siby-lecture_5

Siby: Environmental Philosophy

Lecture 5: Notes-1

Traditional Indian Philosophy of the Environment

1. THE TRADITIONAL INDIAN PHILOSOPHICAL VISION

In classical India, philosophy was called ‘darshana’ or vision (of truth). The ultimate goal of

philosophy was considered guiding a student towards the direct experience of reality in its truth.

Indians, unlike the early Greeks, did not want to separate the rational philosophical enquiry from

religious or spiritual experience of truth. They had a holistic understanding of reality, which was

both spiritual and material. The material and visible, they thought, had a spiritual side to it.

In this lecture, we are considering this holistic vision of reality of the early Indians, which

has very important environmental significance. There was a time when these ideas were

considered unquestionable, true and valid. With the arrival of the scientific perspective, probably

the power of these ideas on the mind of the average Indian has reduced. However, spiritual ideas

do coexist with rational and scientific ideas. Especially, in the realm of ethics, most people are

guided, at least unconsciously, by their spiritual ideals. This is the case even with people who

have consciously taken up very rational and scientific positions in later life. One often hears the

apparently contradictory expression in the west: ‘I can describe myself best as an atheistic

Christian’. The meaning of such a statement is what I have said above – the power of spiritual

ideals in a person’s ethical life, even if one is no more swayed by the religious metaphysics per

se. This means to say that the ideas that we are going to discuss here on the early Indian vision of

the environment have a very practical power. Hence the question in these discussions is not

about the philosophical truth (rational argumentative pull) of the ideas; rather, the issue is the

cultural vision that such a philosophy has given rise to.

However, there is no pretentious claim at all in this enunciation that the Indian

perspective is a solution for all the environmental problems of today, or that all Indians today are

essentially more environment-friendly than, say, the average westerner. That is not the point of

this lecture. The possibility that a practicing Hindu or Buddhist today could be completely

callous about the environment cannot be denied. This enunciation is at best a brief history of

ideas. My aim here is to show very briefly the intellectual resources of the Indian tradition

(which is no more available to us in its purity since ours is also the modernist, scientific culture)

in connection with the philosophy of the environment. You need to be aware that this treatment

is not inclusive and is incomplete. We are unjustifiably avoiding the perspectives of the Adivasis

who have important animistic perspectives on the environment. Similarly, several other points of

view, religious and mundane. India is and was a very pluralistic entity even in antiquity. This

fact is to be underlined. Our treatment is, hence, partial and incomplete.

2. INDIAN PHILOSOPHY AND THE ENVIRONMENTAL CRISIS

A positive turn of events for India in the wake of the environmental crisis was a newfound

appreciation of the traditional Indian environmental perspectives of Hinduism, Jainism and


Lecture 5: Notes-2

Buddhism. The Indic religions, as a family of religions, are distinct from the Abrahamic religions

(Judaism, Christianity and Islam) in their environmental vision. Especially for deep ecology,

these religious traditions were great inspirations.

However, two views of India emerged in the west when it began to know India in the

nineteenth century. The first view was of the ‘irrational other’ who they failed to understand

because the Indian view did not fit at all into the western modernist mindset. Lord Macaulay

(1800–1859), the architect of British education in India, thought that the whole of Sanskrit

literature could not be compared with the intellectual content of an English school book. He

planned western education in India to remove what he thought was the typical Indian mindset.

The second view of India was that of the ‘spiritual other’ who is an antidote to western

materialism, utilitarianism, and consumerism. Mahatma Gandhi and several other spiritual and

political leaders of Indian and their admirers in the west championed this view.

There were also two views about the traditional Indian environmental philosophy. The

first looked at India as inordinately focused on liberation (moksha, nirvana) and the other world,

and so completely irrelevant to environmentalism. According to the second view, Indians look at

every mountain, rock, and tree with respect; they consider the whole of reality as ensouled.

