shreyas' b.e.e. study guide

8/8/2019 Shreyas' B.E.E. Study Guide

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Chapter 1: BiologyCharacteristics of Life

Organization of cells(smallest to largest)

Responding to Stimuli

Homeostasis

Growth and Development

Reproduction

Evolution

MetabolismScientific Method

1. Observation Quantitative or Qualitative2. Hypothesis3. Experiment

a. Independent Variablewhat you change; Dependent variablewhat changes basedon Independent Variable

4. Data, Analysis, Conclusion (Hypothesisright or wrong?)*Controlled experiments only have one variable between control + experimental group

Theoriesexplanation of the results of the experimentLawsstatement of an observation in Nature (usually math)Predictionswhat is expected to happen (not necessarily true)Inferencesconclusion based on an observation of an experimentThemes of Biology

Diversity and Unity of Life (Biodiversity)

Interdependence of Organisms (Ecology)

Evolution of Life (Natural Selection)Microscopes

Compound Light Microscopecan see living things

Transmission Electron Microscope(TEM)2D; Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)3Do Magnify 2,000,000+; Objects must be dead; Expensive

Chapter 2: ChemistryMatterElements + AtomsElementssubstances that cant be broken down furtherStructure of AtomsNucleusprotons + neutronsProtonspositively chargedElectronsnegatively charged*All living things have carbonIsotopes-Normally atomsbalanced (P)rotons (E) lectrons Atomic (N)umber- Atoms also exist by having different number of neutrons; those are called isotopes of that atomAtomic Number--# of protons in atomMass Number--# of protons + neutrons in atom MASS # - ATOMIC # = # ofNEUTRONSCharged and Uncharged-When # of protons = # of electrons, atom = stable + unchanged-When # of protons # of electrons, the atom is charged. A charged particle = ionRules of BondingRule of Duetatoms 1st energy lvl needs 2 electronsRule of Octetall other energy levels want 8 electronsValance# of electrons needed by outermost orbitalValance Electrons# of electrons on outermost orbital

Ionic Bonds


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Ionic Bondoccurs when atoms steal electron from each other and are attracted because of thechargeOxidationatom loses electron; Reductionatom gains electron-Ionic = weaker than CovalentCovalent bonds (strongest)-occur when 2 atoms share electrons to fill the energy orbitals

Moleculessubstance with more than one atom (O2)Compoundsubstance that has 2 different atoms (H2O, CH4)Activation Energyamount of energy required to start a chemical reactionEnzymeslower the amount of activation energy; are biological catalysts; cells make enzymesCatalystcauses a reaction (a catalyst is not living)Polarityuneven distribution of electronsHydrogen Bondsweak bonds between water molecules*Polar and Non-Polar substances do not mixAdhesionattraction between unlike substancesCohesionattraction between like substancesCapillarityproperty that allows water to travel up small tubes

Transpirationplant sweating; evaporation happening on plants

pH Acids and Bases

Dissociation of water H2O H++OH-

OH- =Hydroxide Ion; H++ H2OH3O+ = Hydronium Ion More Hydroxide than Hydronium = Base (Alkaline; slippery, bitter; soap)

More Hydronium than Hydroxide = Acid (sour tasting)

pH scale (1-14); 7 is neutral; above 7 is basic; under 7 is alkalineSolutionsSolutionmixture of substances; (solute= smaller; solvent = larger)Concentrationa term used to describe how much solute is dissolved in the solventBuffersresist change in pH; necessary for bodily functions

Chapter 3: BioChemistryOrganiccontains carbonMacromoleculescarbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acidsCarbohydratessugars a.k.a. saccharides (mono, di, poly)

Glucose + Fructose Sucrose (disaccharide)Monomerone set of atoms; Polymermany sets of atoms (many monomers)PolymerStarchlong chains of glucose

--Glycogenpolymer for animalsEnergy Sources: 1) Carbohydrates 2)Lipids 3) ProteinsMaking and Breaking Polymers--Condensation Reactionmakes water; macromolecules

--Hydrolysis Reactionuses water; breaks down moleculesLipids (FAT) (Macromolecule)--long term energy; part of cell membrane; non-polar; doesnt mix well w/ water--no fixed ratio of C, H, O; ex. Steroid, waxesFatty Acidsbuilding blocks for LipidsTriglyceridesfat we eatSaturated Fatsolid at room temperatureUnsaturated Fatliquid at room temperature (contain a double bond between 2 carbonatoms)Proteins


