a change in tourist perceptions, increased environmental awareness, and a desire to explorenatural environments.

[4]

Definition[edit source|editbeta]

In the continuum of tourism activities that stretch from conventional tourism to ecotourism proper, there has been a lotof contention to the limit at which biodiversity preservation, local social-economic benefits, and environmental impactcan be considered "ecotourism". For this reason, environmentalists, special interest groups, and governments defineecotourism differently. Environmental organizations have generally insisted that ecotourism is nature-based,sustainably managed, conservation supporting, and environmentally educated.[6][20]The tourist industry andgovernments, however, focus more on the product aspect, treating ecotourism as equivalent to any sort of tourismbased in nature.

[6]As a further complication, many terms are used under the rubric of ecotourism.

[6]Nature tourism,

low impact tourism, green tourism, bio-tourism, ecologically responsible tourism, and others have been used inliterature and marketing, although they are not necessary synonymous with ecotourism.

[6]

The problems associated with defining ecotourism have led to confusion among tourists and academics . Definitionalproblems are also subject of considerable public controversy and concern because ofgreen washing, a trend towardsthe commercialization of tourism schemes disguised as sustainable, nature based, and environmentally friendlyecotourism.

[6]According to McLaren,

[6]these schemes are environmentally destructive, economically exploitative, and

culturally insensitive at its worst. They are also morally disconcerting because they mislead tourists and manipulatetheir concerns for the environment.

[21]The development and success of such large scale, energy intensive, and

ecologically unsustainable schemes are a testament to the tremendous profits associated with being labeled as

ecotourism.

Negative impact of tourism[edit source|editbeta]

Ecotourism has become one of the fastest-growing sectors of the tourism industry, growing annually by 1015%worldwide (Miller, 2007). One definition of ecotourism is "the practice of low-impact, educational, ecologically andculturally sensitive travel that benefits local communities and host countries" (Honey, 1999). Many of the ecotourismprojects are not meeting these standards. Even if some of the guidelines are being executed, the local communities arestill facing other negative impacts. South Africa is one of the countries that are reaping significant economic benefitsfrom ecotourism, but negative effectsincluding forcing people to leave their homes, gross violations of fundamentalrights, and environmental hazardsfar outweigh the medium-term economic benefits (Miller, 2007). A tremendousamount of money is being spent and human resources continue to be used for ecotourism despite unsuccessful

outcomes, and even more money is put into public relation campaigns to dilute the effects of criticism. Ecotourism

channels resources away from other projects that could contribute more sustainable and realistic solutions to pressingsocial and environmental problems. "The money tourism can generate often ties parks and managements to eco-tourism" (Walpole et al. 2001). But there is a tension in this relationship because ecotourism often causes conflict andchanges in land-use rights, fails to deliver promises of community-level benefits, damages environments, and has

plenty of other social impacts. Indeed many argue repeatedly that ecotourism is neither ecologically nor sociallybeneficial, yet it persists as a strategy for conservation and development (West, 2006). While several studies are beingdone on ways to improve the ecotourism structure, some argue that these examples provide rationale for stopping italtogether.

The ecotourism system exercises tremendous financial and political influence. The evidence above shows that a strongcase exists for restraining such activities in certain locations. Funding could be used for field studies aimed at findingalternative solutions to tourism and the diverse problems Africa faces in result of urbanization, industrialization, and

theover exploitationof agriculture (Kamuaro, 2007). At the local level, ecotourism has become a source of conflictover control of land, resources, and tourism profits. In this case, ecotourism has harmed the environment and local

people, and has led to conflicts over profit distribution. In a perfect world more efforts would be made towardseducating tourists of the environmental and social effects of their travels. Very few regulations or laws stand in placeas boundaries for the investors in ecotourism. These should be implemented to prohibit the promotion of unsustainableecotourism projects and materials which project false images of destinations, demeaning local and indigenouscultures.

Though conservation efforts in East Africa are indisputably serving the interests of tourism in the region it isimportant to make the distinction between conservation acts and the tourism industry.

[22]Eastern African communities

are not the only of developing regions to experience economic and social harms from conservation efforts.Conservation in the Northwest Yunnan Region of China has similarly brought drastic changes to traditional land use

in the region. Prior to logging restrictions imposed by the Chinese Government the industry made up 80 percent of theregions revenue. Following a complete ban on commercial logging the indigenous people of the Yunnan region nowsee little opportunity for economic development.

[23]Ecotourism may provide solutions to the economic hardships

suffered from the loss of industry to conservation in the Yunnan in the same way that it may serve to remedy the

difficulties faced by the Maasai. As stated, the ecotourism structure must be improved to direct more money into host
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communities by reducing leakages for the industry to be successful in alleviating poverty in developing regions, but itprovides a promising opportunity.