Hence, the Indian view, according to this understanding, is completely relevant to the newfound

environmentalism.

I now go ahead with a brief treatment of the traditional Indian environmental perspective

in three parts: (i) early Indian environmental outlook, (ii) broadly classical Indian outlook, and

(iii) the perspective of the Sramana traditions.

3. EARLY INDIAN ENVIRONMENTAL OUTLOOK

By ‘early Indian’ I mean the Vedic Indian environmental outlook. It was an explicitly ethical

outlook. It is remarkable that this early outlook was handed down rather faithfully to this day in

the form of religious traditions, rites and injunctions. Ethical virtues like truth, friendship, and

calmness were universalized by the Vedic Indians for all that exists (all creation) without any

discrimination as human and non-human.

The broad principle underlying this outlook was the concept of rta (order, telos). Rta

brings about harmony – and harmony has always been a cherished Indian ideal. The greatest

Indian poet of the twentieth century, Rabindranath Tagore, writes in the essay ‘Sadhana’: “The

fundamental unity of creation was not simply a philosophical speculation for India; it was her

life-object to realize this great harmony in feeling and in action… The earth, water and light,

fruits and flowers, to her were not merely physical phenomena to be turned to use and then left

aside. They were necessary to her in the attainment of her ideal of perfection, as every note is

necessary to the completeness of the symphony.” The whole of reality functions according to the

law of rta. Natural forces are deified in the Vedas (Indra, Marut, Apas, Prithvi) as upholders of

the universal harmony of rta.


Lecture 5: Notes-3

Perhaps the most important concept of the Vedic religious ideology was that of the asu.

Asu is conceived as the all-pervading substance that has magical power. The whole universe is

infused with existence and life by the asu. It is the vital force, different from the mind and

matter, but is there in all. The more one had of asu, the more magical power one wielded. Ritual

was thought of as a way to have more of the asu. Nothing was separated from the asu – humans,

rocks, animals and rivers. What made the difference was the quality of the asu.

The concept of dharma developed in the Atharva Veda as the law that governs all beings.

With this, the idea of rta became explicitly moral. The rta that governs everything is not a

physical law merely, but a moral law that guides every being towards its teleological end (good

or truth or fulfillment). It is not morally correct for the human agent to interfere with this

teleological journey of each thing according to its dharma.

What is of utmost environmental significance here is the realization of the Vedic Indian

of the interconnectedness of the whole of reality. Everything is a part in the big unity. It was

thought of as not morally alright to control or manipulate nature. The ideal of existence was one

of cooperation with nature and everything else. There was no idea of human dominion over

nature.

4. BROADLY CLASSICAL INDIAN ENVIRONMENTAL OUTLOOK

Around 500 BCE the Upanishads came to prominence as the most important texts in Indian

religious life. Here the more realistic outlook towards nature and reality of the Vedas is nearly

abandoned. The whole of the experiential realm of reality (all that exists) is considered as based

on the single substance called Brahman. Brahman is considered the supreme reality over and

above all that exists, the self of all (antaryamin or indweller of all). This view is called Vedanta

(meaning ‘the end of the Vedas’ because the Upanishads are literally the end portion of the

Vedas, and because they are thought to be the cream – the end, the whole purport – of the

Vedas).

Now, the Upanishads do not represent a single school of thought. There are many ways in

which these texts have been interpreted. According to a major interpretation of the 9th century

philosopher Shankara, the ultimate substance or reality is pure, undifferentiated consciousness,

wherein there is no object, world or any form of difference as this and that. The world of objects

appears on account of the principle called maya, which is a power attached to pure consciousness

or Brahman. What is ultimately real is Brahman alone and not maya or the world it causes.