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-Amino Acids (C, H, O, N)20 dif types; -ine ending; R- group is the difference betweenAmino Acids-form peptide bonds to make PolypeptidesEnzymes--Work by induced fit model; work better in some environments; have ase ending

Isomerssame formula, dif atom arrangements

Chapter 4: Structure and Function of the CellDiscovery of the Cell-1665Robert Hookeobserved dead cells in plants + ferns (cork cells; looked like jailcells)-1673Leeuwenhoek observed first animal cellsCell Theory-All living things are composed of one or more cells-Cells are the basic units of structure and function in an organism-Cells come from the reproduction of existing cellsCell Size

-surface area increases while total volume remains constant-Cells are small b.c. they need to obtain + expend nutrients fast-When cell = too large; surface area volume ratio = too small to sustain lifeImportant Organelles-Cell Membranethin coat that surrounds the cell; made of phospholipid bilayer; semi-permeable-Nucleus- contains DNA + controls functions in the cell; majority of genetic info is here*All Cells in organism have same DNA like a switchbox; only some parts are activatedProkaryotes V.S. Eukaryotes-Prokaryotes = cell w/no nucleus; came before eukaryotes-Eukaryotes = cell w/ nucleus; cell membrane

Organelles-cytoplasmliquid substance in cell-mitochondriapowerhouse; has own DNA; takes glucose and makes it into ATP-ribosomeorganelles where protein is made***Endosymbiosistheory of how prokaryotes ate each other and now the ones eatenbecame organelles in eukaryotes-Endoplasmic Reticulum(ER)bunch of folds of tubules in a cell that serve as a highwayfor molecules

--2 types= smooth (no ribosomes on it) and rough (ribosomes on it)-Golgi Apparatuspackaging plant; gets everything ready for export; series of flattenedsacks

--Lysosomesmall spherical organelle w/enzymes that break down molecules(food, oldorganelles, bacteria, viruses); killers (white blood cells = a lot of lysosomes)Cytoskeletonskeleton of cell; gives structure and shape; components = microfilaments+ microtubulesLocomotionCiliasmall hair like organelles that propel a cellFlagellalong hair-like structure that propels a cellPlant CellsThey have:Cell Walloutside of cell membrane; give support and make cell rigid


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Chloroplastssacs in plant cells that enable plants to photosynthesize; contain the colorpigment molecules chlorophyll, which gives plants the green appearance--Animal Cells dont have a cell wall or chloroplast

Chapter 5: Homeostasis and Cell TransportDiffusion-movement of particles from high to low concentration; possible because particles arealways in motion-occurs until equilibrium is reached*Equilibrium*-particles are equally distributed on both sides-Concentration Gradient (dif in concentration)Passive Transport (facilitated (helped) diffusion)-No ATP is used; cannot occur against the concentration gradientOsmosisdiffusion of water from high to low concentration (passive transport)

Isotonic Solutionwater + solute concentration equal on both sides; cell retainsshape

Hypotonic Solutionwater higher concentration outside of cell and is forced in; cellswells

Hypertonic Solutionwater lower in concentration outside of cell; cell shrinks

Active Transport-ATP is used; can occur against the concentration gradient (low to high)

Endocytosiso Phagocytosis swallowing a solid

o Pinocytosisswallowing a liquid

Exocytosis- process where objects leave the cell; opposite of endocytosis

Turgor Pressurethe pressure that water molecules exert against a cell wall in a plantSodium- Potassium Pump

- 3 sodium ions released; 2 potassium ions taken in

Chapter 6: AutotrophyAutotrophymaking food automatically; own food; collecting energy from non-livingenvironmentAutotrophs-Photoautotrophs (Plants, Bacteria, Algae)-Chemoautotrophs make food using chemicals (bacteria under the sea use heat fromEarth)Photosynthesis

-6CO2 + 6H2O +light energy C6H12O6 + 6O2Thylakoid Membrane-location of light reactionsPlants appear green-Pigments

-Chlorophyll a + b absorb everything except green (you see green)-Carotenes reflect other colors and absorb green (you see other colors)

