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Report No. 11920.SL

Sierra LeoneInitial Assessment of EnvironmentalProblemsFebruary 7,1994 MICROGRAPHICS

Industry and Energy DivisionWestern Africa Department

Report No: 11920 SL

FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY Type: SEC

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ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

ADB - African Deveopmet BankAPC - All Peoples' CongressCARE - Coopefative for American Relief to EverywhereCESP - Country Enviromental Staeg PaperCHECSIL - Commonwealth Human Ecology Councfl of Siera LeoneCPUE - Catch (fish) per unit effortCSSL - Conservation Socety of Sierra LeoneDOS - Directorate of SurveysEA - Enviment AssessmentEC - Euron CommunityECU - Europen Currency UnitFAO - Food and Agriculture Organization of the United NationsGDP - Gross Domestic ProductGEF - Global Ervironmental FaciliyGOSL - Government of Sierra Leone(ITZ - German Technical Cooperation AgencyIGN - 1sit Geograhique NationalIUCN - I onal Union for the Conservatio of NatireKtW - Kreditanstalt fUr WiederaufbauMAFF - Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and FitheriesMANRF - Ministry of Agriculture, Naturl Resources and FisheriesMEY - Maximum Economic YieldMLHE - Ministry of Lands, Housing and the EavronmentMPSSL - Martime Protection Serices of Sierra LeoneMSY - Maximum Susinable YieldNEAP - National Environmental Action PlanNGO - Non-Government OrganizationNPRC - National Pivisional Ruling CouncilOECD - Orgistion for Economic Coopetion and DevelopmentOREINT - Organlsation for Research and Extension of Intermediate TechnologySAVE - Sustanable Agricuture Village ExtensionSLENCA - Sierra Leone Environment and Nature Consevation AssociationSRL - Sierra Rutile Ltd.TAC - Total Ailowable CatchTLU - Tropical Livestock UnitUNCED - United Nations Conference on Environment and DevelopmentUNDP - United Nations Development ProgramUSLE - Universal Soil Loss EquationWHO - World Health C>-anizationWMO - World Meteorological OrganizationWRI - World Resources Institute

SIERRA LEONE FO OFFCIAL USE ONLY

INiTIAL ASSE49UENT OF ENVIRONNENTAL PROBLEMS

TABLE OF CONTENlS

Page No.

VEXYE.......ESV .MARY ...................................... * iv

L OVERVIEW ............................................. 1Se t t ing ...... ....................................... IPolitical and Economic Ba ...................... 1So cu .lFeatu. s............. 2SectoralCharactisti ................. 3Linages with Environmena Degradion ........................ 4Analytica Framework. 4

EL ENVIRONMIENTAL PROBLEMS AND CHALLENGES TO SUSTAINABLEDEVELOPMdENT . . 6A. WATER SUPPLY AND SANTrAlION. 6

Overview....................... 6Acces to Water. 6nadequa Sanitaton and Disposal. 7

Imact onHealth. 8Priority Areas for Future Work. 9

B. LAND DEGRADATION .10Impact from Livtock. .11Eviden of Land Degrdadion .12The Nexus .12AreYelds Faing. .13Physical Evidence .14Priority Areas fo Future Work .16

C. FOREST DEGRADATION AND DEFORESTAIION .16TheForestryStock .16Forest Utilkaion .17Mangoves .18Agrofostry ............. 19Biodivenity ......................................., 20PriorityAreasforFute Work .21

D. MINING AND ENvIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION .22mTelmpactontheExnio ume.22

Resetlement .22Rehabilitation ................. 23Sma-cade Damondmng .................Mini ,23

F uo18 e i teI

UWA on a M-iew-6f

Teis document has a strie thed dtsibution and may be used by cipient onb in the perfo esof thir offticl dudes. Its contents may not otherwise be disclosed without World ank uthotion.

Small-scaleGoldMlning ................................... 24Impact of Mining on Health ................................. 24-biatives for Redressigadaton ................Einmen. 24New MfingLegislation .............. 25Mini Agreement with arge-scleOperam ......... 25......... 25PiorityAreas for Future Work .............................. 26

E. FLiSHEXPLORfATION ................................26SeCtor Characteristics . 26AreFisheriesOvO.explol. ed. 27Policy andInsudons .. 27ProityAreasfDrF Fta Work .. 28

F.MANUFACTURING ANDTOURISM .28

IIL THE CAUSES OF ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEM. . 30A. THEANALYnCALPERSPECTE........ 30B. MAKKET FAILURES AFFECING THE ENVIRONMENT.. 30C. POLICY FAILURES AFFECTING THE ENVRONMENT.. 32

PropertyRights Defnitionand Enorcement .. 33PopulatiomPblicy ... .. 33

.ndoePolic 34Tax Policy ..... 35ngteational radePolicy .................................. 35

Politidcal ite ad Public Administration ...... ......... 36Public Expenditure ............... 36SectorPolicy ........................ ................. 37Enviromentd Information ............... 37Prority Areas frFurdher Work ............... 38

V. ASEIGNING ENVIlkONMENTAL PRORTES................ 39Prdi Rkig ................ 39Jmnpietnntation Factor ............ 42

V. GOVERNMENT RESPONSE: CAPACITY AND STRATEGY .43A. POLICY AND LEGISLATION .43

NationalPolicy .43Nationa Legistion. .43Sectora Legislation and ental Provisions .44

B. INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK AND IMPLEMENTATION .45Optionsfor lnsttutionaDevelopment . 45EnvironmlAssessment. ... 47LocaP PwdeipationandEducation .48EnviromentalnfofrfationSystem .48Iipleniaita..on .......... 49

SEI~ECIUD BIBJIOGRAPIJY 50

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ANNE=S1. Biological Diversity in Siem Leone: Approaches fo Preserve the Country's Natural

2. nint Ass _ Process3. Infiznaton Sysems

KAS

IBRD No. 24409IBRD No. 25070

EXECUE SUMMARY

() his rep prvides an analytc fiamework for discussing the major o _ andnu resource manae issues in Siem Leo. We hope the paper wUI contrbte towrsSierra Leones NatinalB Action Plan (NP). Ibis re"ort will also servo todefine Wotld Bank's couny eirnnlstrategy. Policies and progam need to be baedon an evaluaion and qucaton of the relatve Impact of he Country's O_ andnaur tource m gement problems. Tis review. drawing on available doc^ _U anddis_sss during misons in October-November 1992 and March 1993, shows tha ther is veryimhited data on which to assess the importac of the major problems. Nevertheless, a broadpicre emerg; tha allows a prlimiaty assigg of priodes. Ihe rort suggesis wys toaddrs the lack of inbmation in pority areas.

mm he primary e o problems and findigs may be smzd as follows:

* Watw Supply and Sanition

- Both water ace and water ntamination ae serious iswsu, affctig alae percenp of the populaon. The impact on both rural and udrpopulaions is t . lt wil be important to compie, however, mmecompreesive ifrmation on condions and e hea impact, such as thIncienceand coss of wateborne dis_es, and to educat more people on howhealt is related tOD the availability and unse of water. Ibere may be scope foriceased pivate sector Ivestm.

* LAnd Degradatio

- Land degradation is perceived as wiesad, but the extent of damagp isdLPu_ sd nay be oveesda_e. A natoal vutaie mmithathei, been iniated.

* Font Degradatim and DeforePtatn

- Fore resoure infomation s poor, &M therefore, it is difficult to assessteexmt of tmese problems. The dmand for felwood is not nationally a physicalsupply problem, althoug It iS an issue in areas acceible to lage populato.A fihewood maret survey is a high priort.

- The ve of mintainin mangrves for sustained yield of wood andnmusery grnds for maie lift may be geater than e value of using the lasdfor rice. A study would be useful to show this cost beneft ratiohip.

- Although m oderate In temp. of currdgfiauue, nIt h4k,pota benefts and bw intvention cost would argue for taking t preserve bodiversity.

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- While ervirontal merits of agr-foestry are evident, it diffcut to seehow much it can co:tribute to agricltural development undess It is vluedfrom a financial and ecoonic persive.

* Mhinig

- Envonmtal mpact Aesmes are necesy, suppot by imprveregutions and enforcement Special ention needs to be givn to the impactof artisanal mining and measures taken to reduce land degadation.

* FIsheries

lIhe eaxen of overig, if any, is unear. More precs biom admaximum sustainable yield esates are needed. Once quotas for vauioumarie species are deermined, the goverme can mame revmue from duLsresource through a competitive markelt. Surveillance is needed to protect thoresuce at a level providing sustaible, maximum economic yiel

- ManufaturIng and Tourism

- Even though these sectors are relaively underdeveloped, it is Importat toealish a review process, methods to monitor ongoing actvitie, and reglatithat wll sauwe prtectio agaist fuiture _ 1 damage.

(iii) The root causes of enviromntal problems may be broadly defned as market and pollfailures. Market faiures occur prmay because of a lack of well-defined, a le andenforced property righs, which affct crop cultivaaon, livestocd, foruty, fis , nd to somedegree, mining. The tent of these failures in Sierra Le is not possible to determine widany precisi at this point, but the report reviews available eviden. Policy falures occu Intwo cateoes: govanment inter s dt distort incentives, and the failure of govenmtto interv8en to correct for market failures. At the level these may Include theimpact of pricing, taxaton, and trade policies. Sectoral level exmples inde the desg oftimber concessions, mineral and fishing right. In the case of Sierra Leone, govenmntinterference in the ecnomy i limited and decrasing. Ihe problems are pimadly reae toweak imple a capacityR.

(lv) Adequate insitutonal support, both private and publc, is ciical. U. goveretneeds to take the lead In establishing a strong intitona famework with the capacity tocodina, impiement, and plan. A strong evhrnmentl Informaion system Is necessary tosupport this work. Finaly, Sierra Leone will need to mobilize intenationl assistance and toinsure that the assistance support the cwunty's statges.

(v) lhe findings in trm of relative priorities are ummized in Box 1. The matrix showsthe ranking in terms of a low, medium, and high priority of the variou probleo adinterventions. The current en significance of a problem is eaiined in tem of bimpact on health, on productivit, and on the ameniy value of the environent. In the etstage, an economic assessment has been attempted of the potentia beneft of tre theproblems. Ihese benefits must be weighed agist the costs of Ieventon. Base on the

assessmnts, we have proposed an oveall priority ranking of the problems. Wble base onweak data and still very prelimiay, such an analysis sharns dision and helps to determresource allocations-n importa dimension of the countr's ional eirt acdon pla.

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BOX 1 - MRIORITY OF SELECTED ENVIRONMENTAL VROMIMS

curneaProblanor - -Oveall

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-rura Hig Higb LOW Nib3. LIvig cots

- ude High HMO Moda4- r.Ve Modert Modert moderate LOW

1. Lo ad____ Hh1b Modea Rio

1. D_eforuttion Mdesas HMO LoW MOForest degradation DModertA Moderate LoW Madodat

3. Riodivarty o No1gb %gb LOW Igo4. Mangrov Io LOW Mg LOW Moduto

1. Poluio-lawgecalk LOW LoW LOW LOW._rtani LOW LOW LOW LOW

2. Lnd Dradaion2.wg i _ L Hib modrlt MUO

- ertimi Md&kmat Moderat LOW Modso

Fishey: Stoik Depleton1. LpWgn uioll Low MO Moderate Modert2. Artidana Low MO Modate Modm?.

1. AirpoUudnLOW LAM LOW LOW2. watw ponudn LOW bModerat LOW modclate

3. Land pollu o w Low LOw Low

Touuam Lw Low LOW low

?&to Mme sbjeedw ranking is conmatrutd as followBaviromental unirfs (S, MO. vanon bit_s (, ad _tveao osau (C) we Jded a Low,Modera, or H;Sb sd asipd a elg_fimncs nde of 1. 2, or 3, topeetvy. Tb ovall prioriy (oP)ranking is cmutwd by m4Wying the esnol slgnl . rakity; by the nOP beef, or OP - E g(B-C).he scale forh nd i an follow *LoW prisl b ied I thIne is ls tden or equal to mm, sd'Hig' pdroty i ssied f this _d bI Oqua t t Sr_ tha the. Moderte' prority i auss d

otiwis

I. OVERVIEW

seting

1.1 Sierra Leone is endowed with abundant rainal, substantial mineral resources, somefkile soils, and eensive marine fisheries. This development potential has not been effectivelymanaged, and Sierra Leone is classified as one of the poorest and least developed cointries inthe world. It has a population of 4.2 miiion (1991) growing at a rate of about 2.6 percent peranum. Although the growth rate is relatively low compared to most sub-Sahaa counries, thepopulation density is relatively high (58 persons per square kilometer). Sierfa Leone is amongthe poorest countries in the world, based on the UN social development index. Over two-thirdsof the population live in absolute poverty. Rural life, with the exception of the dimnud and goldmining areas, is generally at a subsistence level. The transport, health and education systemshave virtualy collapsed. Life expectancy is very low, estmated at 42 years; and infant mortalityis among the highesi i i the world. Primary school enrollment is among the lowest in Afica.

Political and Economic Background

1.2 Sierra Leone gained independence from Great Britain on April 26, 1961. Ihe AllPeoples Congress (APC) woii vopular suppt during the first genera elections, held in 1962.Sierra Leone became a republic with the APr as the leading party. During the s960s, with lowinflation and a healthy fiscal and foreign exchange position, the economy grew at nearly 4 percenta year. The first cil price shock in 1973 notwithsanding, strong economic growth condnued inthe first half of the 1970s. GDP growth slowed to about i percent a year in 1975-80, primrilybecause of falling production from the mining sector, as iron ore was exhausted and alluvialdiamonds depleted. In the first half of the 1980s, the economic situation derirated further.In addition to the fall in mineral production, the deterioraing economic performance stemmedfrom poor fisca management. Budgetary reveanes declined sharply in the 1980s, andinvemes in social and physical infrastructure failed to keep pace with population;infrastructcre was not maintained. The weak economy was hit by rising input cost in the wakeof the rise in oil prices. As a result of an ovewrvued exchange rate, diamnmd and gold wereincreasingly traded in unofficial markets, and by the mid-1980s official foreign exchange reseveswere exhated. It was becoming increasingly clear that stabilizaton policies alone wereinsufficient since the economic problems were longer term. After disjointed eforts to introduceadjustment policies, in 1989 the government began to implement a far reaching series ofstructurl reforms.

1.3 The government has met and, in some cases, surpassed its macroeconomic targets for1992. Efforts, however, are being undermined by the civil war in Liberia, and the related borderfighting with rebels. The border war has been costly, resulting in a significant loss of lives andinfr cture, displacement of population and inflmux of refiugees, and a substan call onbudgetary resources. It has also signifiantly reduced agriculture production. National cocoa andcoffee exports have dropped by about 70 percent, and rice producdon in the area has declinedby an estimated 40 percent. The additional war burden on a weak economy under reformpressure resulted in mounting domestic tension. In April 1992, a new military government tookcharge and established the National Provisional Ruling Councdl (NPRC). In December 1992,there was an alleged counter coup which pointed to some unrest, but the current politica situationis ostensibly under the firm control of the NPRC. The fiture style of governance, however, isless clear; and the country's economic recovery is significantly dependent on reducing milityeediue and stabilizing the frontier.

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Sodal Features

1.4 'he population of Sierra Leone is made up of 17 major ethnic groups. As a result ofcolonization and modernization, the social stucture has become more heterogeneous, and ethnicgroups are I;s clearly demarated. A person's residence is still predomatly patrilocal,following customary patrilineal descent. The term family usually refers to members of theextended famlly, which includes kinsme of two or more generations residi in the samehousehold.

1.5 Except in Freetown and the surrounding westen area, land ownership in Sierra LeoneIs communal. Chiefdoms are divided into sections with heads or chefs who control a numberof villages. Each village has territorial limits, within which the land is subdivided into vlgeand community sections, and family holdings. Pater and mnal associadions can qualify aset of people to have land rights in more than one vilage tefritory. No legislation appeas toexist regading land tting or registration. Delimiting family land rights depends on thetraonal definition of the term. Other bases of land ownership are respected in ruracommunities, such as gifts, pledges, leases, etc.; thus, defining group lands will naed toencompass holdings other than the large family group type.

1.6 Secure rights to land (individl or communal) are essen to encourage managementpracdtes and investments that anr susnable use of nata rowces. It is undlear to whatextent tradional tenure angements in Sierra Leone have impeded economic development, andwhat the Impact is of any changes that may now be taking place. There are, however, indicationsthat lack of clear and respected property rights to famland is a disincentive to agricultural

vestmeat Tis is particul&ly the case m swamplands, where costly effrs to manage waterflows are often necessary. Traditionally, members of agiculual households have combinedtogether to make use of land resources. Long-term land us- (e.g., for swam development ortree-crop plantaons) is more easily negotated if the user is a member of the land-holding group,but there is no bar to migrant sagers acquiring such use right. Senior members of a famiy(and-holding lineage) or community leaders decide conflicting claims over land use, e.g., whatshould happen when two members of the same family wish to use the same piece of bush area,or whether use of a swamp by a stranger should be terminated in favor of a lineage member.Cases usually are decided in terms that reflect the relative strength and influence of the partiesconcerned-all within the general conceptual framework that land resources are used but votowned.