[24]

Local people[edit source|editbeta]

Most forms of ecotourism are owned by foreign investors and corporations that provide few benefits to localcommunities. An overwhelming majority of profits are put into the pockets of investors instead of reinvestment intothe local economy or environmental protection. The limited numbers of local people who are employed in theeconomy enter at its lowest level, and are unable to live in tourist areas because of meager wages and a two marketsystem.[6]

In some cases, the resentment by local people results in environmental degradation. As a highly publicized case,theMaasainomads in Kenya killed wildlife in national parks but are now helping the national park to save the wildlifeto show aversion to unfair compensation terms and displacement from traditional lands.

[19]The lack of economic

opportunities for local people also constrains them to degrade the environment as a means of sustenance.[6]The

presence of affluent ecotourists encourage the development of destructive markets in wildlife souvenirs, such as thesale of coral trinkets on tropical islands and animal products in Asia, contributing to illegal harvestingandpoachingfrom the environment. InSuriname, sea turtle reserves use a very large portion of their budget to guardagainst these destructive activities.

Displacement of people[edit source|editbeta]

One of the most powerful examples of communities being moved in order to create a park is the story of the Maasai.

About 70% of national parks and game reserves in East Africa are on Maasai land (Kamuaro, 2007). The firstundesirable impact of tourism was that of the extent of land lost from the Maasai culture. Local and nationalgovernments took advantage of the Maasais ignorance on the situation and robbed them of huge chunks of grazingland, putting to risk their only socio-economic livelihood. In Kenya the Maasai also have not gained any economicbenefits. Despite the loss of their land, employment favours better educated workers. Furthermore the investors in thisarea are not local and have not put profits back into local economy. In some cases game reserves can be createdwithout informing or consulting local people, who come to find out about the situation when an eviction notice isdelivered (Kamuaro, 2007). Another source of resentment is the manipulation of the local people by their government."Eco-tourism works to create simplistic images of local people and their uses and understandings of theirsurroundings. Through the lens of these simplified images, officials direct policies and projects towards the localpeople and the local people are blamed if the projects fail" (West, 2006). Clearly tourism as a trade is not empowering

the local people who make it rich and satisfying. Instead ecotourism exploits and depletes, particularly in African

Maasai tribes. It has to be reoriented if it is to be useful to local communities and to become sustainable (Kamuaro,2007).

Mismanagement[edit source|editbeta]

While governments are typically entrusted with the administration and enforcement of environmental protection, theyoften lack the commitment or capability to manage ecotourism sites effectively. The regulations for environmentalprotection may be vaguely defined, costly to implement, hard to enforce, and uncertain ineffectiveness.

[30]Government regulatory agencies, as political bodies, are susceptible to making decisions that spend

budget on politically beneficial but environmentally unproductive projects. Because of prestige and conspicuousness,the construction of an attractive visitor's center at an ecotourism site may take precedence over more pressing

environmental concerns like acquiring habitat, protecting endemic species, and removing invasive ones.[6]

Finally,influential groups canpressure and swaythe interests of the government to their favor. The government and itsregulators can become vested in the benefits of the ecotourism industry which they are supposed to regulate, causingrestrictive environmental regulations and enforcement to become more lenient.

Management of ecotourism sites by private ecotourism companies offers an alternative to the cost of regulation anddeficiency of government agencies. It is believed that these companies have a self-interest in limited environmentaldegradation, because tourists will pay more for pristine environments, which translates to higher profit. However,theory indicates that this practice is not economically feasible and will fail to manage the environment.

The model ofmonopolistic competitionstates that distinctiveness will entail profits, but profits will promote imitation.A company that protects its ecotourism sites is able to charge a premium for the novel experience and pristineenvironment. But when other companies view the success of this approach, they also enter the market with similarpractices, increasing competition and reducing demand. Eventually, the demand will be reduced until the economic

profit is zero. A cost-benefit analysis shows that the company bears the cost of environmental protection withoutreceiving the gains. Without economic incentive, the whole premise of self-interest through environmental protectionis quashed; instead, ecotourism companies will minimize environment related expenses and maximize tourismdemand.

[6]
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Thetragedy of the commonsoffers another model for economic unsustainability from environmental protection, inecotourism sites utilized by many companies.