Light and Dark ReactionsLight Reactions Dark Reactions-Products: ATP, NADPH, O2 -Products: NAPH+, H+, ADP, P*ATP synthase : ADP + phosphate = ATP-Concentration gradient of H+ powers this^ (they want to leave through the ATPsynthase)Light Reactions


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1. Light excites electrons in chlorophyll a molecules of photosystem II2. Electrons move to primary electron acceptor(p.e.a.)3. Electrons transferred along a series of molecules (Electron Transport Chain (E.T.C.)4. Light excites electrons in Photosystem I. As these move to another p.e.a., they are

replaced by the electrons from photosystem II5. The electrons from photosystem I are transferred along a second E.T.C. At the end

of this chain, they combine with NADP+ and H+ to make NADPHRestoring Photosystem II

-Step 4 of the light reactions, electrons from photosystem II go to photosystem I-electrons in the photosystem have to be replaced; the replacement is provided bywater molecules

-2H2O 4H+ + 4e= + O2Chemiosmosis-From restoring Photosystem II, there is a buildup of H+ inside Thylakoid-they have to be pumped our (there is a concentration gradient)-excited electrons passing along the E.T.C. provide energy for pumping-When H+ is pumped through ATP synthase, it creates energy, so ADP + phosphatebecome ATPDark Reactions (The Calvin Cycle)-occurs day and night; in the stromaSteps1) CO2 combines with RuBP = 2 molecules of PGA2) PGA converts into PGAL3) Most of PGAL is converted back into RuBP, some of it makes organic compounds-For every CO2 that enters, 4 ADP, 2NADP+, 2 phosphate and organic compound aremadeRate of PhotosynthesisAs the rate of photosynthesis increases.1. The light intensity increases and then plateaus2. The temperature increases, reaches a peak, and then falls3. The CO2 levels increase and reach a plateauTypes of Plants-C3 plants(ancient)(most abundant)bad w/oxygen rich environments-C4 plants(evolved)(2nd abundant)can live w/oxygen or CO2; fixes carbon in 4chains(hence the name)

-CAM plantsCacti; Closed in the A.M. (stomata is closed in the AM)

Chapter 7: Cell RespirationGlycolysis (cytosol)

-Glucose + 2ATP 4ATP +2NADH + 2 Pyruvates (pyruvic acid; 3 carbon chain)

Fermentationform of Anaerobic respiration that transforms energy into free energyAnaerobic Respiration

-chemical energyfree + heat energy-Ethyl Alcohol Fermentation (Yeast, bacteria)

-creates Ethanol; 2 carbon chain-Lactic Acid Fermentation

-creates Lactic Acid; 3 carbon chainAerobic Respiration

- C6H12O6 + 6O26CO2 + 6H2O + Energy (ATP)Krebs Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle)(mitochondrial matrix)


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-1 pyruvate 4 NADH + FADH2+ATP+3CO2 (multiply products by 2 because there are 2pyruvates from Glycolysis)Steps

1. Pyruvate loses a carbon (CO2) and converts into a 2c (c as in carbon) chain, makingNADH

2. Coenzyme A binds with the 2c chain to make Acetyl Co-A; Acetyl Co-A then bindswith the 4c chain

3. The now 6c loses a carbon (CO2) and converts into 5c, making an NADH along the

way4. The 5c loses a CO2 and converts into a 4c, making a NADH on its way5. 4c converts into another 4c, creating an ATP, FADH2, and NADH

--starts all over again (its a cycle, duh)Total Energy Yield so farGlycolysis: +2 ATP + 2 NADHKrebs Cycle: +2 ATP + 8 NADH + 2 FADH2 Total: +4 ATP + 10 NADH + 2 FADH2Electron Transport Chain (ETC)-most ATP made here (Chemiosmosis)-occurs in cristae of mitochondria-converts NADH (one NADH = 3 ATP) and FADH2 (one FADH2 = 2 ATP) into ATPSteps

1. NADH / FADH2 donate electrons (theyre so nice )2. Electrons attract Hydrogen Ions + create gradient3. Hydrogen go through ATP synthase to make ATP (Chemiosmosis)4. Electrons bind to H+ and O2 to create water

Final and Complete Energy YieldSo far: 10 NADH + 2 FADH2 + 4 ATPETC : 10 NADH = 30 NADH

2 FADH2 = 4 ATP4 ATP

Total: 38 or 36 (2 are used in a general cell process) ATP are created from 1 glucose