1.7 Women shoulder major responsibilities in the household. In addition to chfld care andfood p.eparation, much of their time is spent collecting water and fuelwood and growingfoodrops. In general, sutional and government support for women Is limited, particuladyin the northern prwvince due to the area's strong Ilamic influence. These institional and, insome cases, legal barriers prevent women from becoming more efficient and making moreproductive contributions to the economy. Women have restricted access to land, credit facilites,and information on improved production and processing technologies. Tlhe increasing demandson women's time in mral areas becaue of rural-urban migration of household members, reducedaccess to fuelwood, and lower yields on degraded allow land, have an impact on infan and childwelfare. Although the traditional family structure and the role of women are deeply embeddedin the society, westn education, modernization and urbanization are beging to erode thatstructre with uncermin effects.

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Sectal Characterlstics

1.8 Agriculkure-food and cash crps-is the largest sector In the eonmy, providingemployment for approximately 60 percent of the labor force. It contributes 35 to 40 percent ofthe GDP and provides almost 10 pert of export eains. Rice, the staple food, s grown bymore than 80 percent of the farmers but has been imported In large quantities since the late1970s. Goverment ve prioity to agicultul development with the expectation that inreasedproductivity would raise rural inomes and induce higher levels of consumption to support theindustrial sector, but agriculture's performance over the last two decades has been poor. lhemigration of labor to wining and urban centers contributed to the decline in the production ofrice, coffee, and cocoa. Poor economic incentives have ben compounded by poor esionsupport, deteriorating infrastructres, and pressures on land. More recently, agriculuralproduction has been disrupted by the border distubances, since the fighting is in an area thatproduces most of the country's cocoa and coffee; it has also had a significant impact on the areas'rice production.

1.9 With a coasdine of 350 km bordering on the contieal shelf of about 16,500 kn2 of sea,Sierra Leone has excellent marine fisheries. Most of the catch is high value species, swh asshrimp, tuna, red mullet, lobster and oysters. Whie its contribution to GDP rose from 2 percentin the early 1980s to 13 percent in the late 1980s, the growth in revemne diopped from 15 percentto about 3 percent. Potontial revenues froi kndusti production are substantial. Artis;nafishing provides about 60 percent of the fish consumed by the population and egages anestimated 100,000 people in various related activities. Development of inland fisheries has beenconstained due to inadequate storage and tansort. Policies for marine fisheries have beenlargely driven by revenue objectives, with lite unde g of whether the waters are beingoverfished and what the maximum sustainable (economic) yield is for the principal commercaspecies.

1.10 The mining sector officially accounts for over 90 percent of the country's exporteanings. It has lost some of is appent strength, as itsshare of GDP has dropped from 16percent in the eady 1970s to 10 percent. This decline. however, reflects significant increases inunaccounted trade, as well as the depleto of deposts. The failure to combat ilicit mining andwidespread smuggling of gold and diamonds has significandy reduced public revenues.

1.11 The m c sector in Sierra Leone is domestcaly oriented. It accounts for aoly6 percent of GDP and employs about 10 to 11 percemt of the labor force. Tourism is largelyundeveloped.

1.12 Human resowce development has been neglected. Less tm 40 percent of the popuonhas access to health services. Health eenters are unevenly distributed and often poorly staedand ill-equipped. The shortage of health services is paruarly acute in rural areas, wi ere only20 percent of the popuation has access to medical services. The literacy rate is very low, atabout 30 percent. The primary school enrollment ratio, at about 40 percent, is far below theaverage (67 percent) for sub-Saaran Africa. In addition, the quality of educadion serices ingeneral has derorated, with declines in the qualification of teachers, and the availaity ofschool supplies, text books and other resource materials. Ihe quality of the dcil soevice hasdeclined over the past two decades from its former higher standards. The ability to design,implement and sustain economic reforms is severely constained by an acute shortage of skilledstaff at the senior level. Midde and lower level staff often lack adequate educaonal

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qualifications and are preoccupied with second jobs because salary levels are insufficiert forfamily subsistence. The proportion of total government expenditure on social services-healtb,housing, cult and welfare services-decreased from 30 percent in the early 1970s to about 14percent at the end of 1980s.

Lin3kges witl Enironmental Degradaton

1.13 A sluggish economy, rapid population increases accelerated bj migration, and povertyare inextricably tied to the environment. lhese issues are closely related to the socialsectors-education and health. High fertility and declining mortality rates during the past twodecades have resuted in substantial increase-, in population. The increase in population has ledto the increasing need for housing, potable water, sanitation, education and health care; and Ithas led to increasing demands on physical resources-fuelwood, cropland, and infrastucture.'he urban population rose from 200,000 in 1950 to an estimated 1.3 million in 1990, from 9percent of the total population to 30 percent. Tbe inabilty of the goverment and private marketsto respond to the dramatic increase in demand for urban services has led to congested slums anJpoor sanitation conditions, contbuting to high rates of infat and child mortality, and increasedhealth risks for adults. Urban population growth has also contributed to rapid deforesttion,particularly around urban areas, because wood provides the man source of energy for cooldng.

1.14 In rural areas, population rose from 2 million in 1950 to 2.7 million, a relative drop from92 pcent of the population to 68 percent. Nevertheless, the absolute increase of population hashad an impact. Increased population and policy shortcomings have led to the shortening of fallowperiods, which has caused accelerated degradation of land. The sheer poverty of Sierra Leoneappears to limit the country's alternaives. There is enormous pressure to mine the country'snatral resources, and Sierra Leone is without mitigating policies and programs to encourage andenable conservation. Limited programs in health exacerbate the impact of water co ionand poor sanitation; infant and child mortality rates are high. Limited support for educationreeuces opportunities to improve technologies and understandings of how to husband nauralmesources more effectively. The challenge is to develop programs of sustainable developmentwith this backdrop of poverty and population pressure on scarce and limited resources.

Analytical Famework

1.15 The analysis of Sierra Leone's environmental problems may be broken ino four parts.The first (Chapter U) is an introduction to the primary environmenWal problems by sectr,discussing-to the extent that the data permits-the current situation and Important trends. Asmuch as possible the discussion indicates the relative impact of government policies and sectoractivity on the country's environment and natura resource management. For the purposes ofdiscussion, environmental problems are defined by sector. In some cases it is useful to dividethe treatment into sub-categories, urban and rural, and large-scale and small-scale, or artisana.In sever cases, more than one sector may contribute to an environmental problem, such as watercontaminaton by human, animal and industrial waste and land degradation by mining,deforestation, or industrial waste. Ihe second part of the dicussion (Chapter o) examines theroot causus of these problems in terms of the failure of markets and government policies. Anunderstanding of these factors is essential for appropriate design of intections and reform.

1.16 In defing the country's environmental problems, it is important to determine theirrelative priorWies. An examination of the relative priority of the central environmental problems

-S

i8 patiay crtial given die svely limid finanial and humam resour tat Siea Leonehas to aeress these issues. This fGrms a third part of our discussion, and Chapter TV of thisreport summae our findigs In terms of their relatIve priorides. Fially, the gspolicy, legidation and instiutions with relevance to the envronment a discssed in Chapter V.

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U. ENVIRONNMEAL PROBLEMS AND CHALLENGES TOSUS AINAILE DEVELOPMENT

A. WATER SUPPLY AND SANITATION

O0rview

2.1 Available data point to the fact ta access to potable water Is a national problem Arecent appraisa of the irastructure of Freetown reveals that the water sWpply in Freewn hasimpved considerably, although problems still exist. The extent of ninaton of the watersupply in the country Is not documented, but sufficient information eists, particularly the dataon the high incience of water-reated diseses, to demonstrate that water co in Is animportat problem, pati rly in over-owded areas in Freetow as well as in other udranar. The question is: what is the cost to human health and producvity in reion tonccessile safe water and inadeWte sanitation?

Anes, to Water

2.2 Mhe peentage of ttal popuaion with access to drinking water has averaged about 60perent In urban aream and less than 10 percen in rural areas. In a survey carried out in Bo andits suounding are, the co_mmuity has ranked water availability as the highest environmealproblem (Karimi, 1992). The survey was undoubtedly influenced by the fact dtht It wasundertaken during the dry season when water supply was shorL Nevertheless, the surveyfidin te he importance of accessibility and the difficulty and ime taken to fetch water.An interesting feature of this survey is that water polution had been conidered by the commu_yas the lowest ranking envkoIental problem. Since there was a high incidence of disease In thecommunity, this indicated a tendency to dsassocie health problems with wer ationIn anoher study covering the Koinadugu distict, only 17 percent of the poputation used a pumpibr washng because the swamp or stream was more convenient, even though many knew pumpwater for bathing and landry preveed scabies and -sickness- (WACO/lENGCON, 1990).

2.3 Urban areas are usually served by piped water and standpipes. Altmgh adequate watersupplies are ofte avalable, delivery is poor. The situaton may be better in Freetown where thestandpipes supply potable drinking water and 32 percent of the population in Freetown isconnected to the water system. it is unllear to what extent the water is contam ed in urbanareas other than Freeton, as well as in certain areas of Freetown where the communities do notbave access to standpipes.

2.4 In rural areas communities are served primarily by unprotected shallow wells, lakes andrivs. Solid and liquid wastes, human and animl excreta all contribute o O inadtg grondwater sourca. Siltaton in river beds and lakes caused by mining acdves exacet theproblem for rural communities in search of potable water. The tim spent in travelling longdistac in seach of safe water can be substanti and tme taken away, usually from women,fom more producive actvitiea such as child care.

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Prority Areas for Fute Work

* Inlvesmnt irn sanitation and water offer high economic, social, and environmentalreturns. In many countries, particularly in urban areas, there is a sprising willigeto pay for on site water supplies, and collection and proper dispos of human excreta,waste water, and solid waste (Box 2).

Wie sE~l z ina 47t~.opo e we . E E X u | W EMX n

_;~~~...... _.........1...A . -FE

exced fndv al often p~ubUc ithat pwoplde Jusatiafied. t berfDr, M ..ean waw an ipwe sto d ta~1Wtio.n, idrendy ying reatv groit rea s.e Moretsample

smey w eeed amtat ~thendsnies dtu~orne of Kr oonayatnd eogBok,ted in~t

- 1 mationnest ber pteedS tiopde te o wayich investments tin a and santatio

RIM be uswi to mae te uotrave an heablith cotsreslting fromthed

Mt|W *In g

hof wthert pi8 e the basis foru develogtng patogn. In mral areas,oti

collection of w ater a usedl titadonsum, g ane d thris pcosty taking to away samp

Sierra crops, nationa er t th U r uEt, tendi d estic a anestodThous, te mrle sten an potfunl fostrdeflecdng private servigess tohe, nd soialwbenfcasaexediniiua eeft,pblicfid Ineshn ouldbbeeusifed wherethraeetaieomn eeisfore,I wllw bnoe

*Imotantb seu to esmae the ntioavlan healt boefts to be erive from imroed iaccess bltzoclea wtr an Iprovede sanitatison, identifyingelativet priogrity n u areas. Mor esml

Silerra Loneos natrionaly repor to n g anUNCED.y tig m aa foInforatIon needs, to be gthere mlto dtermine whchinestmcgrents Inwtrand saitastioknd

- 10-

carig for children. Rra women spend two to three hours a day fethg water frmdistances rangig from five to ten miles. Another cost that must be considered is theamount of fuel used in boiling water to make it safe.

P olic adywns4imdontd opdnumsI fo feciewa ana geet edto beecanhuehldefined fot

potI t~ole s o hWic seto (the IDeparu o Healh) n d the pafr imeve scorneto se brae~d. ThsQf itthe roeo NO n com emunt preipo T is lea velopnco

efOxtavsb p.ogrash. for sa ubaione and the dos eveds tohebe hasssst wih etre

to eperin fom oher outie w~here suc h program hv be effuctive.

D. LAN DEGRADA.TION

2.1 seto deals with4 degpradato sweae tDro~ ptlwe Laxnd e&-ad= malos,saWztioK,wa nig deleio of nurents dete rioradoo ~vthesoi utuen

se i .nadicmigpolm nSer Leon needsar*to l1be r ticUnslsed

monare deme Oudvae.teotde 0 bscnfuhrb iie nt . Mo eUe ful

oo taa 1m h f me f wF AOIg , .. .

g~~~~~~~~~I* $tat -|~~~~~~~sena b *-o SpeI keot2 s

* Poic an intttoa pin o fetv asemngmn edtedfnd h

efflctivelt prXtogramptos for sanitatio an aste dipoalaeel need to be asesd,whreferned.E

to experiences from other countries where such programs have been effectiv.

B. LANDDEGRADATION

2.10 This section deals withi land degradation as related tO agricuilture. Land degaaton maybe defined as a loss of productivit, given a specific technology. Ihis can be thie result of Soiloss, salinzton, waterlogginlg, depletion of nutrients, deterioration of the soil structure, andpollution from toxic substaces. The frequently advanced argumen thlat land degradation is aserious and Increasing envronmental problem in Sierra Leone needs oo be critically assessed.

2.11 The total lanld area in Sierra Leone is about 7.2 million hectares, of which about 5.4million are deemed tcultivable." This can further be divided into 4.2 million hectares of uplanldsof low fertility and about 1.2 million hectares of more frile swamps (MAF7PWAO 1992).

- 11 X

2.12 The ext and nature of land degradation is strongly linked to where cutivation takesplace. 'Me etn of physical land degadaon is stongly related to slope. Therefre,ntsification of iand swamps and a shift out of uplands would be highly beneficial from that

particutar aspect. There are, however, other types of land degradation related to swampcultivadon such as iron toxicity and waterlogging. Whie we lack quanttative studies on thissubject, these are constints frequently quoted in the literature. The area under upland crops isabout 164,000 hectares, or about 4 percent of the total arable land of ta category. lhis mayappear very litde, but curt cultivaton methods require perhaps a 10 year fallow period torestore fertility. Hence, the full otational area is about 11 times the amnual, or in the order ofalmost half the arable land available.

2.13 As for ir-land swamp land, about 203,900 hectares are under cultivation (MAFF\FAO,1992), or about 17 percent of the theoredtcaly available area. Again, this may appear to be asmall portion, but the historical experence of expandig swamp land cultivaion is notencouaging. Swamp work is considered harder work ta upland farming, and the taste ofswamp rice is someimes regarded as inferior (Johnny et al, 1981; World Bank, 1983; 1987).Past development efforts have seen large scale abandonment of developed swamps. The relatvefinancial atactiveness of swampland development has also been caUed into question (WorldBank, 1987; IFAD, 1992). The belief that swamp work leads to health problems, also serves asa deterrent (MANRP, 1991). Another disincentive is that land disputes have frequently occurredover newly cleared swamp land (World Bank, 1983; 1987). A recent World Bank report (1993b)is much more optmistic about the prosects, and claims that a comprehensive program may raiseyields considerably, as commented further below.

2.14 Development of the mangrove swamps of 171,600 hecares (MAFF\FAO, 1992) for ricecltivaton has also been atempted. The related environmental concerns have been raised in theforestry secon.

Impa fm lvestock

2.15 There is considerable unceainty as to the size of the livestock herd in Sierra Leone. Theonly comprehensive census was done in 1979. The stock is estimated to be 333,000 cattle,244,000 sheep and 134,000 goats. Rebel actvities and increasing profitability for cattle exportto Guinea imply that cattle _nbers have probably increased little since 1979 (MAFF\FAO,1992).

2.16 Cattle are strongly concentrated in the Northern province, but sheep and goats are widelydistributed. Sweet (1991) reviews the two previous attempts to amrive at local carryig capacityestimates, and adds his own general me . In brief, a conservative esdmate is a caryingcapacity of 4 hectares per ThU C(ropical Livestock Unit) applied to savanna and grassland areas.Based on this, Sweet concludes that the national situation is one of unde-utilization of the grassresource.

2.17 This statement deserves some qualification. In the absence of weights for Sierra Leone,we have applied weights used by the Ministry of Agriculture in Zimbabwe (MLARR, 1991) toconvert livesck to common units. Taking the census figures for the livestock herd in 1979, plusa growth rate for small stock of 3.5 percent per year since then (mentioned but not incorporatedby Sweet, 1991), but a zero growth rate for cattle, the current nmmber of TLU is about 370,000for the whole country. To tcommodehis number would require about 72 percet of the

- 12 -

nationally available savannas and grasslands. While this puts the average situation in someperspective, it does not address the issue of local grazing pressure. Tenure insecurity for thecatte herding Fulah encourages opportisdic livestock straegies rather than long-termconservation.

EZvdence of Land Degradatin

2.18 The situton with respect to land degradation in Sierra Leone is subject to conflictinginterpretions. 'Land and vegetation degradation has been shown to be [a] serious problem inall the watersheds in Sierra Leone...,' claims the Enionmen and Scientific Consulting Groupin their study on Watershed Degradation in Sierra Leone (ESCG, 1988, p. xi). By contast, aconsultant study by MANRF, FAO and UNDP condluded that"... ethe pressure on land or thepace of development are not so serious as to result in accelerated rates of erosion' tTejwani,1988). Ihe most recent work on watershed management (ennyson, 1992) takes a middle grundbetween the two extremes.