[31]Although there is a communal incentive to protect the environment,

maximizing the benefits in the long run, a company will conclude that it is in their best interest to utilize theecotourism site beyond its sustainable level. By increasing the number of ecotourists, for instance, a company gains allthe economic benefit while paying only a part of the environmental cost. In the same way, a company recognizes thatthere is no incentive to actively protect the environment; they bear all the costs, while the benefits are shared by allother companies. The result, again, is mismanagement.

Taken together, the mobility of foreign investment and lack of economic incentive for environmental protection means

that ecotourism companies are disposed to establishing themselves in new sites once their existing one is sufficientlydegraded.

Guidelines and education[edit source|editbeta]

An environmental protection strategy must address the issue of ecotourists removed from the cause-and-effect of theiractions on the environment. More initiatives should be carried out to improve their awareness, sensitize them toenvironmental issues, and care about the places they visit.

[6]

Tour guides are an obvious and direct medium to communicate awareness. With the confidence of ecotourists and

intimate knowledge of the environment, they can actively discuss conservation issues. A tour guide training programin Costa Rica'sTortuguero National Parkhas helped mitigate negative environmental impacts by providinginformation and regulating tourists on the parks' beaches used by nesting endangered sea turtles.[16][17]

National Body for Responsible TourismRead ESOI statute in itsMemorandum of Association.

Objectives

The Ecotourism Society of India is dedicated to the promotion of sustainable development in tourism and to

responsible best practices in and among the tourism fraternity. All funds/income generated shall be utilized towards

the promotion of the aims and objectives of the Society as follows:

1.

Tabulate eco sensitive areas where tourism will have an impact on the social, cultural and natural environment.2. Make strategy and efforts to ensure long-term (perpetual) sustenance of the environment.3. Work with empowered bodies to establish carrying capacity and sustainable tourism practices which include

conservation of nature and wildlife, and allow local communities to benefit from tourism.4. Tourists and visitors numbers and tourism practices must allow nature to re-generate itself.5. To work with government bodies to develop policies and code of conduct for promotion of sustainable tourism,

and help implement the same.6. To work towards certification of tourism service providers.7. To act as watchdog for excessive consumption of natural resources and any negative impact in the tourism

sector.8. To support research in tourism environment related areas.9. Work with Service Providers to enhance quality of their product and services to a level so they can be

sustainable and eco-friendly.10.Encourage use of appropriate local practices, materials, art, craft, architecture, food.11.Encourage minimal conspicuous consumption and prevent excessive consumption of energy.12.Encourage energy saving practices, water harvesting, use of solar and other natural energy sources.13.Encourage good waste management practices especially non-bio degradable materials.14.Encourage low pollution-generating practices minimize carbon footprint.15.Organise training and other activities to create awareness on ecotourism, sustainable and responsible tourism.16.To collaborate with like-minded bodies and implement ecotourism objectives in India and abroad.17.To continually identify new ecotourism destinations, strengthen ecotourism and make India a preferred

ecotourism destination.18.Tourists and visitors numbers and tourism practices must allow nature to re-generate itself.19.Tourists and visitors numbers and tourism practices must allow nature to re-generate itself.

20.To work with government bodies to develop policies and code of conduct for promotion of sustainable tourism,and help implement the same.

21.work towards certification of tourism service providers.22.To act as watchdog for excessive consumption of natural resources and any negative impact in the tourism

sector.
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23.To support research in tourism environment related areas.24.Work with Service Providers to enhance quality of their product and services to a level so they can be

sustainable and eco-friendly.25.Encourage use of appropriate local practices, materials, art, craft, architecture, food.26.Encourage minimal conspicuous consumption and prevent excessive consumption of energy.27.Encourage energy saving practices, water harvesting, use of solar and other natural energy sources.28.Encourage good waste management practices especially non-bio degradable materials.29.Encourage low pollution-generating practices minimize carbon footprint.

30.Organise training and other activities to create awareness on ecotourism, sustainable and responsible tourism.31.To collaborate with like-minded bodies and implement ecotourism objectives in India and abroad.32.To continually identify new ecotourism destinations, strengthen ecotourism and make India a preferred

ecotourism destination.

Good And Bad DamsAll dams have some environmental impact but so do most of their alternatives. However, some dams are definitely

better than others.

What is considered good?

Building a dam inevitably has some impacts on a river and its ecosystem. However, careful siting, design andoperational procedures can minimize these impacts. Ideally, dams should be sited where no local people need to berelocated. However, where this is not possible, consent from affected people and satisfactory compensation have to

be a priority.In the case of hydropower, a good dam is generally a project with virtually no reservoir, or with small areas that store

only daily or weekly river flows.

These are called "Run-of-River" installations and usually become economic when there is a large change in landheight such as that found at a large waterfall.