Chapter 8: Cell ReproductionPurpose: growth, obtain nutrients, maintain high SA to V ratio, and lifeProkaryotes and Eukaryotes-Prokaryotes: bacteria 1 chromosome (fragment of DNA)-Eukaryotes: multiple chromosomesKaryotypepicture of DNA (tells you the sex; Boy XY; GirlXX) (Down syndrome =trisomy 21; extra chromosome on 21st pair)Diploid2 chromosomes of one type; Haploidone chromosome of one type

Cell Division in Prokaryotes: Binary Fission; identical-Prokaryotes: 1 chromosome shaped like a circleCell Division in Eukaryotes (Mitosis)-Interphase whole life; in between-M-phase (mitosis)

-Prophase- chromosomes visible-Metaphase- chromosomes line up in middle-Anaphase-chromosomes pull apart-Telophase- cell membranes pinch off (cleavage furrow)

-cytokinesisCell Cycle


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G1 = cell growsR = restriction point; will go through reproduction or stop? ; if stop, go to G0S = DNA replicationG2 = prepare for reproductionM = Mitosis (small part)G0 = stops (brain + nerve cells)Cancerproblem in R-phase and cells grow uncontrollably (tumor)*centrioles* (in animal cells) are said to pull chromosomes apart in anaphase

*Note* Tetradhomologues; one chromosome next to other*Note* Only sex cells are haploid (n)Sex Cell Production-Sex Cells Gametes n-Everything Else Somatic Cell 2nMeiosis-diploid (2n) into 4 haploid (n)-Produces gametes; two parts (1+2)Meiosis I-Prophase I: crossing over between homologous chromosomes

-Metaphase I: homologous pairs line up in the middle-Anaphase I: homologous pairs split-Telophase I: 2 daughter cells formed (haploid)Meiosis II-Prophase II chromosomes get ready for M II-Metaphase IIchromosomes line up in the middle-Anaphase IIchromatids split apart-Telophase II4 haploid cells formedNon-Disjunction-Chromosomes separate equally (separate in anaphase I / II)-results in cell w/extra chromosomes; down syndrome

Chapter 9: Mendels GeneticsGregor Mendel-Austrian Monkfather of genetics; Studies Pea Plants (pisum sativum)Punnett Square: one gene = monohybrid crossInheritance of Alleles-Parental Generation (P1)-parent; First Filial Generation (F1)-offspring; Second F.G. (F2)offspring of offspringVocabularyPrinciple of Segregationalleles of a gene separate from each other during gameteformation

True Breedingmaking full bred generations; Mendel controlled which plants mated witheach other by cutting off the anther + using pollen to fertilize plants he chose; makingpure bred types of flowersIndependent Assortmentalleles close to each other in terms of trait sometimes cometogether to give common phenotypes and independently separate; applies only to geneslocated on dif chromosomes or are far apart on the same one***The 1st step in Mendels pea experiment was to allow each plant variety to selfpollinate for several generations. This ensured that each plant in the P generation wastrue-breeding for a particular traitIncomplete Dominancemixture of the alleles (red + white = pink)Co-dominanceneither allele dominant over other (black + white spots on a horse)


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Males: tend to have more diseases because they only have one X chromosome (diseasesare passed on from here)Multigene Traitsmultiple genes influencing one traitDihybrid Crosses: two traits at once; heterozygous X heterozygous always yields 9:3:3:1genotypic ratio

Chapter 10: Expressing Genetic InfoDNA synthesis: helicase unzips; DNA polymeraseadds nucleotides to strands and zips itPyrimidines and Purines (bonded via a hydrogen bond)-Pyrimidines : U, T, C-Purines: A, GTranscriptionmaking RNA; helicase unzips DNA; RNA polymerase makes RNA *Thymineis replaced by Uracil In RNA*3 Types of RNAMessenger (mRNA)-code from DNA; every 3 nucleotides = codon; adding/deleting nucleotides= mutations(point substitution, protein may work; frame shift deletion or addition Protein wontwork)Ribosomal (rRNA) protein synthesis takes place here; is basically the ribosomeTransfer RNA(tRNA)carries Amino Acids for RNA; every 3 nucleotides on tRNA=anticodonReplication Forkpoint at which 2 chains of nucleotides separateTranslationprotein synthesis; process of making proteins by making polypeptide bondsbetween amino acids