2.19 Ihe frequently made argument that land degradon is a serious environmeal problemis made on the basis of three types of reasoning or evidence: (I) The 'nexus' of increasingpoplation pressure and ensuing shor8ting of fallow periods implying land degradaton; 0i)falling agricultura yields; and (iii) evidence of physical degadation from which economicImplcationS are drawn. We wiU look at hse arguments in tur

Fe Nexus

2.20 The 'nexus' (Cleaver and Schreiber, 1992) that describes the inter-action and mutualreinrcement of puaton, agricuture and environmt is commonly accepted in principle. Buthow does it work in Sietra Leone? A priori, increasing populionpressure wil indce shornedfallow peiods, which wil lead to poorer ground cover, and hence more soil loss and less timefor the soil to recover. To some extent, the increased pressure canl be relieved by cultivatingmarginal lands. A look at the figures can provide some perspective to this argument.

2.21 Te total populaton of the country was 4.2 million in 1991 with a growth rate of 2.6percent (World Bank, 1993a), implying an amual growth of about 109 thousand inhabitants (forthe iitW year, and growing in the future). Needless to say, this will increase the need for cropland, as the economy lacks the capacity to pay for additional import of food.

2.22 A simplified example can ilustrate the dynamics. Tacing only the upland area, andprojecting a constant compound population growth, a proportional change in area demand (i.e.constant technology) and assuming a 'desired' rotation period of ten years, the terical supplyof land is exhausted by the year 2024, only 31 years from now. T calculaion includes noprovision for the areal needs of livestock, an acvy that already occupies about 830,000hectares. Nor does it make any allowance for mining, an activity that has already impacted about80,000 - 120,000 hectares (MAFFPFAO, 1992). Adjusting for those items brings back thehorizon to 'over-exhaustion to the year 2014, only 21 years from now. Clearly, there wDI bechanges in both technology and populaton growth in the future, but this stylized scenario serwto mitigate any complacency.

2.23 It is not weal docunted what the actual bush-fallow rotation tmes are in Sir Leone.Ihe latest and most comprehensive tudy on fallow was undertaken in 1978 (UNDP & FAO,

- 13-

1980). Interviews with almost 600 farmers showed considerable variation In fallow lengt, withan average of close to nine years. Obviously, ths figure wi have diminished in the fifee yearsthat have passed since then.

2.24 Wbht rotation times the soil of Sierra Leone can sustain is not clear. MAFF\FAO (1992)claim that It is believed ta ten years is the absolut minimum.* This assumption is frequentlyused, but there are no studies available from Sierra Leoe that detail the impact of the sotendfallow periods on soil fertiity and hence crop yields.

2.25 The vicious cirde of low-input low-output codd be broken by the use of more advancedpus and me on. However, almost all the imported fetizer is used for cash crops such

as suga cane and tobacco, with insignificant amounts left to the major food creps. The economicviability of fertilizer application on upland soils is stil unpoven (IFAD, 1992). Improved seedsare used only on approxily one tenth of the area under rice. Atempts to mecaizagricultre have n been successf. While there is disagreement about staistcs, the generalpicture is tha agricultural ouW has not kept pace with the increasig popton (MAFFFAO,1992). In summary, twe have not been any technological break-tuha that have

y broken the low-input, low-ourput circle.

2.26 The pote for intensificationof agiculture is controversia. The authors of a recentWorld Bank Report (1993b) main that prospects are good for raising yields on smallholderfiams, particulay in the lowlands of the iand valleys. By manining good policies andincenves for farmers, developing inrastructure, strengthening insfttutions, impwving researchand etosion, and ensuring app a donor coordination, they believe this potentia codd bedeveloped. If such an approach were to be successf, it would also caq importantenvronena benefits.

Are Yieds Falng

2.27 A possible indon of land degradaon is falling yields. While they would stUl haveto be correaed with other influencig variables-such as areal expasion or contaion, th useof inputs, and raill-falling yields bave been reported as "already mudh in evidece"(MAFPF\AO, 1992, p. 4.8).

2.28 Rice is e major crop with some 330,000 ha under culivation in 1989/90. Me FAObelieves rice yields to have fallen by 5 percent per annum from 1986187 to 1989190(MAFFTAO, 1992). Their producton figures are at variance with the Central Statistcal Oiceof Siecra Leonm, but no idendet calaton of their yield figumes is possible. Maize Is aminor crop (17,000 ha in 1989) and shows a decline from 1979/80 but a stable figure for threeyears since then. Yield trend data for the important food crops, such as cassaa and sweetpotato, ae not available.

2.29 It must be concluded that agricultu statistcs in the country are not adequate to providea conclusive answer to even the simple quesdon of whether or not yields are alling. This doesnot mean that land degradtion is not takn place becase we cannot prove that yields are falling.t only means dot we can rely on this as an indicator.

- 14-

Physda Evidee

2.30 A small mber of studis stmate physia changes in soils and vegetation and discusstheir significance (Bomah and Sama, 1990; Conteb, 1990; ESCO, 1988; Teiwanl, 1988). Muchof this is comied to ualitative obevatn and discussio.

2.31 Tejwani (1988) us secondary data and a priori reasoning to predict soi erion usinga commonly accepted method, the universal soil loss equation (JSLE). The study concludes thatland degradation is currently no a major problem, as quoted above. However, his argument Isqualie and not suported by field data. It is contradicted by the scaty field daa waable,such as that for the Western Peninsula (Conteh, 1990).

2.32 Other possible icators are physica estimates of soi loss and loss of mntrient andorganic matter. Such esmates are extremely rare and only available for vfr sal areas. Ihemost comprehensive of these studies (ESCO, 1988) covers all the major watersheds in tecountry, but the actual study areas from which samples are drawn represent only 0.4 percen ofthe land area. lhis is the only study available ta estmates the chane in soil loss due tochages in fallow peros for Siera Leone. The esma of soil loss rames pertain to thecatbments of Bumb_ u and Dodo. On the basi of USLE estimatesk he ie in soil los dueto shorter fahllow is calcuated for tee slope dlasses: gentle (08 degrees), moderate (9-15dwrees) and stee (15 degrees).

2.33 Ihese es int some simplified but llusr calculato Taking averages for hetwo watersheds, we can see how slope d t he esdmates are. For gente sopes, lossover a 10-year fllow cycle range from about 12 to 20 tons per hectare per year. Tis inoreasesto about the double for modera lopes. For steep slopes, it ranges from 36 to 104 tons perhecta per year over the falow cycle. We canmot now, however, weigh these estmates to derivethe national picture because of the lackof data on slope categories.

2.34 Another point of dicssion Is how the tendency for ter fallow periods inurs soillosses on the marn. Taking aveaes over the waterheds and over the full 10-e cycle, theaddi soil loss per each year of shortaed fallow is about 1.5 tons for the gene slopes, 3tons for the moderate and 10 tos for the steep.

2.35 The estimates qted aggee net soil loss for two reasons. The first is that the USLEis a medwd desigoed to estimate soil loss from small plots, not a consecive chain of plots wheresoil is deposited in steps. The second is at there is a naturl, dow process of topsoil formadonthatp ly co for erosionL Tere are no esties on is avaiable for Sierra Leone.For reference, the norm of the US Soil Conservation Service is a maximum of 11 tons perhectare per year as 'tolerable soi loss' (Schertz, 1983).

2.36 The impact of soil loss on agricultural productivity will depend on a nuber of fctors,includtype of crop, remaining soil dep, the quality of the rem n soil horizon, exogenousclimatic factors, chages in technology or other maagement adapdons to combat soil erodon.his mplies t the response will be non-linear over arg;e intervals, and wfll vary considerably

across sites.

2.37 There are no empirical fdm otes *m Sierra Leone and vau derived elsewhere haveto be prd with caution. For reference, the retive productivity loss for maize, sorghum,

- 1s-

and barley in seven difret sources have been tpred to be In the range of 0.001 to 0.8percent per mm soil lost, with ibe exception of a study from Nigeria, which reports considerablyhigher estm (SojO, 1991). Anoher rview by Grohs (1992) concludes ha relative gpainlosses areoften reported u b: In the area of 0.1 to 0.5 percent per mm soil lost.

2.38 fte physical e st in tons per hectare can be ada to te more "visual meof mm per hectare by usig data on average bWk density for Sierra Leone (UNDP\EAO, 1979).This translates to 13 ton for a one mm sheet covering one hectare of land. This should not bemislderstood to Imply that eosion is a uniform pocess. It can be extremely concentrated asIn the case of guly emion.

2.39 Given the coniderable unceranty regarding the productivity impact, no precise figureswil be quoted. However, it does appear that 6ie relative anmua losses over the fallow cycle inwatrheds such as Bumban and Dodo would be fractons of a percen rather than severalpercent. Mginal shortening of fallow would also have little impact as compared to, forexample, cultvaton of more steeply sloping lad.

I :..11 .. 1'. 1..'I

.i t lE . .4I 1 .| 1

| | S . iu A w|| ibwsglnjE

| a E rt B.g;t L| 4 atW ing .bftw

| S E g E m~i~L4a u RW E

| ! I 1! ! z z | i | | N . | Z m E ~~~~~| | | | | | g S | g g E | X N a ~~~~~~~~~~. 4

|~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ C.... 1 1S E|

| |; 411 11 111i1 | g | | | 1|111 ! V 4. 1

-16-

2.40 With all their wakesses, the etmates of soil lss ding to sope cegories llustrateone Important point about prioriies In land use: a poliy of complet Intensficaton toconinuous croWing of the more geny doping land before teeper slopes are used wouldminimize soil loss. Hence Ion genty sloping lnd would be om ao froman envmental point of view. Foraely, this seems to coincide with trional agrictraldevelopment advice.

Porlity Ares for Frwe Work

* Lad degradation Is perceived as widespad, but t etent of its damage is disputed andmay be overestimated by simple deductive re Ig. h quta evidece fotproviing a mmoe comprehensive assessm is weak. The Wold Bank has iniad anation quant e smen of land degadaon to help better defie the extent and nablteof the problem and to provide some cost estima (see Box 4). TIis work will poit topriores for intervention.

C. FOREST DEGIRADATION AND DEFORESATION

2.41 In the Sierra Leon conetio to UNCED (MM, 1992), a maor enironnpriority iS to arrest fih desuctio of the forest and its rated reource. Soil erosion,

ductio in soil ferdtliy, de thra of land sides and loss of wilfe, nd the loss of rno mberforest products are al voiced as related concer. is section reviews mflable evdene andkdentifie key areas for fte study.

The Forestr Stock________ ________

2.42 Forestresourceinformaton Table 2: Forest Areas SieTa Leoeis poor and out of date. This _

precludes any well-founded Forest type Area Of Totalstateme abo stock and lows Land (000 ha) (pert)of hs nt tesourc. 'ibe most I

recentse available of thestok are fom 197516 as shown In Forest regrowth 3,774 52Table 2. Savanna woodland 1,619 23

Closed w forest 365 52.43 lTere are dffern views Mangrove 286 4on whether or no plantato Secondaty forests 261 4(rubber, gum, oil palm and cola) of4,000-10,000 hectes should be Total 6,305 88added to the esda. What doesemerge clealy is the vastsignificance of forest are as a Source: UNDPIPAO, 1979. Siera Leone: Ladshae of the a land surface and Resource Survey. (AG:DP5lI131002),the predomince of forestregrowth linked to agrculturalbush-faiow pracdtes. Savanna woodlands are used for grazing awte buming. The crown coverranges bew 20 and 50 prcen wth trees as high as 15 mete. Closed forests bave a closedcanopy and trees as high as 30 meters or more. Mangrove forests are found in the coast area,with trees as high as 20 mews. Secondary fot hae a closed caopy, but tres are generally

- 17-

in the range of 10-30 meters. A sb-s of the forest area consists of the National Forest Estate.lhis covers about 400,000 hectares. It Is diided into gazetted forest reserves (285,300 ha),game and aure resevs (67,200 ha), proped v (34,000 ha) and protetio fst(11,800 ha) (Schatens, 1989).

Forest Uization

2.44 As shown in Table 3, there is a variety of uses for forest products. Many of thesebenefits are not fiancialy rewarded in markets, nor ae they always conolled by a NsellerI whowill; hae an incenive to protect and manage the forest.

Table 3: Woodland Benefits

A. Direct, local privae benefits: fruit, fuelwood, construction wood, woodenutensils, honey, wild foods, medicinal herbs.

B. Indirect, local prvate benefits: leaf litter as stock feed, grazing grounds for cattle,tWmite mounds for fertility imprvement.

C. Indirect, region, semi-public benefits: soil reteon, stream flow reglton,recreation.

D. Idirect, global public benefits: carbon sequestration and preservation ofbiodivesy (genetic, species and ecsystem).

2.45 The primary use of forest resources in Sierra Leone is for fuelwood. Estimates of thenatioa coumpion of fuelwood differ widely. Hunter (1989) derives an estimate ofapproximately 2.3 million mr for 1989. He quotes other estimates from 1986-1988 ranging from2.6 to 4 milion m3 per year. An estimate as high as 5.3 million mn3 has been quoted as credibleby a forest"y spokema, but we have been unable to obtain the survey behind this figure.

2.46 It i difficult to assess the magniude of the problem of debrestaion given the poor database. While commonly perceived as a major eomental problem, there i virtaly no up-d-oad information that provides any degree of detail. Stock estmates are old and based oncoscure origins. Flow esdmates are more tansparet but differ widely. The need for inveMntiesand supply and demand studies has been voiced repeatedly, but litde has been done so far toaddress this need.

2.47 Estimates of fuelwood consumption in the late 1980s ranged from 20 to 53 percen ofaual yield dependig on which assumptions are used. Projections indicate that the problemcaused by the demand fo: fuelwood-on a national basis-is not a physical supply problem. Itis a distributio problem. Areas around cities, in pardcular Freetown, are hit hard by fuelwoodcollection; and transport corridors, which provide ready access, are likely to be heavily cut tomeet urWban demand. Land located some ditance away from urban areas-and from roads-maynot be significantly affected by cutig for fuelwood, except for marginal int fromneighbon communWes, but more informaion is required on how rubstanial these marginaIntrusions are.

- 18 -

2.48 Available data f*om Sietra Leone focuses entirely on the value of wodands as a sourceof fioelwood andtidmber. Wood processing is currently a very minor activity in spite of an exportban onl logs. Non-tmber valuation studies have not beenl undertaken (see Box S for anl eample).

1~~~~~~~~~~~~~U

_~~~~~ZmaW No-hba'Vluto

-l-.49 t mpantrehas beenU. limbe. Aor99 sre y o 52 ine i the muttueo v esi eArea, were Xeloodbisin holda itr d m aIbycFreetw fastmi rs, shco.s th at a o

ip1gtnttot apprac an pa.nting.of uslodtres Rvan.eyti8 iUSto w use aplid

Th@Z weplacecmerst oslue datp~.av an ethe d te Q9I)of8mrkt8pplyrespondyJse,f2 i sm

pees bectause.n yf(aear of fires andom 0 u..c tinpnt.boutsat¢ own ppsc bofwteesfrd hc*eedli tgsw hadbeen supA$prll aeye.bday an r

beeWa 0 suggested as 4 a c nsrwtb el:ence toL 8weak orm, crdtTc n elcco

2.49p Intergest ind rplanven treen has bee cllmate.A191raly ofF Fh,920. farmersmte Wresterns

noat hoseeth inee for suc planting toiak place;ln ynalmstallo hmd Kk, 1990) n tisinotn tomesaticopexpersts geneall arge s n daamesthat owneshi oftesi ucencoyusafe to otete treen pan.n

treS1 because of (a) feare of fretiandal unret atint aboutsatcwernshi oftres. fonroe whicseeltiongs hadrgbeen suppled.i h rmiinlzn *vendyln n feoen osa

2.5 th ottinperiod asro shor as our yearsyuntemi harnes fors fuelwood,(ND anods FA

benasggstd aols afonsraiente, wish rfene tos a weak b forgmal edts etr and teiinlhers Pulackoacepabef romlaterais onclthe patheof manyic farmers. Stiea iforma credit, fish widselytlfized andasuppede haiand orops have beens acceyptedeas coiasteal erosion and 1992).t coereare sigmniestha Iptreseting siltaodoplntiChng, is89 icrasing (zavad 1992), an1t99 imotntt1caif.o

- 19-

2.52 Ite value of sustalnable use of mangroves rather dhan cleari the land for otheruses-for example, rice growving-is considerable. In the Westn Area, soils are prone to acidsulphation, and many eroded mud flats have been abandoned after a short period of cultvaton.Studies in other countries illustate that there are strong economic arguments for Hmitedmangrove clearing (see Box 6). These values can be questoned, and figures based on conditionsin other counies cannot be Iucaly transplanted to Sierra Leone. They show, however, theneed to weigh carefully the costs and benefits of alternative uses of the land.