Compared to dams with large storage reservoirs, such Run-of-River projects tend to have small water storage areas,allow sediment to pass through, seldom displace many people, and have small effects on seasonal river flow.TheOwen Falls Damon the upper Nile River in Uganda ranks as a good dam. It exemplifies the advantages of a lowimpact Run-of-River installation in which the dam and turbines are placed in a narrow canyon, and the river flow isalmost constant throughout the year. The dam has the advantage of the huge storage capacity of Lake Victoria. This

simple dam has been Ugandas principal electricity source for half a century.

However, not all run-of the river projects are low impact and some have sizeable reservoirs. The impacts of proposed

dams thus have to be assessed on an individual basis. To protect river ecosystems, all dams need mitigation measuresand special management procedures. Managed flood releases, fish ladders and habitat creation and protection are

some examples. In some countries, such as theUSand Switzerland, a labelling system awards certificates tohydropower plants that meet environmental criteria. The Swiss naturemade star label is supported by WWFSwitzerland (site in german).

What is considered bad?

The impact caused by theKariba Damin Zimbabwe ranks it as a bad dam.

Destruction of wildlife caused by the flooding of Lake Kariba and the thousands of people displaced by its

construction are part of its history.

The enormous amounts of water now lost by the Zambezi River due to evaporation from the large reservoirs at

Kariba and downstream atCahora Bassa Damin Mozambique has resulted in a severely diminished flow of waterreaching the river delta.

Before the dams were built, the normal flow used to flood wetlands along the coastal area and provide large surges offreshwater to the estuary during the annual floods making it very productive for fish and prawns. The changes in the

river have greatly reduced the productivity and extent of habitat for species living in the lower portions of theZambezi River.

In the case of theYacyret damin Argentina, the problem is not one of too little water but of raised water levels in

the Ibermarshes, an internationally important wetland.

WWF believes that if theWorld Commission on Dams guidelinesare applied in the planning of dams, such baddams would not be built.
http://fp.sistema.f9.co.uk/Africa/Photos/Country/PicCountrypg7%20Jinja%20%20Owen%20Falls%20Dam%20on%20the%20Nile%20river.htmhttp://fp.sistema.f9.co.uk/Africa/Photos/Country/PicCountrypg7%20Jinja%20%20Owen%20Falls%20Dam%20on%20the%20Nile%20river.htmhttp://fp.sistema.f9.co.uk/Africa/Photos/Country/PicCountrypg7%20Jinja%20%20Owen%20Falls%20Dam%20on%20the%20Nile%20river.htmhttp://www.lowimpacthydro.org/http://www.lowimpacthydro.org/http://www.lowimpacthydro.org/http://www.wwf.ch/default.cfm?action=none&Navi_Navi_ID=4307&Navi_Show_content_code=3&Navi_Show_content_page=2211&Navi_ContentTarget=3&Cont_page_id=1http://www.wwf.ch/default.cfm?action=none&Navi_Navi_ID=4307&Navi_Show_content_code=3&Navi_Show_content_page=2211&Navi_ContentTarget=3&Cont_page_id=1http://www.wwf.ch/default.cfm?action=none&Navi_Navi_ID=4307&Navi_Show_content_code=3&Navi_Show_content_page=2211&Navi_ContentTarget=3&Cont_page_id=1http://www.wwf.ch/default.cfm?action=none&Navi_Navi_ID=4307&Navi_Show_content_code=3&Navi_Show_content_page=2211&Navi_ContentTarget=3&Cont_page_id=1http://www.bized.ac.uk/virtual/dc/aid/kariba/issue2.htmhttp://www.bized.ac.uk/virtual/dc/aid/kariba/issue2.htmhttp://www.bized.ac.uk/virtual/dc/aid/kariba/issue2.htmhttp://www.panda.org/about_wwf/what_we_do/freshwater/what_we_do/policy_events/dams/examples/cahora.cfmhttp://www.panda.org/about_wwf/what_we_do/freshwater/what_we_do/policy_events/dams/examples/cahora.cfmhttp://www.panda.org/about_wwf/what_we_do/freshwater/what_we_do/policy_events/dams/examples/cahora.cfmhttp://www.panda.org/about_wwf/what_we_do/freshwater/what_we_do/policy_events/dams/examples/yacyreta.cfmhttp://www.panda.org/about_wwf/what_we_do/freshwater/what_we_do/policy_events/dams/examples/yacyreta.cfmhttp://www.panda.org/about_wwf/what_we_do/freshwater/what_we_do/policy_events/dams/examples/yacyreta.cfmhttp://www.panda.org/about_wwf/what_we_do/freshwater/what_we_do/policy_events/dams/examples/yacyreta.cfmhttp://www.panda.org/about_wwf/what_we_do/freshwater/what_we_do/policy_events/dams/examples/yacyreta.cfmhttp://www.panda.org/about_wwf/what_we_do/freshwater/what_we_do/policy_events/dams/solutions/wcd.cfmhttp://www.panda.org/about_wwf/what_we_do/freshwater/what_we_do/policy_events/dams/solutions/wcd.cfmhttp://www.panda.org/about_wwf/what_we_do/freshwater/what_we_do/policy_events/dams/solutions/wcd.cfmhttp://www.panda.org/about_wwf/what_we_do/freshwater/what_we_do/policy_events/dams/solutions/wcd.cfmhttp://www.panda.org/about_wwf/what_we_do/freshwater/what_we_do/policy_events/dams/examples/yacyreta.cfmhttp://www.panda.org/about_wwf/what_we_do/freshwater/what_we_do/policy_events/dams/examples/cahora.cfmhttp://www.bized.ac.uk/virtual/dc/aid/kariba/issue2.htmhttp://www.wwf.ch/default.cfm?action=none&Navi_Navi_ID=4307&Navi_Show_content_code=3&Navi_Show_content_page=2211&Navi_ContentTarget=3&Cont_page_id=1http://www.wwf.ch/default.cfm?action=none&Navi_Navi_ID=4307&Navi_Show_content_code=3&Navi_Show_content_page=2211&Navi_ContentTarget=3&Cont_page_id=1http://www.lowimpacthydro.org/http://fp.sistema.f9.co.uk/Africa/Photos/Country/PicCountrypg7%20Jinja%20%20Owen%20Falls%20Dam%20on%20the%20Nile%20river.htm