Chapter 15: Theory of EvolutionBiodiversityvariety of living thingsDarwin-father of evolution; sailed on H.M.S. beagle; determined earth was very old afterreading Huttons Principles of Geology

Lamarckthought that organisms acquired certain traits during their lifetime that theywould pass on to their offspring (acquired traits)Natural Selection (The origin of species by Darwin)organisms best suited toenvironment will produce most offspring-nature chooses phenotypes of offspringArtificial Selectionhumans choose offspring; faster evolutionDarwins Thoughts-all species = common ancestor; as species go to a dif env., they adapt to that env. andbecome dif species-Descent w/ Modification

-adaptive radiationeveryone came from common ancestor

-divergent evolutionevolving separate of others-Coevolution2 species evolve together e.g. bees and flowersEvidence of Evolution-Geographic distribution of Living Species-Homologous body structures (different animals with similar features)-Vestigial structures (parts you no longer need); Human tail bone-Analogous bird, bat, bug (way of flight)-Embryology Similaritiesvertebrates look similar

Chapter 18: Diversity and Variation


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Taxonomystudy of naming + organizing organismsCarolus Linnaeusmorphology; binomial nomenclature;Scientific name: Genus then SpeciesOrder: Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Genus, SpeciesMethods of ClassificationPhenetics: Phylogenetic treeCladistics: derived characters; e.g. jaws, lungs); CladogramsFive Kingdoms

1. Monera (prokaryotes)single celleda. Heterotrophseat + make food; photo + chemo autotrophsb. Eubacteriaeveryday, common bacteria, make you sick

2. Archae (archaebacteria)ancient, oldest3. ProtistaEukaryotes, auto+heterotrophic; a+sexual; uni + multicellular; most

diverse4. Fungieukaryotes, strictly heterotrophic, uni+multicellular; a+sexual5. Plantaeeukaryotic; autotrophic sometimes heterotrophic), multicellular, a+sexua6. Animaliaaukaryotic, heterotrophic, multicellular, sexual

Three Domain-Archaeold bacteria (ancient) (archaebacteria)

-Bacteriaeubacteria-Eukaryaeverything else

Chapter 19: EcologyEcologyrelationships between ecosystemsEcosystema system formed by the interaction of a community of organisms with theirenvironmentSpeciestype of organism that can interbreedPopulationthe number of a particular species at a given time + placeCommunitya bunch of populations combined at a place + timeAbiotic and Biotic FactorsAbiotictemperature, wind, nutrients content, precipitation, sunlightBioticinteractions between living thingsSymbiotic Relations-Predationone eats other-Mutualismboth benefit-Parasitismone benefits; one is harmed, not killed-Commensalismone benefit, one undisturbedEnergy in Ecosystems-Trophic Levels

-Producers (plants, protists) (autotrophs)-Primary Consumers (herbivores, heterotrophs)

-Secondary Consumers (carnivores, eat P. + S. consumers)-Top Level Consumer (carnivores, eat P. + S. consumers)-decomposerrecycles nutrients back into environment

**10% rule= only 10% energy is transferred from level to levelBiomassorganic material in the ecosystemSuccession-Primary Successionbegins in areas w/no previous life/plant growth

-End stage=needle leaved evergreen trees-Secondary Successionreplace previous community

-Early stage=annual grasses


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Biogeochemical Cycles-cycle in which a substance enters into an environment's livingreservoir, remains there for a certain period of time, and then is returned to a nonlivingreservoirWater Cycle-the continuous movement of water from the ocean, to the atmosphere, tothe land, and back to the oceanCarbon Cycle--The carbon cycle is the process by which carbon is cycled through thebiosphereNitrogen Cycle--The nitrogen cycle is the pathway that nitrogen follows within an

ecosystemNitrogen fixation is the process by which gaseous nitrogen is converted into ammonia,a compound that organisms can use to make amino acids and other nitrogen-containingorganic moleculesNitrogen-fixing bacteria are bacteria that convert atmospheric nitrogen into ammoniaIn the nitrogen cycle, ammonification is the formation of ammonia from other nitrogen-containing compoundsNitrification is the process in the nitrogen cycle by which nitrites and nitrates areproducedDenitrification is the final step in the nitrogen cycle, during which nitrogen gas isreturned to the atmosphere

shreyas' b.e.e. study guide

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