' .. . . . ....

_~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ .... .... g

Agrfrstudy omndesasosbwoes . pon, gn mci

inusodtion wth hertngban, plan (crps pastuares liicaandoliesftoki ant spatilar emnor nua roteeon (emhas aded) or bot~ lhe (Young 189,p.II) h ddaTU na t siox acptd

paranc, oweer agooestr ish ofe sda atr o t sphW integradoniof 4* an

ocm s tn4rayUS$Otovatyiono t oetlnd tplantt tai4 ,bfr h aoyds

taun 11aIll SES _SSS Ewomna EaIgcnn De1pna1 ISasa?*t

25S3 Agroforestry has been defined as land-use sytems in which woody perenis are grow'in asction withi herbaceous planlts (crops, pastues) andtor livestock in a spatia arrangementor in a rotation (emphasis added) or both (Young, 1989, p. 11). If thiis definition is accepted,thien agrofrestry is already thie predominan system of agriculture in Sierra Leone. In ordinaryparlance, however, agroforestry is often used as a tem for the spatial integration of trees andcrops. What is said below is based on this narrow intepretation of the concept. This is akreadypractced in some areas where coffee is cultivated together withi indigenous fut tees. It alsooccurs as a temporary c '!tivation of state forest land plantaions, befoire the canopy closes(tugya).

- 20 -

2.54 Experiments in agroforestry have been, and are being carried out In connection with theUnivenity College in Njals, and Fouah Bay College in Freetown. These trials have invesdgatedbiologically opm spacing of hedgerows, nutient content of prung, appropriate height oftrees at pruning, fiequency ot prunings and so on. Interacon with crop yield has often bee acosdrtion.

255 Viewed from within their own discipline, these eperime are probably high in quality.However, it is difficult to see that they can contute much to agricultura development beforethey are evaluated from a fincial and economic perspecive. That is, the incremental cost forthe famer must be compared with t incrmental value of the output, marketed or not. Thefmes perception of the risk of applying modern spay integrated roftr terhiquesmut also be tak into account. Finay, the di nce between the ecnmic and financialpespectives needs to be evaluated. Mhis may concern perceptions of risk, dis,coung,opportunity cost of labor, taxes and subsidies, and off-site benefits of agroforestry.

Bilodiversity

2.56 The value of forests and other natural areas is tied to the mainteance of biologicaldiversity-the array of plants, animmis, and micorganiiss which exist in natural associationswithin the physical envioment (See Annex 1). Biological diversity can be analyzed in termsof genedc, species, and ecoystem diversity. Biodiversity in functional ecosystems prvidesecological services which are essental for human surval: water catchment, photosyntesis andbiomass production, climatic reglation, soil production and protection, and nutrient reteo.k i very difficult to pla a value on biological diversity becas k conutes to eologicalstability and ecosystm resiliency, which are non-market, non-consumptve values. However,effaots to value biological diversity have been made (sae Box 7).

n~~~~

E~~~~~~4fl~t 'Howuv |N r, psta 2 bQ 4cS n byi~~t1 an tI twos y Ei andft*Ie5EXEE E

**g.t I iW IMIX~h fit4o

m*an in g # #te'Ii ocie_~~~r4Iet~ k41~nmmeet

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Some of the values of biological diversity can be measu directly: products such as meat, for,leate, honey, fruit, vegetables, ols, wood for building and energy, fodder, dyes, andmedicines. The potential value of medicines from wid pln and animals s only beginnng tobe explored. In the US, 25 percet of all prcton dispsed by phamaces are subsancesderived from planu, 13 percent from microorgaisms, and 3 percent from animals (Wlson,1992). Ihe mat value of plant-based drugs sold in OECD countes in 1985 has beenestimated at US $43 billion (Principe, 1991). The genetic diverity of wild plants also contbutestD agriculture and tmber indes.

2.57 in addition to the material loss of nawal resources, the loss of forests and other narWhabitat types (e.g., wetands, grasslands, and marine and coatal ecosystems) results in thereduction of species diversity, pardtlly if species ae endemuc, or narowly dised andlocalized to a particular area Habitat loss and fagment are th e greatest s to biologiadivesity. Over the last century, human acdvities have acceleated the rate of species loss to 1000tmes the naturbackground exnctiorate. is exictionspasm, as ithas been called, wilhave long term consequences which are difficult to preict. Species and habitat iracidons arecomplex; the loss of certain key species or the grawdua redcdon in overall diversity can resultin the decline of the ecosystem and lImit its ability tO prove services for humanity.

2.58 Only a small fracion of the wodd's biological diversity has been described: 1.4 milionspecies out of an esimated 3 to 30 million species. With large scale conversion of naualhabitats, much of the world's natural diversity is being lost before it is ever discovered. SieraLeone hag already lost several animal species (e.g., Lion and stutungo). Severa ae endangered(e.g., the pygmy h ts, forest elephant, Jentinck's dulker); and oihers are threatened(e.g., a species of and the leopard) (Gyorgg and Seiser, 1992). Six of Sierra Leonesorest-interior bird species Vt require mature closed canopy forest to survive are theatened by

habitat loss, including the rare whionecked picates (Ausden and Wood, 1990).

2.59 One approach to preservig biological divesity on the species and ecosystem levelsemphizes the creation of procted ars, such as nature reserves, national pars, gamereserves, and managed resource areas. If procted areas are effectively managed forconason and accepted by loca popuation, they can help guard biological diveity from theanthropogenic pressures of agricultur conversion, evesting, ad poud . Siemra Leonemainutains a network of forest reserves for the production and proecdon of forest resources, aswell as six additional procd areas, including Ouamba-Kiimd Natonal Park, Inwai ladGame Reserve, and the Lona Mountains Non-huntiog Forest Reserve. Protected areas, however,wil not suffice to pro biological diversiy if the root causes of loss are not addressed:popuation pressue; aiblure of economic systems to account for the value of biological resources;and simply, ignorance of the value and importance of species and ecosystem ficioning.

Priority Areas for Future Work

2.60 The following issues require addiona study to clarify the balace and tadeoffs betweenhuman resource needs, conseation of biologica diesity, and long-term maintenace ofecosystm hmcdoning.

* A fuelwood market survey would help us better undertand the supply resonse to iningdemand, and the appropriate design of any goverment Interventon.

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* The htnational work on mangoves could lnspire a similr study in Sierra Le. Thiswork should focus on the trade-off between mangrove forest management and riceculdvation.

* Moder agroforestry methods are being reearched on satio and on farms. The economicsof these metiods need to be anlyzed.

* An assessment of the most economic and ratonal use of eisting fress needs to be made.What are the implications for preserving biodiveaty: is there an opportmity for'international transfers' or a debt-for-nature-swap arrangement?

D. MNING AND ENVIRONMAL DEGRADATION

ThM Impact on the Environment

2.61 Ihe activities of the countrs two lare-sca mining companies result in landdegradation through loss of vegetative cover, soil eosion, and on an of water sources.In addition, there are social issues relating to displacement of com.muies. Smal-scale miningof diamons and gold raises simar issues, abeit on a different scale. Artsanal mining resultsi deforestaution and land degrdation; and stagnant water collects in the excavated areas whichae abandoned by the miners, providing breedig grounds for mosquitoes. Frequently, there areclashes between the fming commuities and the mobile arnal miners.

2.62 At Sierra Rutile Ltd. (SRL), mining operons requir floodig minig areas prior todredging. The ore is cleaned on te dredge itself. Further separation and concentration iscarried out at the floadng precone tor plant and ilad tra t facilites. Ihere are nodamaging chemicals used in the procsig of the minr. It impac resultn fromthe operato include: (i) the deadaon of the vaste se of land eoploited; (d) risk offlooding of surrounding villages (camsed by leakages from the dams suruding the *dredgingpond'); (di) siltation in tidal creeks; and (iv) dislocation of several vilages. In 1989, SRLdeveloped a masterplan for management and cy development. Theprogram involves (i) the relocation of vmages; i) rbabion of land; (ii) communitydevelopment program in sociation with CARE; (iv) wells and vilge health program; and (v)the Sustainble Agriculture Village Extension (SAVE) program. The plan, which has beenapproved by the government and by IFC, is nw being implemented. Some mined out area havebeen reclamed and revegetated, and agro-forestry and fish frmig prgrams have bee inated.The SAVE program and the health and sanhatio program iplemented by CARE are five yearprograms that are likely to be successful. The programs are targeted at assisting the communitieslhving within the mine area, improving their health and sanitation facilies, providing safe waterand agriculural extension With regard to the rest of te program, considerable sevisonwould be required either from the Govenmnent or from a prvate entity such as an iternaonalor local NGO.

2.63 During the period 1983 to 1991, SRL has relocated 13 vlag comprising 650 famuilies.SRL officials state that village elders were comulted at various stages and the relocation prgramhas benfitted the community through irved housn, sanitation and commnal facilities.However, it is not clear whetber the area to which the villag were relocated is as suiable for

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agrculturl activities as their fonnet location. Some viagers, including he elders, areexprn di s n at the displacement, complaiing that they are unable to pursueagricultral activities i the nOw location. Whfle tis issue would need independet evauation,the govemment should be mo involved, paticuay if additional displacement of viaesbeomes ncssuy due to expaion of opertions. A conmpreensive resettlement progamshould be prepared before such displacement o pla h cmmuny shodd be constedfrom the inception and the resetlement process carried out according to a definite plan of action.

Rdeablitation

2.64 SitL has rHaiated a small ares of t mined-out land and revegetated a portio of itThe land upon which the mining activity is cu ly being caried out is a vast expanse of latd,which is at present a massive lake. Ile rehabitation of this would be a major exercise whIcwould require _sutanti fian and technical expei. Tiese acdvities need to be carried outaccordig to welldefined gudin which have nt yet been developed. In adition, thegovernment's lack of capacity to supervise the migstion and reclamation programs is cause forconcer. Both the mining and the envion authorities need to addres these issues andexplore remedial meaes.

2.65 At SIEROMCO Ltd., the Bauxite ore is cavated from small deposits in open pits. Clayand silica are subequently removed by washing, crushg, and screening. No chemicals are usedin the production process. Sieromco is a much smaller operation ta SRL. There are plans,howeer, to epand production; and this would involve associated lems whichwould need monioring. Cumenly, the main envrmewnta problems include: (i) thedegradation of a vast expae of land due to the excavaton; (i) siltaion in river systems; (Wiand the displacement of vl lages. In respose tO Government Itervention and in compliance withthe new ageement with the Government, SIROMCO is cumently developing an environmentalaction pla. The status of prepartion of the masterplan is not known, and gvrmentauthorities have not yet seen a draft. The authorities in cre of mining activities and theauthorty in cre of e mental matters should be involved in the preaation of thenvir masterplau. Once approved to thse fn of governmt, the im pl on

process needs to be supervsd diligently. As in the case of SIL, resettlement, shoud it benecesary, needs to be addressed with care, taking into consideration the needs of the participants.SIROMCO has taken steps to reabilitate some mined out areas and has embarked onreforestatio and rice culvaion progrms. Ihese programs are still in their iniial phase andneed to be oely :mnitored, either by arpriate agencies in Government or by NGOs.

Small-scale Diamond MIning

2.66 Prior to 1956, small-scale diamond mining was illegal. With the introduction of theAlluvia Diamond Mining Scheme, smail-scale production of diamonds was iensed. llicitproduction has, however, persisted despite eforts to enforce the law. The method of productionfor small-scale mining ranges from very basic artisan methods of digng earth and washing andsifting to the use of more capital Intesive equipment, including water pumps and excavators.The most common method is the highly labor intensive proes where large groups of people digthe earth and wash and sif the ore. bese work m amn to 60,00040,000.

2.67 The envomnental Impact of small-scale diamond miniin actv8is severe, dthe land by clearhig and digging up vegetated areas. After an area is mined the land I left

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exposed and degraded, unsuitable for farming or any other actvity. When the mining i caTiedout on billy areas and dopes, severe erosion takes place and flooding can result. in cerainlocation mis not olty remove vegetation and economically vuable trees but their activitiesalso divert surfce drainage. Siltation in river systems is a common problem to be heed by

Is living downstrem. Water collecs and s tin the dug-ut areas conibutgto hedah hazards, potentally increasing the incidence of malaria and other water borne disa.

malleale Gold Ming

2.68 Small-scale gold mining is carried out nea river beds. The mining method are mostlyaraal, and operators use implements ranging from basic hand tools to small-scale equipment,Incuding water pumps and vibatg screens. The e impact of small-scale goldmining is simlar to the impact caused by the small-scale diamnd mining activities. In addion,where small-scale gold minin is carried out near or in river beds, there is a significat impacton the water downstrm Siltation is often a major problem for (downstmm) communities.Further, when mercury is used to amalgamate gold, the impoper use of mercury can result incontamintion of water sources and exposing the communities to health hazards, locally as wellas downeam

Impad of Mnng on Health

2.69 Mining actvities expose communitis to a wide range of diseases. Heavy rains causedug-out areas to be trasfored to sgnat ponds which are breedig grounds for mosquites,

e I -1-the problem of Malaria. Communities nteating with water sources c iby mine wases are exposed to diartheal diseses. Ming acvites cause heavy sfltaton In riverbeds and creeks, which reduces coastal coral and fish populations that feed and breed in it. Toxicwastes in the water source contamine marine life making ithem unfit for humann conumption.

2.70 A study carried out in southwes Skra Leone (Gbalcima) icates a prevalence ofand odher parasitic diseases. Urine and fet samples from mine workers and their

from selected residenial diamond mine camps in Bo Town and Tongo Field revealedta there was w pread infection in the communky. The study concludes tat abandoneddiamond workings provide a habitat suitable for thiomharia f. the snai vector for thedisease. sogni Bhm ph has beenfound in largenumbers in most streams andponds In southwestern Sierra Leone, particularly in the Tongo area and the number of incidensof S. Mawoni in the Tongo Field hospital are reported to have incresed dramatically. The studyfurther conludes tha diamond minig on a large scale and swamp rice faming can eventuallyonute to a prevaence of schis ase, a major parasitic disease, which can be fat toyoung children.

Initaves for Reing E D

2.71 There is considerable awareness witbin the government of the need for enviromentalprotection. A National Policy on Enironment has been formulated and is currently awaitingforma Goverment apprval. "To conserve and use the environment and nat raoureas forthe benefit of present and fAture generations* is one of the policy goals. The Government'sreport on enviromnt and development, submitted to UNCED last year, sets forth the goal ofthe Governm with regard to the mini sector as: 'ensuring that prospecting, exploraion,mining and processing of miner resources proceed in an e mly sound manner'

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(MLHB, 1992). In the case of small-scale mining activities, lack of incentives for mines toaddress land reclamation is a major issue. A study needs to be carried out on the developmentof proces to provide miners with some support and assistmce, whether in the form of credit,technology or technical expertise to encourage them to take steps to preserve the environment,while enhancing their productivity. In the case of large-scale mining activities, the governmentneeds to become more actively involved in developing and monitoring programs to mitigateenvironmental impact on the physical landscape and the people living in the mining area.

New Mining Leislation

2.72 The new Mfming Code cureny being formulated contains some provisions fr theprotection of the environment. Some key features of the enactment include: (J) the requirementthat Envinmental Assessments MM) are submitted prior to the application for a mining liceme;and (i) the rWirement that a iae steps be take for mitigation of damage caused by themining actvities, including land reclamation and revegetaton. The requirement of ElAs wouldapply only to large and medium-scale miing oaions.

2.73 A recent review of the draft legation pointed out the lack of clay and broad brushapproach of some of the provisions. The review noted that the enactment should, instead ofampting to describe me n contols, contin genera provisions requiring complane=Of enviomena regulations and standads, which should themselves be comprehensive. Thegoverment should develop comprehensive guidelines for mining acities taking intoconsideration ennental protecton, health and safety of the populace. Ihe goverment couldrequest donor assistance and technical expertise for the fiomulabton of regulations and standardsin this field. Another option is to consider a twinnig arrangement with the relevant authoritiesi another country in the region where steps have been cak to formuate guidelies relaing tomining acdvities and the envnment

MNng Agreemes with largesle Operators

2.74 With regard to the large-scale mining companies, the government has recendy enteredinto new agreements. These new agreements contain specific provWsons requring the companiesto develop coprehensive envronnal action plans for mitigaion of environmendegrdaio These plans are to be submitted to the government for approval, andimplementation is to be monitored and progress reprts sbmited to the responsible governmentauthority. Ihe provisions specifically require the rehabilitation and revegetation of mined-outareas. A recent review of the areeme notes that these provisions, while deg thecommitment of govenmment for protecting the environmnent, are lacking in depth. While it is notpossible to include detailed guidelines for mitigatory act in the agreements themselves, oreven witn the main legislation, it is critical to prepare reguations under the eacment, spellingout detailed guidelines and stndards to be followed by mining operations, thereby ensuring thatmining activities are carried out in a manner consistent with accepted practices for environmentcontrol, health and safety concerns.