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Dam

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article is about structures for water impoundment. For other uses, seeDam (disambiguation).

Glen Canyon Dam A sideview of theLake Vyrnwydam,

inWales, finished in 1888

Hoover Dam, a concretearch-gravity dam

inBlack Canyon of the Colorado River.

Lake Meadin the background isimpoundedby the dam.

A dam is a barrier thatimpoundswateror underground streams. Dams generally serve the primary purpose of

retaining water, while other structures such asfloodgatesorlevees(also known asdikes) are used to manage or

prevent water flow into specific land regions.Hydropowerandpumped-storage hydroelectricityare often used in

conjunction with dams to generate electricity. A dam can also be used to collect water or for storage of water which

can be evenly distributed between locations.

Contents [hide]

1 History

2 Types of dams

o 2.1 By structure 2.1.1 Arch dams 2.1.2 Gravity dams2.1.3 Arch-gravity dams2.1.4 Barrages2.1.5

Embankment dams2.1.5.1 Rock-fill dams2.1.5.2 Concrete-face rock-fill dams2.1.5.3 Earth-fill dams

o 2.2 By size

o 2.3 By use2.3.1 Saddle dam2.3.2 Weir2.3.3 Check dam2.3.4 Dry dam2.3.5 Diversionary dam

2.3.6 Underground dam2.3.7 Tailings dam

o 2.4 By material2.4.1 Steel dams2.4.2 Timber dams

o 2.5 Other types2.5.1 Cofferdams2.5.2 Natural dams2.5.2.1 Beaver dams

3 Construction elements

o 3.1 Power generation plant

o 3.2 Spillways

4 Dam creation

o 4.1 Common purposes

o 4.2 Location

o 4.3 Impact assessment4.3.1 Environmental impact4.3.2 Human social impact4.3.3 Economics