Because according to this school nothing is real ultimately except the one Brahman, it is called

Advaita or non-dualism. Human ideal or moksha is to renounce the world and seek the ultimate

Brahman. For several scholars, Sankara’s interpretation is environmentally irrelevant since, for

him, the world is not ultimately real, not a matter of our real concern. However, others point out

that he does not deny the harmony of everything in ultimate consciousness. The world and the

individual human self, as well as personal gods of religion, are all projections of maya upon


Lecture 5: Notes-4

infinite consciousness. Moreover, his ideal of renunciation is not an environmentally harmful

practice, if not particularly kind to the environment.

According to other interpretations of the Upanishads (like the 11th century philosopher

Ramanuja, and the 13th century philosopher Madhva) by the concept of Brahman the Upanishads

mean only that God is the source of everything, indwelling in everything and thus the world is

real. These schools of the Vedanta are much more popular among the people than that of

Shankar, and environmentally more proactive.

Both these ways of interpreting the Upanishads consider renunciation an ideal. Hence

there is a lot of resources in these traditions for a non-materialist view of the world. The ideal of

renunciation has helped the traditional Indian to look at the world less exploitatively and to

disvalue material possessions and property. This can be considered the antidote to materialism

and consumerism of the scientific culture that Gandhi denounced. However, this non-materialism

was not exactly world-denying. In fact, the values a human being should seek were four, and not

only moksha, the others being artha (wealth), kama (pleasure and happiness) and dharma.

But the broadly classical period is marked by the development of the concept of dharma.

The Sanskrit root of this term means ‘to uphold or support’, and hence, humans have the

responsibility to sustain the moral order pervading the whole universe through their practice of

dharma. This position is explicitly stated in the Dharmasastras, Arthasastra and the

Mahabharata. Moral expectations are systematically laid out according to social positions (varna

or caste) and stages of life (ashramas). Dharma thus comes to mean right duties that one owes

according to one’s caste and stage of life, and in some cases independent of these, to other

human beings and all creation. The universal appeal of dharma is to preserve the organic unity of

all beings as we read in the Bhagavad Gita:

He who is disciplined by yoga sees

The Self present in all beings,

And all beings present in the Self.

He sees the same (Self) at all times. (6:29)

He who sees equality in everything

In the image of his own Self, Arjuna,

Whether in pleasure or in pain,

Is thought to be a supreme yogin. (6:32)

I am the liquidity in the waters, Arjuna,

I am the radiance in the moon and sun,

The sacred syllable (Om) in all the Vedas,

The sound in the air, and the manhood in men. (7:8)

I am the pure fragrance in the earth,

And the brilliance in the tree,

The life in all beings,

And the austerity in ascetics. (7:9)


Lecture 5: Notes-5

During this era, all reality began to be seen to be ruled by an unseen principle that works

autonomously, which is called the law of karma. It does not distinguish between human and non-

human beings. Everything is under its grip. The principle of karma also means a cyclic rather

than a linear view of time. All reality is caught up in a continuous cycle of creation, destruction,

and repetition in accordance with karma. It also means the transmigration of the soul (samsara).

The prerogative of the human being is not emphasized in the circular view of time because in

another life or rebirth the person can be born in any form of existence.

The idea of the divine during the classical times was centered on the notion of

incarnation. Divine incarnation makes the world sacred and respectable. Moreover, the divine

incarnation was not restricted to human forms. Among the ten avatars of Lord Vishnu, the first

four are matsya (fish), koorma (tortoise), varaha (boar), and narasimha (man-lion).

An important dharma is that of non-injury or ahimsa. What is painful and pleasant to

oneself should be seen as painful and pleasant to other beings as well. Hence everyone who

seeks moksha should consider ahimsa as the first virtue. Since existence is governed by the

process of cause and effect (karma), each being is duty bound to respect the other, and this

respect and non-injury leads one out of the cycle of time.