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Priority Areas for Future Work

* There is a need for detailed regulatons, standards and guidelines covering all aspects ofeenv mental protection, including reclamaion, rehabilitation, emiions and pollutas, and

onk water and soil quality. Overshadowing the leglve shortcomings is thegovetnment's lack of capacity to carry out evironmental monig and scening;enforcement of the laws and regutations; and to carry out or oversee and superviseenvironmentl impact assessments. Tackling envronmen problems of arsanal miners wilbe much more difficult and in this case eff&ctive incenives should be identified andintrouced to minimize land degradadon and encouage land reclamation. Tecbnologies, forxample, are avilae that would wt only signfflcandy reduce damage to the land but wold

also increase the efficiency of small-scale mining.

* In order to provide a better unde I of the impact of current mining activities,environmental impact a should be undetakn for large- and small-scale miningacdvities to evaluate the relative environmen costs, inudig off-site costs (acd beneflts)such as downstream siltation. In the case of small-scale mining acvits, an _men isneeded of the envin t impact, including: vegetaion; degradation of forst and land;water supplies (co ion as well as avaiabiity); siltation of rivers and creeks; andsocial and economic costs associated with the movement of communies due to destuctionof cultivatable land.

E. FLSHEE EXPLOTATION

2.75 Tle fisheies resource is a dlassic eample of a common property resource. As such, Itis a prime candidate for overexploitation, unless management rules are well defined and enforced.Mhis secdon briefly describes the fisheis sector of the economy and goes an to discuss if thereis evidence of overexploiaion.

Sector Charaderstlcs

2.76 The latest avaiable figure of the contiuton of fisheries to GDP (1987/88) shows a shareof about 11 percent. This represens a strong relative increase since the early 1980s (WorldBank, 1992). Fish is an importan part of the diet, supplying about 75 percent of the country'stotal anima protein consumption (Vakily, 199).

2.77 BiologicaUy, the natre of the fisheries resource may be divided in three categories (a)pelagic, (b) demersal, and (c) crustacea and mollusc Nomahna & Chaytor, 1991). In layterms, these groups refer to species that (a) live in mid-water or in surface waters, (b) inhabit thebottom of the sea and (c) are primarily shrimp. This biological resource is eploied by two sub-sectors: the industri and the artsaral operations. Ihe latter group op s inland and inshorefisheries (0-5 miles form the coastlie). Ihe former us sea stretching from the border of theinshore zone to the 200 mile territorial water limit.

2.78 The industi fleet is made up primarily of forAign vessels from countries such as China,Greece, Italy, Korea, and Russia There are a number of domestic compa involved in thissector, including Siera Fish Company Ltd., Marine Development Co. Ltd., and OkekyAgencies Ltd. The total nmmber of officialy recorded vessels was 125 - 183 in the early 1980s.

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The artisanal sub-sector provides employmeot for about 20,000 fishermen and some 80,000processors, transporters and traders. 'he sector operates about 7,000 cames of which abou 10percent are motorized (PD, 1991).

Are Fsheries Overexploited

2.79 Estmat of fisheries biomass vary considerably. Ndomahina & Chaytor (1991) quotestimates of 100,000-700,000 tons. Another source quots a 1984 srvey showilg a biomssstock of 1 milion tons. An FAO study arrived at esimates of 317,000-570,000 tons. Giventhese widely divergent biomass estimates and the complex inraction In a mlti-species system,it is not surprising that the esdmates of maximum sustainable yield (MSY) c deably.Surveys undertaken by the Soviet Union in cooperon with the Government of Sierra Leoneshow a maxim alowable annual catch of 300,000 tons. The FAO study mendoned aboveafrived at an annual sustainable yield of 100,0004150,000 tons (FD, 1991).

2.80 How do these estimates compe to actua catches? Again, the answer depends on whihestimate i used. Statistics frcrn the Fisheries Department, covering the period 1981-1986, showa total of industria and arisanal catch of app tely 125,000-200,000 tons. The UNCEDreport (MLHE, 1992) quotes *stimates for the period 198-1991, showing total catches of about126,000-239,000 tons. If the Ligh estimate of maximum sustanable yield (300,000 tons) is used,recorded catches bave not exceeded this limit In any year for which data is available. However,if the lower estimate of MSY is used (down to 100,000 tons), then the resource has beenoverexploited for every year since at least 1981.

2.81 The current administrtve practice appears to be fixing the total allowable catch (TAQat a level of one third of the estimated biomas for all species. This is the basis for the currentDepartme of Fisheres estimate of 200,000 tons as the TAC per year. Using this esmate,there has been some overfishing in the last years for which data are available (1989-1991).

2.82 Unfortunately, it appears that we are in a situation where there are sffciet data todeermine at what level this resource can be rationally and sstaby used. One auhoritativeopinion is that indial fisheries have reached a maximum, but that arsanl fishing couldincrease further with the enforcement of its inshore zone. There are indications, although notvery conclusive, that the catch per unit of effort (CPUB) is diminishing over time. (Ndomahina& Chaytor, 1991). There is, however, anecdota Informaion that net mesh sizes are decrasngamong arsanal fishermen, and that explosives fishing has increased. Both are indications oflower reamts.

Policy and siuions

2.83 Government policy is laid out in The Fisheries Manement and Development Act of1988 (GOSL, 1988) and in The Fisheries Regulations of 1990 (GOSL, 1990). The Act definesauthority and adminion, prescribes the preparation of a manement and development plan,specifies procedures for licensing, and specifies meaures for consmervaion, enforcement andsurveillance. It also sets minimum fine levels in local currncy.

2.84 The regulations pertaining to the Act go furfher into the details of management areas,licensing, law enforcement, markefng and processing. 4 detailed sde of license fees ased

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on tonnage) and royalties (a fied amount per type of vessel) for various knds of fig vesselare defied in swhedule two of the r ations. These are subject to annal updtig.

2.85 Ihe principal fishing stitutdons are the Depatment of Fisheries, which opetes aBoatyard, the Inse of Marine Biology and Oceography, and the Siaka Stevens MaineTrg School. The Maritime Protection Sevices of Sierra Leone (MPSSL) is chged withthe survele of current fishing activies. The pefomce of tbis system is subjet to widelydifferent interpretations. On the one hand, it has been arguedthat the Imp aon ofsurveane srting in 1991 led to a drasdc reduction in the fishin efforts. Only abou 50vessels applied for licenses under the new regime, and poaching was efftvly reduced (Vakily,1992). On the other hand, the current system is faced with a number of probem. Pist, theconvition rate of vessels chged with violating regulaions is very low. Second, the fines arefixed at levels that make them ineffective as a detent (MPSSL, 1992). Third, operationalproblems, such as lack of bunker oil for the single major surveiance ship, have made the riskof apprehension negigible, at least temporarly. A separate, but related problem, is thereportedly low discipline in paying license fees. An explicit compaison between the revenue ofthe current management system and the costs for its operation is not possible at this stage.

2.86 There has been considerable donor activity in this sector. In support of the.implentation of the Fisheries Act, a two-year project has been launched with funding from theEC. This project analyzes fisheries data, provides training for local staff, and makesrecommendaions for future fisheres management. In addition, tihere ae three major area-basedfisheries projects in Sierra Leone, fnded by the Comission of the EC, FAO and GTZrespectively. Together, they cover almost the entire coastine (Vakily, 1992).

Proty Ars for Future Work

* Cost and revenue data would need to be gathered in order to shape an economically optimalquota sysm. The dmiation of maximum economic yield requires futher workL

L The stucture of the fisheries maret and the proper insttudtonalization of quota maagemetneed frther study.

F. MANUFACrURING AND TOURISM

2.87 Ihe ma ring sector in Siemra Leone is very small (6 percent of GDP), limitedpriay to the production of beer and matche. Small-scale import substitution manugindustries have been established, which iclude food, cement, pait, nails, tobacco and mieralwater industries. lTe sector employs about 10-11 perct of the labor force.

2.88 Tourism is still very modest, specially considerng the enormous poteta representedby the extensive white sand cosal beaches. There is limited hotel on in Freetownfor overseas tourists and only a handful of small, very low density beach front developments onthe peninsula. In recent years, occupancy has been low. There has been no apparent effort todevelop and market the county's wilife and the natural beauty of some of its forest area (seeBox 8). Tourism in the Eastern Provice, the Gola Forest area, is prevented by the cmunt rebelactivity, add becase of this conflict and related perceptions of unrest, tourist have virtually

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stopped coming to the country. lhe undedying longer term constraint-for bo tohursm andInInActuring-is the lack of physical I: roads and power.

Wig -- - d dqaadn Wit repe to th 61, ; setr en . t tD OVOtM I I . enterpdses. For wudsm, in &&Udm to z.d restrictions D

.8g ihe environmentalnIssuesn therefore, an the rofuture. Belxre the gowthofythe setoeelier It wil be mporta n to ests a proces and tIo tat w a pt

agis envronmena degatIon Wit rewspt to the n sector, Imact studies shoud be reqied for each proposed actit wih dequlate political ctto preent_urmsnble air, wtrand ladpoluin, and apporaemnrndg shudbe usedto oversee enterprises. For toursm, in additin to zon al dX to reulatethe impact of building and nmbe of vhsioa ondi counry' ladscape, the counr will needto osdrte cosevain of Its beaches and other natural resoure areas.

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HI TER CAUSE OF ENVIRONMEITAL }OLS

3.1 be naon of an e enta problem" implies th ere is a e v cangha Incurs wele losses. To some tent, such loes are unaoidable and may be a onablepric to pay for other wefare gains. How , tere are rao to bieve that ratiobalgft of costs and boaft of e w *o_ 8chan is not done in a procoss where pdvaevalues coincide with social values. In other words, what I ratond for each individual may notbe in the interest of the sum total of all idh uals.

3.2 This sect first define an analytc ppective and a few key conacpts. Using thesetool, it stmaicay eie the siuaio in Sierr Leone. I poit out what major caseibehind degr adation.

A. THE ANALYCAL PERSPECTIVE

3.3 In a theoretical, pfely competive econmy with complete ima, we couldexpect idividuals to handle the balacing of costs and benft of their actons In a man thatwould also be socily deirable. Obviousy, the red wodd economy is far from this ideal. Thissection dics the devia from tis theoretical abstact in terms of maret and policyfailre.

3.4 Market ilur occur beca mrkets are not coptitive, icomplee or non-existentFor example, ao Impacts such as downsm siltation of a river or loss ofbiderty in a fors are generaly not reowrded in te finan tansctons betn

dividbs. Becaue these Im are nt priced, there is no inentive for the indi toadju his behavior to avoid the cost of enl damage.

3.5 Policy fiures occur In two caegores. One, and the most frequeniy noted, is that wthintervenes in the economy in a way tat distr incenaves to manae the

e _vhumuM rationally. However, the second ctegOq of policy falures is just the opposite:the govenment fails to itev where it legimately should have coected for market failures.Thus, the mes is not hat the best gove _ent is the least govenmet, but rather that thescace rources of governmen must hw nv-allocated to the arm where there is a genuie rolefor coliecdve decisions. SafeguadiLg the nvionme is definitely one of tbem

B. MARKET FAIURES AWECTING THIE ENVIRONMENT

3.6 What are te signs of market failre in Sierra Leone? Tis pae identes the impacton haeth due to a poor enviment in tms of watr quly/availability and sanation asimportant problems. Ihere are several reasons why makes fai to adequaty provide for socidservices In these respects. prvate markt offered was removal at full finacal cost, manyIdiviuals would find t 8ter prvate willng to pay is less than tie fee. They would usethe oion of rdatively cosless dumping of waste in their ne rhoods, with socl osWtxceeding private. Free dders- would ejoy the bnefs of wast removal from other

houselds, while not contributing finay. this behavior is feque, the fixed cost of

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seavice would be disuted on a few individuals, forcig fes to be raised, inducing more drpouts', and so on.

3.7 The pvision of piped water cons_tis an example of a local natural monopol, whercompetitive market solutions would be difficult to establih In a monopoly situio, efectiveexclusion of non-pig users from services would emble the provider to primces highrtha e t marginal cost of pwvisi, In order to cover fixed costs and to reap monopoly beneft.If exusion of non-paying users was not effective, such as wihh public stand-pipes, it would notbe profitable to establih supply on a private basis. The result is generly th privat companiesstay out of ts market, and govrmen steps in to ensure supplies at 'fair cost. Due to lacof resources and intitutional weaknesse, the rest i9 oftenua r.

3.8 Effective market solutions are also based on informed customer choe. hI b obvios thatthe linh between water conminain and poor saniay conditon and human health are onlypartily undestood. Indeed, even specialsts find it difficult t establish very precise links dueto the complexiy of interactions. If people are ignorant about the real costs of poor saniadonand low water quality, they will not ask for solions, and exrs their wlingness to pay onmarkt, even to the etent they exist.

3.9 The economically most important markets in Sierra Leone can be gleaned from a lookat the composition of the GDP (World Bank, 1993a). By far the most important sector Is thojoin item entited Agicuture, Forestry, Hunting and Fisheries. his accted for about 45percent of GDP in 1990191.

3.10 We know th land tenure in Sierra Leone is conmicated and vre acrss the countly.Formally, there is a dichotomy between the Wesn Area, with freehold titling to land, and thePrvices, where trdonal and communal lnd ownrship prevais. Howver, there is anecdotalvdence dta prvadation of rual Ind occurs aound urban are, also in the Prvnces While

security of sufrct rights wihin the an is probably high, tre is usually no land maret whereimproved land meets a higer prie than unimproved, and wbere more eft land users canacquire land.

3.11 There is very little wten about land tenure in Sira Leone, but Tuy (1980) cootan interesting and extensive survey (over 4500 intrviemwees), showing attitude to ownedsp andregisaion of land. A smal majority agreed to hypothet land registrato under extendedfamiy names. However, only 32 prcet were wiling to accept land registratin wh on familyhead as sao. Individual right holder registration had an acceptance of only 13 pecent.Rearing the source of land ownership, 88 percent of the land is derived from originalsettlement and the family. Leased land compised only about one percent in the sample.

3.12 The lack of well dedned, enforced, and transferable pwperty rigts is also decting thuse of trees. Some trees have acquired the stahs of economic rme with, probal, we1ldefined property rights. In spite of the increasing demand for ielwood, it is not dear hat suchtrees have aqouired the saw status. The intert for plaing them appeas limited but growswhen appropriate extension and delivery services are provided.

3.13 The govenmenet's control over st frest Ind isb, as has been discussed previouy, Mteffectively enforced. The percepio of the extent of e primarlly by subsistefarmers varies considerably, but pedrps some 15 percent of the area is affected. is subeor

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also harbors an important part of non-marked biodivesity values. Much of the willins-to-pay for this asset is located abroad.

3.14 Grazing land covers about 12 perce of the land area, or 8,300 Wn. Litde is knownabout the emental ealities in the livestock system in Sierra Leone. Juging from otherAfrican countries, one may have a sion with a viuly open access range, where pivaterationality would Imply ovemocking to the detiment of the commnity. On a natona level,grazing pressure on rangelands in Sierra Leone is low. There Is only anecdot inomaton aboutlocal overazing.

3.15 The fisheries seoMr offers a dassical common property resource problem. Free marketutlzation will not result in economically efficient uizatDon. The indiidual fishemn mayincrease hbis personal profit at the expese of the group, by incraing efft beyond the level ofeconomic efficiency. If costs are sufficienty low, this will resut in overexqloiation. Hence,common property resource management, generally r 4er goverment guidance, is caled for.Cumrty, there is no efecive system in place

3.16 Mining accounted for only 9 percent of the official GDP in 1990191 (World Bank,;993a), but it is well-kown that the actual economic acvity is far larger than is officiallyregistered. This is particularly tue for the atsanal mining of gold and diamonds, with well-established routes for smuggling of its products out of the country. These opatio affectpedhps 80,000-120,000 hectares and may lead to considerable local land degradation. he costof emvironmental damage is not caried by the arta miner, while the two large miningcompanies have lately been forced to interize such costs.

3.17 In swmmary, the major economic sectors of crop cultivation, livestock, forestry andfihng, and to a significant exten mining, ae all exmples of imperfect property rigt.Negative external impacts can, therefore, be sulial without being recorded in the finialmarket system.

3.18 Private markewill also fail to produce enough [W informion, because tXiinformion has a public good naure. Since one persons use of vonormat doesnot preclude someone else's use of that i mation, the socially optimal Charge is zero, whichwod render private information dissmiaon unprofiable. Nonipofit NGOs str e tocompensate for this but have few resources, and it is difficut efectively to charge customers andto exclude non-paying users once inforation is disseminated.

C. POLICY FAILUR AFFECTING TE ENVIRONMENT

3.19 Below is a 'check-ist of items where el policy failure co y occurs,catig incentives and dincentives through public policy - mao mc as well as sectora.Every eort should be made to ensure that govenment reglations and support for economic andsocial development are consite and suppordve of sustainable development. Governmtintervention in Sierra Leone is limited and decreasing along with the implemeion of stuctaladjustment meauwres. Hence, there is lfflle cause for concern that govertment is catingenvironmental problems by active intventions. The lack of capacity to irnrvene in some areasis more of a problem.