5 Dam failure

6 See also

7 References 8 Sources

9 External links
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam_(disambiguation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam_(disambiguation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam_(disambiguation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glen_Canyon_Damhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glen_Canyon_Damhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Vyrnwyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Vyrnwyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Vyrnwyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hoover_Damhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hoover_Damhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arch-gravity_damhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arch-gravity_damhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arch-gravity_damhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Canyon_of_the_Coloradohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Canyon_of_the_Coloradohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Canyon_of_the_Coloradohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Meadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Meadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reservoirhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reservoirhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reservoirhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reservoirhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reservoirhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface_waterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface_waterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface_waterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floodgateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floodgateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floodgateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leveehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leveehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leveehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dike_(construction)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dike_(construction)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dike_(construction)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydropowerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydropowerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydropowerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pumped-storage_hydroelectricityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pumped-storage_hydroelectricityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pumped-storage_hydroelectricityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#Historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#Historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#Types_of_damshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#Types_of_damshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#By_structurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#By_structurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#Arch_damshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#Arch_damshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#Gravity_damshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#Gravity_damshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#Arch-gravity_damshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#Arch-gravity_damshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#Barrageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#Barrageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#Embankment_damshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#Embankment_damshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#Rock-fill_damshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#Concrete-face_rock-fill_damshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#Earth-fill_damshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#Earth-fill_damshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#By_sizehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#By_sizehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#By_usehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#Saddle_damhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#Weirhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#Check_damhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#Dry_damhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#Diversionary_damhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#Underground_damhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#Tailings_damhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#Tailings_damhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#By_materialhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#Steel_damshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#Timber_damshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#Timber_damshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#Other_typeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#Cofferdamshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#Natural_damshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#Beaver_damshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#Beaver_damshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#Construction_elementshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#Construction_elementshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#Power_generation_planthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#Power_generation_planthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#Spillwayshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#Spillwayshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#Dam_creationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#Dam_creationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#Common_purposeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#Common_purposeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#Locationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#Locationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#Impact_assessmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#Environmental_impacthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#Human_social_impacthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#Economicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#Dam_failurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#Dam_failurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#See_alsohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#See_alsohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#Referenceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#Referenceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#Sourceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#Sourceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#External_linkshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#External_linkshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Vyrnwy_dam.JPGhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Glen_canyon_dam.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hoover_Dam_Nevada_Luftaufnahme.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Vyrnwy_dam.JPGhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Glen_canyon_dam.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hoover_Dam_Nevada_Luftaufnahme.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Vyrnwy_dam.JPGhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Glen_canyon_dam.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hoover_Dam_Nevada_Luftaufnahme.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#External_linkshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#Sourceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#Referenceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#See_alsohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#Dam_failurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#Economicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#Human_social_impacthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#Environmental_impacthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#Impact_assessmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#Locationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#Common_purposeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#Dam_creationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#Spillwayshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#Power_generation_planthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#Construction_elementshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#Beaver_damshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#Natural_damshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#Cofferdamshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#Other_typeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#Timber_damshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#Steel_damshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#By_materialhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#Tailings_damhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#Underground_damhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#Diversionary_damhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#Dry_damhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#Check_damhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#Weirhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#Saddle_damhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#By_usehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#By_sizehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#Earth-fill_damshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#Concrete-face_rock-fill_damshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#Rock-fill_damshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#Embankment_damshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#Embankment_damshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#Barrageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#Arch-gravity_damshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#Gravity_damshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#Arch_damshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#By_structurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#Types_of_damshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#Historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pumped-storage_hydroelectricityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydropowerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dike_(construction)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leveehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floodgateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface_waterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reservoirhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reservoirhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Meadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Canyon_of_the_Coloradohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arch-gravity_damhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hoover_Damhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Vyrnwyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glen_Canyon_Damhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam_(disambiguation)


7/19

History[edit source|editbeta]

TheRoman dam at Cornalvoin Grand Anicutdam on riverKaveri

Spainhas been in use for almost two millennia. inTamil Nadu,South India

(19th century on 1st2nd century foundation)

The word dam can be traced back toMiddle English,[1]and before that, fromMiddle Dutch, as seen in the names of

many old cities.[2]

Early dam building took place inMesopotamiaand theMiddle East. Dams were used to control the

water level, for Mesopotamia's weather affected theTigrisandEuphratesrivers, and could be quite unpredictable.

The earliest known dam is theJawa DaminJordan, 100 kilometres (62 mi) northeast of the capitalAmman. This

gravity dam featured an originally 9 m (30 ft) high and 1 m (3 ft 3 in) wide stone wall, supported by a 50 m (160 ft)

wide earth rampart. The structure is dated to 3000 BC.[3][4]

TheAncient EgyptianSadd-el-Kafara Damat Wadi Al-Garawi, located about 25 km (16 mi) south ofCairo, was

102 m (335 ft) long at its base and 87 m (285 ft) wide. The structure was built around 2800[5]

or 2600 BC.[6]

as

adiversion damfor flood control, but was destroyed by heavy rain during construction or shortly

afterwards.[5][6]

During the XIIth dynasty in the 19th century BC, the Pharaohs Senosert III ,Amenemhat IIIand

Amenmehat IV dug a canal 16 km long linking the Fayum Depression to the Nile in Middle Egypt. Two dams called

Ha-Uar running east-west were built to retain water during the annual flood and then release it to surrounding lands.