5. THE ENVIRONMENTAL PERSPECTIVE OF THE SHRAMANA TRADITIONS

The Shramana tradition of the renouncers was a parallel to the Bhrahmanic tradition of the

classical period in ancient India. Some scholars trace the Shramana tradition to the Indus valley

civilization where yogic ascetics seemed to have been prevalent. The tradition of those who were

unhappy with the worldly pursuits and materialism gradually gave rise to the monastic way of

life, from which arises religions like Jainism and Buddhism. These were considered non-

mainstream, eccentric and heterodox by the orthodox Brahmins. The challenge posed by these

traditions and their gaining of power and influence in society inspired Hinduism to reform itself.

According to Jainism, every entity in the world has the sentient principle or jiva,

distinguished by its consciousness. It is the degree of consciousness that varies throughout

existence. The jivas are bound to matter by the quantity of karma they have accumulated, and

arresting the principle of karma is the liberation from the cycle of birth and death. This requires

valiant discipline, renunciation and self-control. Though the lesser beings are not morally

responsible, they still have moral value. Many scholars extol the Jaina worldview as the most

sympathetic towards the whole ecosystem. The impetus for ethical attitude is freedom from

desire, attachment and the karmic cycle, but it also raises the moral profile of the biotic

community at large.

In Buddhism, the ethical code is similar to that of the Jainas. But the Buddhists begin

their moral reasoning from certain facts, as the Buddha did for example, that there is suffering.

Moral response is meant to minimize suffering and pain both by understanding the cause of

suffering as desire, but also by alleviating the suffering of all forms of life. Hence, human


Lecture 5: Notes-6

behavior is to be regulated towards the world by the virtues of compassion, love, kindness,

empathy, equanimity and joy in the happiness of others. So, all creatures, great and small, should

be the subject of our moral sensitivity. The Buddha’s teachings are full of stories of generosity

towards all species. This tradition is often seen among the spiritually motivated environmental

activists of countries like Sri Lanka and Tibet. In Buddhist communities, the virtues of

compassion and loving kindness are practiced with diligence as these are thought to be the

condition for moral life as such. They also have a pluralistic understanding of existence without

any privilege attached to particular species like humanity. This has led to a non-anthropocentric

respect for biodiversity. The normative moral expectations from monks, nuns and lay people

underscore a concern for the environment. This was seen very visibly in a totally Buddhist

society like Tibet, which scholars opine, has deteriorated with Chinese occupation, leading to

rampant deforestation, pollution and depletion of resources.

6. TRADITION AND CONTINUITY

The traditional environmental sensibility continues to influence environmental activism today.

The Indian ethic of ahimsa could merge very well with Mahatma Gandhi’s non-violent struggle

for the freedom of India. Gandhi was always of the view that this same ethic should reign

paramount in our dealings with nature as a whole. He made ahimsa as an active force of life by

invoking the earnest desire for change based on inner truthfulness (satya-agraha). The Chipko

Andolan, a non-violent movement against deforestation, was also inspired by the Gandhian

ideals. Similarly, the Narmada Bachao Andolan practiced nonviolent resistance against the

Narmada Dam project, raising environmental concerns as well as concerns regarding the

livelihood of the tribals living there. Scholars have argued that India’s intensive dam-

construction projects after independence have caused the dislocation of over 50 million people

who were living in harmony with nature and had local knowledge regarding conservation. India

has produced such environmental activists as Sunderlal Bahuguna (Chipko Andolan), Medha

Patker (Narmada Bachao Andolan), Vandana Shiva (a physicist turned environmentalist) and

Ramachandra Guha (an environmental historian). There are numerous other local and grassroots

level movements that draw their wisdom from tradition.

But critics point out that against the onslaught of modernity and technology (the Bhopal

tragedy for example), traditional wisdom will be mute. Others, on the other hand, think that a

mix of traditional environmental wisdom and scientific techniques and practices will bring about

environment-friendly attitudes among the masses in South Asia. A critical suspicion of the

modernist paradigm and a rekindling of the cultural spirit of environmentalism, they argue, will

help.

siby-lecture_5

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