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Property Rights Definition and Enforcement

3.20 Ihe lack of clearly defined, enforced, and transferable property rights has been diusedabove as a source of market failure. We now turn to the govenment's response. In spite of theextnalities in agculture, hvestock rearing and forestry, government policy is not clear on howto address this situion. While tenure reform cannot be introduced agaist the resistance of themajority of the people, this could be a time to (a) carefully take stock of the prevailing sentmentand needs of people in the rural areas and (b) introduce selective services to define and enforcepropty rights to land and trees where this is in accordance wifth public acceptance.

Popuatin Policy

3.21 The population of Sierra Leone was about 4.2 million in 1991. TIhs implies an overalldensity of 58 persons per km2. Looking only at 'cultivable' land (MAFFxFAO, 1992), eachperson has, on average, an area of 1.3 hectares. In itsef, this does not appear to be a bindingrestriction. In practice, the agriculural sector, including imports, is unable to provide more thanabout 80 percent of the energy required for an average person (World Bank, 1993).

3.22 Even if curre densities are not extremely high, the dynamic perspecdve deservesconideration. The population of Sierra Leone grows at 2.6 percent per year. Tbis is also theprojcc'a growth for the period up to the year 2000 (World Bank, 1992). This implies adoubling in 27 years. It has been pointed out by observers in the country, that this is less thanthe rates in some other sub-Saharan African countries, and less than the weigbted average for theregion of 3.0 percent. However, what matters is not the growth of population elsewhere, buthow well the economy and enviromnent in Sierra Leone respond to this increased press.

3.23 Before we speak about apolicy failure in terms of populationpolicy, we need to addressee isses: (a) the links between population and enviroment; (b) the need for govement

Intvention versus spontaneous market regulaton, and (c) whether government iMervenion, iffound desirable, could be efficient.

3.24 Poulaton growth does not necessarily result in environmental degradation. Ihere areexamples of areas in rural Africa hat appear to have handled a strong increase in popWulationrather well, such as Machakos in Kenya (English, 1993). To the extent that (a) an increasingpopulation drives the int oduction of more insive and efficient agriculture, and/or (b)employment opportunities in urban areas can absorb the growing labor force and produce exportcommodities to pay for increased food requirements, populaton growth can be accom d.When reviewing the case of Sierra Leone, it appears that the agricultura sector is lagging behindthe growth in population. There is no sign that increased poputon pressure spont sydrives a technological evolution. Instead, eistng land is used more frequently in shorter andshorter bush-fallow cycles, in an almost stagnant agricultura technology.

3.25 Ihe second issue raised above concerns the need for government intervention. After all,preservation of the environment is only one consideraton in welfare improvement. If peoplewant to have more children, even at the expense of environment, why shouldn't they? Thiswould be a fair argument if people bore the full social costs of their decision to have children.Children are "subsidized* by the below-cost provision of omne social services such as education,and health care, and the use of free common property. Hence, it is plausible that the full social

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cost of an incresig population is not felt by the famiy decision-maker, and that this will resultin a higher population gMowth than is socially desirable.

3.26 The third issue raised above i simply: given that we ink there is a legitim case frgovernment intervenion, is there in fact anything it can effectivly do? Whie the exact impactof public populaon programs remais difficult to quantify, there is evidence that public suotfor fily planning prgrams can lower fertility quicldy (World Bank, 1984). Examples fromColombia, Costa Rica, India, Ionesia, Mexico and Taland upport this ntemeM In spiteof this, many govermnent have not demonstated a strong public and financial conmitnt tofamily planing programs. Ihe Government of Sierra Leone has adopted a genral popuationpolicy (GQSL, 1989). Implementatio, however, is iadqute and more conerted frts arerequired to provide ffy planning services. The prevalence of cotraceptive use is very low:sx pecent Education for girls-a variable of strong importance for reproductive behavio-isin a sad and dete g state, with fllig enrolme rs and a female litea rate of 89percent (World Bank, 1993a).

PAice Polcy

3.27 There have been sipgificant changes in price policies in the past three years. The priceof foreig exchange has been liberalized, and since April 1990 banks have been fiee to trade atmarke rates. Previous governmet monopolies have been dismantled. As of January 1989,private traders have been allowed to purchase coffee and cocoa direcdy from producers. Thiswould seem to provide an important inentive to cultivators of these crops, asmmg worldmarkt prices are exected to be higher t previous monopoly prices. As of Jamny 1989,private trads could also import rice freely. Subsiies to non-ilitary personnel have beenphased out (World Bank, 1993a).

3.28 The market detemined exchange rae povides an incentive for export crops. his carriesan etniromental benefit because coffee and cocoa are tree crops providing good ground coveron a more pe nbasis tha the atrative of bush-faUow ltvation. Ihe impact could besubstatl. Using fgures from Rwanda, and auming everytg else contt, changing thecrop from one with limited ground cover to coffee could reduce erosion per area unit by 95perceL It should be pointed out, however, that such comparisons can only be made byobserving act fanning systems. The Crop culivaton methods in Sierra Leone may differ,which wil strongly influence the crop cover factors. In summary, crop management mattersmuch more tan the actual crop grown. (Hudson, 1986; Young, 1989).

3.29 Lending interest rates have been deconolled. Previousy depressed lending rates favoredthose with significant collateral, good personal conections, or both. A deegulated credit marketcould encourage investment in Intensified agriculture with vio benefits. However, itcan also encourage investments with negative envronmental impact such as polluting indutrand forest logging operations. The answer is not to restict credit to such opeations, but to letthem face their full social cost by idcing appropriate fees andlor reSgation to lmit the

environmentaldamage.

3.30 Subsidies to agricultural inputs such as fetlizer remain, but they are being phased out(World Bank, 1993a).

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Tax Poliy

3.31 The tax administation system Collapsed in the mid 1980s, and governmet revenuereached a low of about 5 percent of GDP. Since ihen, there has been an increasi emph onindirect taxes. The nominal sales tax i 15 pecn. Given the low efectve tax rat, there ireason to think the impact is very limited.

3.32 Companies have beegranted tax holidays on an ad-hoc basis (World Bank, 1993a). Iheenvironmental impact depends on the extent to which this provides an incentive for expasion ofdetriental effluent and emissions. A direct tax on such pollutants woud be the best _anatve.

3.33 To our knowledge, fte relatively unifom Indirect tax system and the limited effecveincome taxation do not introduce significant distoros that would be eom ly importaThe current tax system, however, lacks any interventions to correct for envexternalties.

Tade Poicy

3.34 Tariffs are Importat as a source of governme revenue, accounting for about one-tof total revenues in FY91192. As of July 1, 1992, several steps were made to simplify the arffsure and lower the top rate to 65 percen Day exmptons are stdll common (WorldBan, 1993).

3.35 Ihe current tariff scale follows the chain of increasing value added. The tariffs on'esential consmer goods" are set at zero. Raw matedra has a 5 percent tariff rate, whileintermiate goods have a 1040 percent rate. Final goods have a 65 percent rate. in general,this suure exposes ft agicutural ector morm effecdvely to itional competon an the

mER - -g sector. his is countbanced by some exemptons in the tax structure, and thenet impact is curenty not possible to deemine.

3.36 Several sources claim that there is curty a log export ban Kmau, 1988; Huater,1989). However, it is also claimed that current lesation allows for the export of logs(SchmIncke, 1988). This apparet contradicton can be explained by differentating exisig fromnew conessions. Prom the latr, it is theoretically legal to export logs, if deemed necessay tencouage the investment in pocessing capaciy. Such export would have to be phased out in2-3 years. Log export from concessos pro-ating the new legislation has remained bamned overthe last decade.

3.37 The environ impact of a log export ban depends on how the market adjusts. First,assume that the domestic processing industry is capable of absorbing previous log output that wasexported. The differences are probably that the domestic industry is less cost-efficient, whichis the reason why it was not the customer in the firat place. I is now being sheltered fromcompettion which may reinforce this disadvantage. Most likely, it is less technically efficientin processing than alive buyers on the world market, which increases waste in reladon touseful output

3.38 If the proessing industry is a price taker on the world market, it will attempt to roll backthe cost of inefficiency on its supplie. Ihe distribution of cost and profits betwee supplierand processor dqnds on their respective maret strengt. To the exnt that the suppliers are

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affected by lower prices, harvestng of logs wil fail. This will have an environmental benefit,if logging is carried out under conditions Ihat are detrimenta to the envirowment.

3.39 Second, assume that the domestic industy, even in a few years' time, does not have thecapacity to absorb the log ouwut that was previously exported. In that case, the depressingimpact on logging volume is, of course, much greater, and the ensuing environmentl impactmore significant. bis would seem to apply to Sierra Leone, which has a very small andinefficient sawmilling sector with low capacity utilization (Kamau, 1988; Schmincke, 1988).

Pobliticl Elites and Publie A na

3.40 High-level political support for enmentally sound policies and projects is vayimportan A military governmet came into power in April 1992. It is headed by the NationalPrvisional Ruling Council (NPRC), chaired by Captain Valentine Strasser. Ihere are signs tlatCaptain Strasser attaches importance to environmental matters, as witnessed during the WildlifeWeek in September 1992. However, tie longer term governt commments toenvironmentally sound policies and programs are not clearly established. It is essentidal that thepoiticl spport for envronmental work be cystalized in appropriate administ e structures.An active and participatory process to develop a national environmentl action plan (NEAP) willbe inportant to mobilize broad support, as well as to define effective govement leadership andrespoibility.

3.41 Ihe public adinistration of Sierra Leone is going through hard times. Real wages havedelined considerably. A senior manager has a buying power of 8 percent of what he had in1975. The wage scales have been co nmr and do not reflect the scarcity of qualiiedpesonnel. The salary level of the lowest paid groups does not even cover the cost of commutingto wo& Not surprisingly, absenteeism is a problem, and staff are forced to seek other and moreremuneative employment. (World Bank, 1993a).

3.42 Obvioudy, such difficult conditions wil also affect important regulatory work includingenvironmental protection of state forests, agricultural extension to support soil and waterconservation and i of agriculture and public health programs. A civfl service reformis, therefore, urgently needed to raise real wages to reasonable levels, which must go hand inhand with down-saing the work force. It is critical, however, that government establishes anenvironmental institution that is adequately funded to retain qualified personnel and to be able toealuate and monitor emironenl problems.

Pubfic Expenditure

3.43 The recent civil war in Liberia, rebel incursions and influx of refugees, have forcedmilitary expendite to rise to a level of about 14 percent of 1992/93 budget. Recurrentexpendiure on education accounts for about 12 percent and on health, less ta 4 percent.Agriture receives only 2 percent, and electricity less than 1 peent (World Bank, 1993a).This patten of recurrent expenditure affects the environment in mnerus ways. Importantpriorities for the future would be to safeguard and, hopefully, increase the expendiure oneducation (particularly for girls) family planning, waste collection, water delivery, soil and water

eavation, and provision of electricity.

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3.44 Donor fimding accounts for about 90 percent of public development expenditure. Thethree year Public Investment Program gives priority to (a) provsion of basic social services and(b) rehabilitation of roads, electicity supply, water and santation, health and priy educationfacilities. Agriculture, fisheries, and rral development account for 13 pecent of expectedinvestment. While special envlonmental projects are lacking, several of these initiatives arelikely to Dave environmntlly beneicial impacts. For example, the unreiable supply ofelectricity has necessitated the use of private geors, estmated tO deliver about 60 GWh in1990191. (World Bank, 1993a). The resdting air pollution could be much reduced if replacedwith reliable power.

3.46 At the project level, it is essential and urgent that measures are taken to ensure thatappropriate Enviromentl Assessmen_s of public expenditure are undertaken. While this isformally required, capacity is laking to do the asssments.

Sectr Polcy

3.47 In developing its National Environmental Action Pln thte government needs to outlnethe impact of policies on the environment, and the impact of the absence of policies. The

aysis should include a review of economic policies, as indiated above, and a omhensiverament of sectora policies. In many areas, the government's sector development policies donot clearly demfie principal objectives nor are they sufficiently detailed to evaluate the impact onnura resource management and the environment.

3.48 How can the government assess the high heal costs and loss of productivity assocatedwith water pollution and inadequate ura sanitation? In agriculture, can land reform supportproductive investments, for example, fuelwood plantng? Does goverment policy adequadyrecognize the public benefits from mangroves? How can the governnmt ae into accoun thevalue of biodiversity and address the related issues of reforming the concmion strucure for thecommercial use of forest products? Temnre insecurity for cattle herding encourages oppotunisticlivestock strategies. The government should recognize the value to the country of providing moresupport for monitoring the use of forest land and fish resources. The system of fees in theartsanal mining do not take into account the extensive and severe land degradation of the minedareas. How can these costs be included? Looking to the long tem, the compellingenvironmenal arguments shouldbeinporated intpopulationpolicydiscussions. Theseissues,the costs and benefits of government policy, must be anayzed individualy and looked at as awhole.

Fiwfrnm a Informaton

3.49 Enviomena information has the chr isc of a public good. Hence, the privatemaret can be expected to undersupply research and diemination of this information. Thisprests a legitmate opportunity for government to support eio l research and providefor its dssemination to the public at large, as well as for its own use.

3.50 The free flow of such ifomation is essential. Ihe media need to be free to investigteand encouraged to publicize environment concerns. NGOs and competing interests shodd beencouraged to generate and debate eiromental information. In Sierra Leone, there is a smallbut vigorous press. Whlfe atention to eviron issues appears lmited, at least there is a

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forum where such discsions can take place. Existing NGOs already play an important role Intie public debat addre enonenal issues ftedy. This is extremedy importnt

Priority Areas for Furter Work

* Undertake a comprehensive review of sector pol*ies and analyze their impacton the ewnv ent

* Iit wodd be us to upd the work of Trayon land ownehip from the late1970s. Percetons of land ten may have changed since then, in partaround urban areas; and it is important to see If there is a basis for the selectivlntroduction of a prtivate land market.

* Tree tenure remas a vitually unexplored teritory and needs to be clarified.

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IV. ASSIGNING ENVIRONMENTAL ORITIES

Pa R

4.1 A of piority can be based on the following principda concep. heevronmenal significance of a prolem may be examned in tem of its impact on healt, onproducwvy, and on the quaity of th e nviromet ('amenity). Altoh we may be able toaTive at no more ta an order of magnitude, k will be importat to assign a value to eachproblem as t cmrently aears. When economic cos cannot be detemined, a qualttivejudgement has to be made.II

4.2 In te next stage, an economic assment I made of ihe potental beneft, expred asa present value (the "value today') of all future benefits of treatig the problem. Of couse, thepotential beft need tD be weighd against the cost of Interven In dory, invstmetsould be made In order t maximize the net present value. n reaIW, only rough emates canbe made, but these shodd be able to point to areas which ar the most imptant and whorefurther analysis I justified.

4.3 In the final step, we bave altempted to sign an Overall Priory (OP) In the genaltei of Low, Modeate, and High (see Box 9). priority is based on a multiplicatiof environmental significance with the net of the benefit ranking less the cost indeL hI this process,a scale of 1, 2, and 3 for Low, Mediu, and High, repectively, has bee applied as indices.The resuing oveal pority is drmid as Low (OP idex S. 0), Moderate (O < OP <3)or High (OP > 3). We have also provided ilustrative Interventions, which, of couse, need tobe a _ssed In term of Institional _ impl capacity. Thi analysi slOd help prite basis for a govenment review of the effectdven of caurt polUcies and progms and theareas for which there is a critical lack of policy. Ih government sld tes th preliminarynking against their own findig, and with additional infomation and review the ranklng may

need adjustment Such an analytical fiamework and pocylprogram rview, with addtionasupportag data, can be a sound foundation for a national i- action plan.

11 Ourep is a modified versin of a matx presented in fte Bnk report on Guinea-Bissau, 'Towards a Suegic Agenda for ,1993.

BOX 9 - lPRORITY OF SELECTE) RNVIRONMNTAL PROSLRMS

cwa PdtwProM. o. _ Or mv

Bowes hirrnd kewdo .wd_ _ _ ~~~~~~~~Bob cod

1. Wo OgAmlmdos*bt Hg ihModem" I d u"s. m . dpenwv _i i H4h Mm H Igoshoo

2. AWiser wnllAh

* ued Hl* Hg L4W HIgh CeuMMbyusam .qly IF oups3. unc_

.. H_bh Rh Maimb_ HIgh hopwp edaltommad savp Swh_mebous. mal Mudas Modeado malwo, LOW Eddlo.