The lake called "Mer-wer" or Lake Moeris covered 1700 square kilometers and is known today as Berkat

Qaroun.[citation needed]

By the mid-late 3rd century BC, an intricate water-management system withinDholavirain modern day India, was

built. The system included 16 reservoirs, dams and various channels for collecting water and storing it.[7]

Roman dam constructionwas characterized by "the Romans' ability to plan and organize engineering construction on a

grand scale".[8]

Roman planners introduced the then novel concept of largereservoir damswhich could secure a

permanentwater supplyfor urban settlements also over the dry season.[9]

Their pioneering use of water-proof

hydraulicmortarand particularlyRoman concreteallowed for much larger dam structures than previously

built,[8]

such as theLake Homs Dam, possibly the largest water barrier to that date,[10]

and theHarbaqa Dam, both

inRoman Syria. The highest Roman dam was theSubiaco DamnearRome; its record height of 50 m (160 ft)

remained unsurpassed until its accidental destruction in 1305.[11]

Roman engineers made routine use of ancient standard designs like embankment dams and masonry gravity

dams.[12]

Apart from that, they displayed a high degree of inventiveness, introducing most of the other basic dam

designs which had been unknown until then. These includearch-gravity dams,[13]arch dams,[14]buttress

dams[15]

andmultiple arch buttress dams,[16]

all of which were known and employed by the 2nd century AD (seeList

of Roman dams). Roman workforces also were the first to build dam bridges, such as theBridge of Valerianin Iran.[17]

Eflatun Pnaris a Hittite dam and spring temple near Konya, Turkey. It is thought to be from the time of the Hittite

empire between the 15th and 13th century BC.

TheKallanaiis constructed of unhewn stone, over 300 m (980 ft) long, 4.5 m (15 ft) high and 20 m (66 ft) wide,

across the main stream of theKaveririver inTamil Nadu,South India. The basic structure dates to the 2nd century

AD[18]

and is considered one of the oldest water-diversion or water-regulator structures in the world, which is still in
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amhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#cite_note-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dholavirahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amenemhat_IIIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#cite_note-G.C3.BCnther_Garbrecht_52f.-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#cite_note-G.C3.BCnther_Garbrecht_52f.-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diversion_damhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#cite_note-Bazzasowr-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#cite_note-G.C3.BCnther_Garbrecht_52f.-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cairohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sadd-el-Kafara_Damhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egypthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jordanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jawa_Dam_(Jordan)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euphrateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tigrishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Easthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotamiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Dutchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamil_Naduhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaverihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Anicuthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornalvo_Damhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dam&veaction=edit&section=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dam&action=edit&section=1


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use.[19]The purpose of the dam was to divert the waters of the Kaveri across the fertile Delta region for irrigation via

canals.[20]

Du Jiang Yanis the oldest surviving irrigation system in China that included a dam that directed waterflow. It was

finished in 251 BC. A large earthen dam, made by thePrime MinisterofChu (state),Sunshu Ao, flooded a valley in

modern-day northernAnhuiprovince that created an enormousirrigationreservoir (100 km (62 mi) in circumference),

a reservoir that is still present today.[21]

InIran, bridge dams such as theBand-e Kaisarwere used to providehydropowerthroughwater wheels, which often

powered water-raising mechanisms. One of the first was the Roman-built dam bridge inDezful,[22]

which could raise

water 50cubitsin height for thewater supplyto all houses in the town. Alsodiversion damswere

known.[23]

Millingdams were introduced which theMuslim engineerscalled thePul-i-Bulaiti. The first was built at

Shustar on the RiverKarun,Iran, and many of these were later built in other parts of the Islamic world.[23]

Water was

conducted from the back of the dam through a large pipe to drive a water wheel and watermill.[24]In the 10th

century,Al-Muqaddasidescribed several dams in Persia. He reported that one in Ahwazwas more than 910 m

(3,000 ft) long,[25]

and that and it had many water-wheels raising the water into aqueductsthrough which it flowed

intoreservoirsof the city.[26]Another one, theBand-i-Amirdam, provided irrigation for 300 villages.[25]

In theNetherlands, a low-lying country, dams were often applied to block rivers in order to regulate the water level

and to prevent the sea from entering the marsh lands. Such dams often marked the beginning of a town or city because

it was easy to cross the river at such a place, and often gave rise to the respective place's names in Dutch. For instance

the Dutch capitalAmsterdam(old name Amstelredam) started with a dam through the riverAmstelin the late 12th

century, andRotterdamstarted with a dam through the river Rotte, a minor tributary of theNieuwe Maas. The central

square of Amsterdam, covering the original place of the 800 year old dam, still carries the nameDam Squareor

simply the Dam.