Aphitam1. Land depadmha HIgh High Modeci. High I.Eoomvathomeau

____ .______ ______ _____ __________ zuMcaa.utiIl nlou

1. Detoe _sAdo mode Hg LOW Uoedan mhmlallem pr no pt dghs2. Penisdoguiso Modwas. Modkem LOW Maodue, Tee. sum,. traINI In fNOret womeugemu prepty flow.S. IhdJorgIiy go.. High Hih low High DI.esivea and urn.o. daftin with oemmuudhs, dedaswq4. Mangrow lo LOW High Lww ModeMs.Marwaaum ln a mrull

1 t. D_ul Lo L LO LAoW

*. B blu LW Lw Lew LOW c1 42. LIvd Dep n1 H1m

h Sp-Seal MOg MOg Modems High Sawnaflaosu. definepoperpydrglas ndrqueialld b s bhtadzm- dmanu Mbomern Moderi LOW Mudes. maagraum

1. Lera.suIcurmwa. LOW High Mmmi. Modme. Quos. ued onIyulled'ol WenumsitAM coeap wetv biddIn2. Astdssd LOW High Modems. mam.m Entmfo Du mobh rogutis

1. Ak bLW LW Tw Lw coe2. Wie s low Modem lw Moeedp p p c3. Lad polusn Lw Lw Low LOW _________ __

Touwi LOW LOW LOW LOW MA of aiog and planuadactlvma

- ed_ Mo_eii II.. aubjecslv.riuklag Ia a,oasrmeiias _o

F:S 1rol fP .*nkmqtdb 1_kilya l4b.ommo siaMlsaeu*u b .obee,orO-1 (C). Qm . oIb ad.ssfooi:'wprotys _guedf h2ae seuliw. an a HUlapraiyIgupdf IsIdx.eqasorgmerim thee 'Mde.proIys sugaedthmwl

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4.4 Enviroental problems currently affecting the household sector directly in te.as ofraised morbidity and mortality due to wate conaminatn, poor access to water, at leastseasoaly, and crowded and usairy living onons emerge as a major issue. Consequently,the benefits of intervention would be high. lhe costs of inevention to provide access to safewater are thought be low or moderate. In a country with relatvely abundant rainll, low-costwater storage and delivery systems should be possible to design. Inexpensive latrines wold domuch to imProve sanitary conldions, especially in urba areas. Changing habits throughpersistent education may take more resources over an extended period. Provision of clean watertakes a 'tedhical fi, but maintning the water safe for consumptin takes educaion and acomplete system for handling and storage.

4.5 Under agrcultre, land degradaion is commonly perceived to be a major problem,altho there is ittle hard evidence to frame the problem. Even if the rate of degradation isslow, the problem is likely to be pervasive, affecting a majority of the popuation directly interms of reduced yields. A current high priority in tms of damage costs carries over to a highbenefit for intervention. The major avenue to pursue here is intensification of agriculture inlowland areas, and the introduction of improved conservation practices evere. As previousdforts in this direcdon have shown, this is not easily ahieved. A concerted effort to improvethe provision of inputs such as improved seeds and fertilizer, extension servike and inftructureto facilitate marketing is needed. We expect ta these costs be moderate to high.

4.6 The significance of the forest sector lies pdmarily in its supply of energy for householdconsumption, and less direcdy, in the iDtinic value of the biodiversity of the forests.Commercial utilization of timber is negligible, and the closed forest areas are small. On average,the supply-demand balance appears healthy still, but excessive harvesting of forests is evidet asa local problem around urban centers. While still of low to modere significance in impact, weforesee these problems worsening over tme; hence, a moderate to high benefit of interveningnow is assigned. The intenational willingness to pay for the preservaion of tropical foresttimber as well as its biodiversity content is likely to rise in the future. With improved access toIntrnational funding thro the GEF, debt-for-nature swaps and otier donor supportedinvestment projects, the benefit of itervening to retain this resource base is rated as high. Thecomparativ costs are likely to be low, as instiutiona strengtening of the Forestry Department,local surveillance of en6roackment and resource shring with local commnities are the mostlikely types of interventions. With low populaon pressure around the closed forests, the needfor costly resettlement should be very limited.

4.7 The beneft of improved mgove management could range from moderate to high, asthe value of fuelwood and marine life in pardcular can be considerable. While current loss islimited, the pressure wil increase as popaio grows, and if the efforts t Intensify ricecultivation in swamps are successful. Again, the intervention is primariy in the form ofImproved management, which requies education for local capacity building. Costs would below, and related to improved etension services.

4.8 As for min the issue is primarily one of land degradation due to the physicaldisuption of the landscape. While the current eent of the problem carries over in terms ofbeneits of Intervention, the cost of intervening are different in the small versus the large scalemining sector. Only two major companies are involved in large-scale mining. Protectionmeaures can be easily monitored and focused on coiguowus areas. For arisa mining,inventions would have to be widespread, and monitorig would be cosdy and difficufl

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Nevertheless, with substally raised license fees, the governmet could pass some of the costsof surveillance and land reclamation to the users.

4.9 Ile fshery sector is insting in its contrast between curret envonmental impat andbenei of avoiding future damage. If overfishing occur, It is currently probably of a verylimited signficance. However, If the lack of survellance of industrial fshing attracts increasingnumbers of international vessels, and if an expanding (donor supported) artisanal sectoroverexploits the inshore waters, the fure damage could be substantial. The contribution offisheries to the GDP grew to amost half of that of food and cash crops in 1987/88, the latest yearfor which data is available (CSO, 1992). Hence, sigificant values are at stake. The interventoncosts are primarily for a system of licensing, surveilance and judicial process for the industrifisin, and support to communal management and rule enocement for the artisal.

4.10 The manufactufing and tourism sectors are so limited in current and foreseeable futureenkvion impacts that a generally low priority has been assigned.

Jmpun_entat Factor

4.11 In addressing each of these environmenal problems, a critical underlying consideratonis the cost of intervention, both in tems of financial costs and hluman resource and managemtcosts. Although the govenment must play a central role in dealing with these problems, veryimportat contributions should be made by the community at large, primarily through increasedawareness of envi e concerns and response to reformed policies and guidelines. In manycses, the govenmnt is already receiving substal assistance from foreign donors-forexample, in rur water development, sanatio and waste disposal in Freetown, assistance forimproved agricuture extension and iion, forest management, and technical assistamceto the minin seco4r. In many areas of coDnC, the government also already hasaCve pgams that enables it to take appropriate masu -such as, in its surveillace ofmarne fisheries and its monitoring capacity for arsanal mining. Although severely coaiedby Iimited resources, there are staff in line ministries and agencies who have responsibility foractions in the reated problem areas. Duties and responsibilities may be reassigned wihin thisexistng capacity to help address a range of environmenta and resource mnagement issues. InSierra Leone, in the private sector the NGOs will continue to play an important ad hopefullyexpanding role in working on environmeal problems, their own study and broad rangingeducatonal programs. At the local level, community groups have already been effective inextending infiormation about mattes that have a high impact on people's health. Thus, much canbe done, both by government and by the communities, through a better understanding of theproblems and by incorpotg environmental objectives into current ongoing activities.

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V. GOVERNMD RESNSO CAPACrTY AND STRATEY

A. POLICY AND LEGISLTION

Natonal Phcy

5.1 Th. governmt ha dhsussed a Nadonal E iro l Policy (ncluded in MLHE,1992), which has not yet been adopted, nor made available to very many poople. lb. policy is-to ahieve staiable development In Siera Leone through sound environ metalRts focus Is to ser a healthy envionm for the people; consv and use natual resocesfor the benefit of present as well as Ptu genes; restr main and enhance ecosysemand preseve bo-diversity; and raise awareness and promote unds of essential linkagesbetween eonvironment and development.

5.2 The Policy sets out broad saegies to achieve these objectives, as well as gos andpolicy objectives In the diflfent sectors. For example, in land use and soil consevaton, thegoal is to use avaiable land In such a way that Its quality is coserved In order to enhne Itspoteni for contiuous producvity and tO prevent soi degradon. Mme policies for prWer laInduse Inlude Impwving the tadional system of shWlting cultivation and encouraging alternativefmin systems, reolazing trditoa gaig systems to limit environmen_ta deadionthough overazing anddeveloping sustainable agro-forstry techniques. Although, as the policydocumt Iself states, the secton goals and polcies may not be exhaustive or definitve," theynverteless indica the mr areas for policy fmulation and Implmnttn

Nional Leg on

5.3 A draft enactme of a national law for n ionnl protection fomalizes theDeparunent of Lands, Housing, and Environment as the agency enusted with the mande tcoordina envi l_ acvs i the county and to implement tona poy. lheDepartment is enusted with preventon of iatona mangeent of natnra resources: forest,minerals, fisheries, wildlife, sois, and te deeioraton of hwman habitats. lhe D e isalso nusted with te task of prevent the air and on-shore and off-shore marine resfrom beig poluted. Wiin the D is an Envin_ Prtecton Section which Is degovernmet's current focal point for national and International e meactivies.

5.4 Ihe pposed lws establish a Naa E Committee and suarycom_m to fta coordinatio wihin and with outside groups on issues.The law empows the Seretary of Stae for Lands, Housing, and Enionmet to make

regulati iat apply across the board in respect to matte tat uae not speciicallyassiged to particular secornl mhnisties or departmen. The purpose of the legiation is notto promalgate detaRed ndes for sectal d m s, but to provide a framework for bascprinciples, objectives, and rebities tD be Implemented by the respective sectorald ep. In addion, the proposed law contain provisions requirg ficemes or pemits forcommencig acivities that may have any adverem impact on the enviroment and for carrying out

_ - 2Impact 8_.eens

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Sectoral IAsation and Envronmental Provions

5.5 Ihe country has a number of sectora laws relating to e ental proti Acomprehensive report has been prepared assessing the legisladon coveri Land and Surveys,Agricultore, Produce nseton, Control of Pests, Forestry, Bush Fire Prevedtion, Fisries,Miner and Miing, Ports and bland Waters, Public Hea, Water Supply, Facries,Nuisances, Wild Animals, Birds and Fish Presevaon, and Wildlife Consevaton. It appearsthat much of the legislation is merdy empowesing and does not cona speific provisions anddetailed citeria for te preservation and/or susaile harvestng of particular natural resources.Furthermore, some penal proviions in the legislation drafted several decades ago may not bete seiousy today by poteni offendens or violators. The enactmes peaning to iestryand fisheries have recently been amended to reflect the need for conservation. These twoenactre _b contain srict penalties for contravention of specific provisions relat to theconservatio of natural resources. Following are some specific comments on some of theleslatn reviewed, indicating the nature of amendments and revisions now required.

0 The New Forestry Adt of June 1988 contains Special Prtection Provisiosunder which the Minister is empowered to dedare any area to be a protectedarea for purpose of conseration of sofl, water, flora or fauna.' It empowers theSecetary of State to declare any type of tree as being protected. The legiatonstipulates tbat no person may cut, burn, uproot or destroy trees that ae inproed areas or trees that have been declared as being prowcted. There is,however, a caveat that the Chief Conservator may grant a license to any personauthorizing the feSling of trees in such protected areas. It is unclear under whatcircumstancs the Chief Conservator should grant such auhorization. Thesection of the law also s tbat any forest officer ds by the ChiefCnservator may issue a license authorizing the holder to fell and etrc aprotected tree. Such caveats allow room for much abuse and defeat the objectiveof the law setting up protected areas. The Act does provide for competitivebiding on concessions of significant size, altough it is undear what size.

* Under the Wildife Co vdion Act, the Secretary of State of Agricultre,Nat Resources and Forestry can declare an area as Strict Natural Reserve,National Park or Game Park. In such areas the activities specified in the Act,such as bunting, felling and burnng of trees, building and trespassing areprohibited 'unless duly authorized.' No indication is given, however, of thecircumstances wiftin which and the conditions under which such authorizationwould be granted. Furthermore, under the Act the Chief Conservator of forests,or any person acting on h instructions, may perform wthin a national park,strict natural reserve, or game reserve any of the acts that are prohibited underthe Act. Tls latter provision would seem unneceary and contradictory to theobjective of the legislation.

* The Mies and Miners Act demonsrtes a significant awareness that miningactivities adversely affect the environment and recognizes the need for mitigatingcions to redress degradation caused by mining. Provisions in the Act,

however, ane very broad. Detailed, comprehensive regul need to beformulated In areas such as land rehb.ilitation; emissions and pollutants; andwater, air and sofl quality. In individual operafng eemen wih major

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companies, tihe goveramt has negotiad the Ilusion of provisions reiingenvironmetal impact asssmet and compensation pwvisios. Such masuresshould be incorporaed more genealy into te Act with the responsibilt onrespective govenment authorities to ensure appropiat implen of themeasures.

B. INSTtATMONAL WEWORI AND IMPLEMENTATION

5.6 A policy and legislative famework is essential for efective namanagement.Legslation and policies, however, are ineffective in the absence of a sound fnaework to implement government policies. Administrative capacity to analyze and Implementpolicies needs to be developed at the same pace as the formulaon of enviromntal policy. Astuong constituncy is ctic to advocae enviro magement, as well as to close the gapbetween making and implementing environmenal policy. Governmen need the capacWt, notonily to articulate car policy and to set priorit, but also to coorinat and resolve conflic,regult and enforce. Nongovernment constituencies can and shodd play a cical role in ftiprocss, in both pro development and imple a

5.7 In Sierra Leone, iutiona refrm were carded out in 1985, to empower te (then)Minir of Lands. Housing and Country PlaIng to carry out en m ressibilities.Ihe Mnistry was thereafter rnamed the Minstry of Lands, Housing and tbe n(MLUE). According to the law settig up the Ministy, MULE was to be cogniat of theresponsibilities of line nistres and agencies already crying out functions related to theprotection of the enviomnent, (such as in the areas of forestry, agr;icture, fishe sb And watsupply), in carrying out its eomntal responsbitie. The Houing and EnviomnentDhiision of MEHE was to coordinate environmental 'mnageime in te country. In order to caryout its fuions, MLHE bad estaied an Enionmental Prtection Section, which wasmandated to: (i) establish and coordinae working groups to sudy specific en oproblems; f e eniron legisaon; i promote eno education; (W)monitor, control and enforce ol legislation; and (v) implement natonal ni

polcy. In order to ensure among sectora agencies, a Natal E onmenlCommittee was established comprising re atives from almost all sectora mistreincludn agriculr, ene and power, mines, owuism, healt, socia services, rnatolaffs, reiga affais as well as housnig and e o In addidon, a TeicalEnvironmenal Committee was established to assess specific eir Issues, in particarthe occece of toxic materias on land or in marne locaos. According to the rqporprepared for the United Nations Conference on Envronmt and Development (UNCED), theinst n are not effective for numerous reasons, including low staff morale and lack offinanig ad logical suppon.

Options for Instituona Development

5.8 Setting up institutions is often afft by political commitment, localconditions, and human and financial resources. Different countries have adopted diffeetmeasu to Inorporae environental intions within the overall decision-making process.Exprience afom countrs awound the world indicates that the folowing guidelines are essenti(see BOX 10).

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5.9 Several opons t largely meet ese basic crteria are cumntly under consideation inSierra Leone: one option would be to establish an Agency In the office of the Vice Presidentthatwodd answer to a Council, along the lines of a Board of Director. The Council would be keptto a manageable size of not more than 15 people, including several key Searies of State, anddisngished citize outside governent, who would represent the NGOs and academia, andreflectregional repreeton. TheCounecwouldgivetheAgecypolitical andpubliccredibilityand support A second option is to creae a separte Departn of the Environmet similar toa measure recenty taken to establish a Deprmen of Fisheries; fisheries was previously in theDepartment of Agriculture. These institutional dcmges will take time and must be reviewed bygoverment in the context of current resource constaints. Thus, a third option has beendiscussed whxib would be a transition measure. hi would be to strengthen over the next yearthe curet unit wthin the D of Lands, Housing, and Enironment with a coreprofessional staff which could over tme build up to about 8 people with strong leadehip hatwould be capable and authorized to ine and monitor activities in the major developmentsectors and undertak economic analysis. Within the next two years, the group could becomean agency or a separte deatment.

S.10 In each of these cases, the core group centraly responsible for enviro and naturalresource mangement would be relatively small, with the eventual goal of being staffed withofficers who have expise in the technale aspects of both 'green and UbroweS techmicalproblems, as well as e Ironmel economics. In paralel, it will be equally important todevelop coumnteqwt capacit in the line dq n to inreingly incorpore in thedepartments' policy and programs measures that will support sustaable development Thiscould be done initialy by Wpointing a curreat staff member to be responsible for enionmentalmatters reating to his or her Deatment. To provide speciaized support to the cental core unit,a group of technil exps would be identified, who could be called on, as needed, to help withspecific matters. Ti group could be drawn from the people that are currendy preaing theNEAP.

E*ovknmental Assmn

S.11 A critdcal implemeniontool isthe Asse t ) (see Amu 2). EAsensure tha proposed development projects tae Into acunt eviromn consequeces in theearly stages of project devdopment, providig an opport to make changes that would takeinto account the importance of sutined developmnt The identficaton of negativeenvironmenl impacts during early stages of project development enables the modification ofproject design and the preparation of mitigation measures, where adverse impacts areunavoidable. EAs also assist in avoiding costs and delays in implemention due to unanicipatedenionmentl problems. Initially, the governm can insure that asessmens are required oflnteratka donor programs. Once the goverment has strngwhened its instiutional capacityto spervise and evaluate eomnental _ , the process should be extended to coverpolicies and programs as a routine component of policy formulaton.