French engineerBenot Fourneyrondeveloped the first successfulwater turbinein 1832. The era of large dams wasinitiated afterHoover Damwas completed on theColorado Rivernear Las Vegas in 1936. By 1997, there were an

estimated 800,000 dams worldwide, some 40,000 of them over 15 m (49 ft) high.[27]

Types of dams[edit source|editbeta]

Dams can be formed by human agency, natural causes, or even by the intervention of wildlife such asbeavers. Man-

made dams are typically classified according to their size (height), intended purpose or structure.

By structure[edit source|editbeta]

Based on structure and material used, dams are classified as easily created without materials ,arch-gravity

dams,embankment damsormasonry dams, with several subtypes.Arch dams[edit source|editbeta]

Gordon Dam,Tasmaniais anarch dam.

Main article:Arch dam

In the arch dam, stability is obtained by a combination of arch and gravity action. If the upstream face is vertical the

entire weight of the dam must be carried to the foundation by gravity, while the distribution of the normal hydrostatic

pressurebetween verticalcantileverand arch action will depend upon thestiffnessof the dam in a vertical and
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m_Squarehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam_Squarehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam_Squarehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beno%C3%AEt_Fourneyronhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beno%C3%AEt_Fourneyronhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beno%C3%AEt_Fourneyronhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_turbinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_turbinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_turbinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hoover_Damhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hoover_Damhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hoover_Damhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colorado_Riverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colorado_Riverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colorado_Riverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#cite_note-27http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#cite_note-27http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#cite_note-27http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dam&action=edit&section=2http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dam&action=edit&section=2http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dam&action=edit&section=2http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dam&veaction=edit&section=2http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dam&veaction=edit&section=2http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dam&veaction=edit&section=2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beaverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beaverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beaverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dam&action=edit&section=3http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dam&action=edit&section=3http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dam&action=edit&section=3http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dam&veaction=edit&section=3http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dam&veaction=edit&section=3http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dam&veaction=edit&section=3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arch-gravity_damhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arch-gravity_damhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arch-gravity_damhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arch-gravity_damhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embankment_damhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embankment_damhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embankment_damhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masonry_damhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masonry_damhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masonry_damhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dam&action=edit&section=4http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dam&action=edit&section=4http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dam&action=edit&section=4http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dam&veaction=edit&section=4http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dam&veaction=edit&section=4http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dam&veaction=edit&section=4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gordon_Damhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gordon_Damhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tasmaniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tasmaniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tasmaniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arch_damhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arch_damhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arch_damhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arch_damhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arch_damhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arch_damhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluid_pressurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluid_pressurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluid_pressurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluid_pressurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cantileverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cantileverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cantileverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stiffnesshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stiffnesshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stiffnesshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gordon_Dam.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stiffnesshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cantileverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluid_pressurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluid_pressurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arch_damhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arch_damhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tasmaniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gordon_Damhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dam&veaction=edit&section=4http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dam&action=edit&section=4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masonry_damhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embankment_damhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arch-gravity_damhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arch-gravity_damhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dam&veaction=edit&section=3http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dam&action=edit&section=3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beaverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dam&veaction=edit&section=2http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dam&action=edit&section=2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#cite_note-27http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colorado_Riverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hoover_Damhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_turbinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beno%C3%AEt_Fourneyronhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam_Squarehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nieuwe_Maashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotterdamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amstelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amsterdamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netherlandshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#cite_note-Hill-56-8-25http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#cite_note-Hill-31-26http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reservoirhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aqueduct_(watercourse)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#cite_note-Hill-56-8-25htt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horizontal direction. When the upstream face is sloped the distribution is more complicated. Thenormalcomponent of

the weight of the arch ring may be taken by the arch action, while the normal hydrostatic pressure will be distributed

as described above. For this type of dam, firm reliable supports at the abutments (eitherbuttressorcanyonside wall)

are more important. The most desirable place for an arch dam is a narrow canyon with steep side walls composed of

sound rock.[28]

The safety of an arch dam is dependent on the strength of the side wall abutments, hence not only

should the arch be well seated on the side walls but also the character of the rock should be carefully inspected.

Daniel-Johnson Dam,Quebec, is a multiple-arch buttress dam.

Two types of single-arch dams are in use, namely the constant-angle and the constant-radius dam. The constant-radius

type employs the same face radius at all elevations of the dam, which means that as the channel grows narrower

towards the bottom of the dam the central angle subtended by the face of the dam becomes smaller. Jones Falls Dam,

in Canada, is a constant radius dam. In a constant-angle dam, also known as a variable radius dam, this subtended

angle is kept a constant and the variation in distance between the abutments at various levels are taken care of by

varying the radii. Constant-radius dams are much less common

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