S.12 Relatively simple envromenalprocedures may be used inay to 'screenWprojects ad policies to detemine whether more detailed analysis i reqired. The sreeUningprocedure is an Important first sep to flag issues. Eady scenn will pwvide valuableinformation hat will assist policy makers hi deterining whether targeted policies or projectsneed to be introdued to mWtge ngative impacts. Th process of screeng provides animport link between the government depatment responsible for sound resource management

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and the line departments that traditonally emphasize growth objectves. Subsequently, afterpot a issues have been identified, privat consultants may be used to undertaWkdetailed analysis. Encouraging private coonsultants and groups to partcipate In and to carry outEAs will not only provide ImWortant addional rources but will also engage a larger numberof people, broadening constIency support and und e of enmental issues.

Leca Partdpatlon and Educai

5.13 To be effective, environmental maUement mist have local paricipaton. Therore,mechaniss need to be d to enable participation of NGOs, members of academia and othergroups In the formulaton of enIroental policy, as well as in tho monitoring andImplementat of the policies. In one of the Intiutonal optons dicussed above, localpartipation would be accomplished tirough the estabLshment of an advisory counil. In SierLeone, there are a number of NGOs that are makling impotant conibutn in the envronmentfield: for example, the conservation society (CSSL) promotes the sound mnagemet of thecountry's natura resources; the Commonwealth Human Ecology Council (CHECSIL) promotesecology through education; and the Orgabon for Research and Extension of aTechnology (OREINl) promotes sustaible development hrough techlogy to help people inrural areas.

5..14 The bibliography of this report is tesmony to the very usefiu work being done by theNGOs. These resources are valuable and must be actively sought and used by the government.In other counties local cmmunities, NGOs, and coslants have been given reonsibiliy for

iementing and monitoring e programs. Ihe private sector can play an mportantrole in carrying out enfcment n tfe United States, for example, this pprach is fo izedtrough the legal system. Prvate ciiW can seek injunctim against companies that violate

ental regulations. In India, communities have been very effectve in moniodrg thimplementation of projects and ensuring that e on concerns are effectively addressed.

S.15 Prvate sectr groups can also play an important role in en nm education InSierra Leone, they have aid the goveret in incorporating theemes in schoolcurriculums. Equaly important is the work that is being done to develop iormal educationprgms, such as hrough worhbops and nature clubs. In the loger tem, educat aboutsoud resoue management and environmental issues wil make the most importat silecontr on to sustainable development.

Ehiam_ Informaon System

5.16 Sierra Leone's eviroental infmation database is poor and widely dispersed amongmany sectoral agnes and is not easily accessible (see Annex. 3). A mmber of insti nlconsiderations influence the development and use of the database. First, institutions are reluctantto share data that they may consider to be sensitve. Second, bureaucrats do not liMe the prospectof parting with data which they consider the source of their Influence. Tbird, seeminglycompable data geneaed by one agency may not be acceptable to otes as a result ofdHiferences in data formats, classification, precion, reporting schedules, or the ulmae purposethe data is designed to serve. Sectoral agecies are better suited ta central agencies to collectand manage resource and environment Information on a sustinable basis. Success depends onthe effective coordination and the f exche of infrmnation.

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S.17 Two main approaches could be followed in establhing eironmeta infoationsystem. The first is an iormation center: craion of a single Isitution that performs alliormaton activities. Supporters of this appoh have argued that the establisment of cenensures coordination and provides a good environment for application of new thologiesassociatdwith informaio generation and management The second approach, whch recognizesthe comparable advantage of sectors agencies in data collec, is to develop a netwokinvolving aU agencies in the collecim of ormation and to create incentives for free exchangeand open access to the information. Successfl networks can promote the use of Infration indecision-aing.

S.18 In developing national eol ina n systems, instituional and legal issuesare even more importat dan teic issues. Epience has shown t succeimplementation of envo ifmation systems depends on Institonal capacity. Anotefactor for success is to establish a system that can be sustained. Allocations frm the nationalbudget are rarely sufficiaent to maintain the opetion, to maintain the equipn, to offercompetiive compensation to staff, and to develop human resources. Furtherore, poormanagement procedures and practices often lead to inefficient use of the resources available.Agenies collecting enviroeal iormation, therefre, should be managed in such a way thatthey recover at least a sigificant portion of their costs. Ihe problem is how to value the priceOf eviroment ifmation in order to operate these institutions cost-effectively. Ihe ulmatebeneficiaries of iv enviromental information are the public at large and the envionmentand developme projects, and the cost should in part be shared by dtese bnficaries.

Impleettion Capacity

5.19 Legsaton and policy is wit meang if there is no imple ion capacity. hecountry's goals and objectives need to be consistent with the capacity and mas of the public andpivate sectors to carry them out, otherwise they run the risk of not being taken seiously andthus of appearing irrelevant. At every turn I y related r wll needto be tailored to implemenon progrms. In many areas, if the madret signals are right, theprivate sector may be enaged to develop services-for example, to prvide water andsanitation services and grow trees for fuelwood. NGOs and commnies need to be eto take owneship of programs to ensure ssinability and success. They not only can helpassess ad monitor problems, but importantly they can also help educatt.

5.20 it will be important to ensure that in the govenme deparments there is both thecapacity and the wil to implement For example, the forestry deparent currely lacks enoughstaff, vehicles and other equipment to fectvey manage the forest estate. It does not have anetension service that could influence the use of non-stat forests. Almost the entire budget goesto direct personnel costs. In spite of this, salaies have not kept pace wfith inflation, and mostemployees have other employment in order to make ends meet. These nuts and boltshmp l n issues can not be overlooked.

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SELETED BIIOGRAPEY

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Amaa, D.S. 1992. "Constt Repon on visit to the Susale gricute a nd VillageExension (SAVE) Project Area Njal University Coleg.

Amara, DS., et al. 1991. 'Report on On-station Alley Farming Research in Siea Leo . Effectof Prunings from Legumino Trees and NPK Fertilizer on the Yield of Rice, Cowpeaand Csava in an Alley Farming System'. Instute of Agricutural Resech and MAFF.

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A eson, D. and Grove, R. (eds). 'Consevation in Africa, Cambridge University Press.

Arkadie, Brian van and Samura Kamara. 1992. Artisanal Diamond and Gold Producdon andTrade in Sierra Leone. Draft, 8 July.

Akins, W.S. Intnationl. 1988. 'Priorities for a Rural Development Progmme Pae kA,essme_t of Policy and Instittional Environment'. Commission of the EuropeanCommunities.

Ausden, Malcolm, and Peter Wood. 1990. 'MTe Wfldlife of the Western Area Forest, SierraLeone'. Prepard for Forey Divisionof GOSL, Conservation Society of Sierra Leone,International Council for Bird Preservatio, and Royal Society for the roecton ofBirds.

Bah, OsnIaU. 1988. -Women and Water Supply Development in Sierra Leone. Journa of RuralDevelopm&t, Vol.11, pp. 97-109.

Bojo, IaL 1991. The Ecoomis of Land Degrdadon-Theory and Application to Lesotho.Stckholm School of Economics.

Bomah, AX. 1988. 'Rain Consdin and Erosivity in the Nala Area of Sierra Leone'.Joumal Of Envir _a Maagement, VO.26, pp.1-7.

-. 1990. nmdigenous Faming Practices and Land Deasdaon in Sierra Leone'. A projectproposal submitted to the Socil Sciece Resarch Counc. New Yorl.

.1991. usgenw Farming Practices and Land Deadation in Sierra Leone'. A projectproposal submitted to the Social Science Research Council. New York.

Bomah, A.K. and S. Sama. 1990. 'Defoestation and Soil Degadation in Sierra Leone: IheRole of Forest Removad and Uplad Erosion In a Rural Cachmnt under Multiple Uses .International Journl of Ecology and Environwen Sciences, Vol. 16.

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Camponera, Dante A. 1988. 'Report to the Government of Sierra Leonm on EnviromentProion, Policy Admin-tio and Legislation'. Prared for UNEP Re Officefor Africa Regional Advisory Services. 30 January. Nairobi. Mimoo.

Chong, W.P. 1989. Community Participatory Foresty For Fuciwood Production n te WesteArea, Sierra L"one: Mangove Maagement Planing and Impl on Prpared forMANRF and FAO. FO:DP/SILI88Ii08. Freetwn.

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1980. 'The Gola Forest in Sierra Leone: A Remnant Primary Tropical Rain-foret inNeed of Conservation'. Evironmental Conservon, Vol. 7, No. 1.

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Contdh, Augustimo, S. 1990. 'Land and Vegetation Degration in the Babadori CatmentArea'. B.Sc. dissetation, Departmen of Geography, Fourah Bay College.

Coordinar's Annual Report, 1993. Gola Rain Forest Conservation Programme. March.

Country Brief, 1991. Sierra Leone, World Bank

Dahnliya, M.T. 1981. 'Cassava Production in Sierra Leone: Problems and Prosects". SierraLeone Agric. JournD, No. 6.

1982. 'Strategies for the Improvement of Sweet Potatoes in Sierra Leone'. Paepresentedto the 1lth Annual Conference of the Agricultural Society of Sierra Leonw.

_ 19??. "From Advanced Cassava Lines to Farmers' Fields in Sierra Leone'. CassavaBreedg - a Mulddisciplnary Review.

. 19??. 'Evaluation of Cassava for Leaf and Root Production In Sierra Leone'.

Dahniya, M.T. et al. 1991. 'Maize Grain Yield Evaluation on Farmers' Fields in Sierra Leone'.IITA wodcshop paper.

1992. 'Cassava, Maize and Cowpea on-farm Trias in Sierra Lone. ITA workshoppaper.

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Dahniya, M.T. and S.M. Funah. 1992. ncreasing Maize Ptoduction in Sierra Leone.Unpublished conference paper.

Davies, A.G. and Pal Richards. 1991. 'Rain Forest in Mende Life - Resources and SuitnceStraties in Rural Communites around the Gola North Forest Reserve (Siea Leone)3.Report to ESCOR, ODA.

End of Decade Review. 1990. The Intrnational Driking Water Supply and S ton Deade.

Enlishb ohln. 1993. "Does Popuation Growth neiably Lead to Land Degradation?" WorldBanL Unpublished paper.

Environmental and Scientific Consulting Group. 1988. "Ihe Study on Watershed Degradation inSierra Leone'. Final RTeport, National Aid Coordinating Secreriat, Freetown.

FAO. 1991. National Seminar for Fishery Industries Development, Freetown.

. 1991. Joint Inter-Agency Fortry Sector Review Mission: Sierra Leone. TeminalStatement. FO:DP/SIL/87/010. Rome.

-, 1992. *Livestock Sector Review, Sierra Leone: Livestock Strategies and Action Plans".Mission Report TCPISILJ9153(F). July.

19?? "Inter-Agency Forestry Sector Review: Mission Report".

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. 1992a. The 1992193 Budget S _teent delivered by Dr. James S.A. Fuma, Mister ofFinance, Developmen and Economic Paning. Freeow Mino.

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Supply (Eastern Region)-and SII/851002-Strengtheningof the Rural Water Supply UnitIn the Water Division, Ministry of Energy and Power".

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Mensah, Thomas A. 1991. "National Legation for Enviro Protection". Report to theGovenment of Sierra Leone. Mimeograhed.

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Milington, Andrew. 1987. 'Envfronental Degradaton, Soil Conevation and AgriculturalPolicies in Sierra Leone, 1895-1984. Capter 11, pp. 249-248.

MAFF. 1991. National Livestock Policy and Progamme Workshop-Procedin. Sponoredby FAO. Freetown. 10-13 December.

MAFFAFAO. 1992. Agricultural Sector Review/Programming Mission, Siera Le MisdonReport Vol. 1: Finding and Recommendaons and Vol. 2: Tecnical Annexes.AG:TCP/SLW0154. August. Rome.

MANRF, UNDP, and PAO. 1991. National Agiculture Policy Worksop. Vol. k WorksopProceedings. 15-17 July. Freetown.

Ministry of Health. 1989. Prmary Health Care Baseline Survey, Westrn Area. PLag,Magement Infmation and Staiics Unit. Freetown.

Ministry of Health. 1990. The Sierra Leone National Nutrition Surv. Final Report andAtachment. Plning, Management Information and Stascs Unit and UNICEF.Freetown.

MLARR. 1991. 'Me First A al Report of Farm Management Data for Commua Area FarmUnits, 1988/89 Faming Season'. Harare, Zimbabwe.

MLHE. 1992. National Report of Siera Leone for the Unied Natiom Conferen onEnvironmet and Development. Freetown. March.

Mmava, E.M. 1992. "Assiste for Forestry Planning: Siera Leone Forest Mage.Prepared for MAFF, FAO, and UNDP. FO.DP/SIL/891010 Field Doc. 2. June. Rome.

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National Populton Secetaiat. 1992. Populaton Plan of Acdon for the Impl on of theNational Popuation Policy. Prepared with s;port from UNFPA/ILO.

Ndomahina, E.T., and D.E.B. Cbaytor. 1991. 'The Sttus of the Stoc of Small Peagic andDemed Species in Sierra Leone Waters'. Paper presented at National Seminar onFishery Industries Developmet, 25-29 November. Freeown.

Oranition for Reseach and Extension of Iemediat Technologies (OREINf). Decpo

Orient-Eat Enteprises. 199?. he Assessment of NGO's in Siera Leone. ProgressRpor Vol1. Prepared for Depat of Finance, Development and Economic Planning. Freewn.

Phuhipson, J. 1978. 'Wildlife Consevation and Management in Sierra Leone'. Pre d forMinistry of Agriculbre and Natural Resources. Fianced by British Council. Oxford.

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Pottwer, R.V., L. Danso and P.D. Palmer. 1990. Counay Paripatory Forestry for FucwoodProduction in the Western Area, Sierra Leo, Report of an Evaluation Mission.Prepared for UNDESD, UNDP, FAO and GOSL. October.

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_59_ ANNEX I

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BIOLOGICAL DIVERSTY IN SIERRA LEONE:APPROACHES TO PRESERVE THE COUNTRY'S NATURAL RAGE

1. The purpose of this amnex is to define biological diversity and show its Imporn to theenviomeal well-being of Sierra Le Consrvation of biological diversy has gainedinternational atention as an esseial component of sustainable development, defined In the 1987Brmdtand Commission report as development which meets the needs of the prest geneatonwithout compromising the needs of fture genetions. This uan reviews the extent of specsand ecosystem diversity in Sierra Leone and analyzes the efficacy of the country's protected areassystem in conserving it. Using a number of criteria to evaluae areas in need of protection,including ecological sensitivity, degree of threat, and biological richs, we recommend somehigh priority areas warranting greater conservation atenton. The limitations and constrain toincreased protection are discussed, as wel as the tradeoffs, costs, and benefits to conservationof biological diversity in Sierra Leone.

A. THE IMPORTANCE OF BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY

2. The broad term 'biological diversity' refes to the array of plants, anmds, andmicr nisms which exist in na associtons within the physicl eviont. Mmhspectm of biological diversity represents an mmeasuble weiath of natural resources andheage which should be preserved and manged to retain present and future values and services.Maitenance of biological diversity is essentil for the ecological stability nd ecosymresilience of a country. In intact and funcdonra ecosystems, biological diversity conibutes toecological services which are essential for human survial: water catchment, phouoynthesis andbiomass production, climate reglation, soil production and prtcon, and nutrient retentio.It is very difficut to measure the contiution of biological diversity to these services and toquantfy its indirect and non-consumptve values. These immeasrble values must be factoredinto the cost-befit equation when the traeoffs between conservation or conversion of natualareas are being analyzed.

3. It is easier to assess the economic value of biological diversity when it is used direclyby human beings, yet even these values do not represent the complete worth of natural diversity.The variety of living plants and animals can be tapped to produce goods for direct consumptionor for income generation: meats, oils, fruits, vegetables, honey, furs, leather, wood for buildingor fuel, fodder, dyes and medicines. These renewable natural resources can provide a steadyflow of income if they are harvested sustanably. The-co of conseing natura areas and notconverting them to agriculturi use can be ofiiet by the rers from controlled resourceextraction, which also maintains the benefits of continued ecosystem productivity and ecologicalhealth.

4. Another potental source of income which can be erived from the conrvaton of natuiralareas and biological diversity is nature tourism, or ecotourism. Ecotourists pay entrance fees tovisit protected natural areas where they can study, photograph, and experience ecosystems withparticular plants and animals, unique geological formations, or cultural, anthwopologic, orarcheological features. ITe total revenue to the country from nature tourism is multiplied whentourists pay for an array of goods and services in the process of visitg natural areas, including.in-countrytravel fees, hotels, food, and raft. In 1988 alone, developing cotries earned a tot

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of US $S billion from tourism, of which an esimated $2 to $12 billion was for ecourism(Lindberg 1991). The growing industy of natre tourism offers great economic potential, yetit requires the developmen of adequate infrastructure to make natural areas accessible to visis,and an effective protected area system to preserve areas and species for observation.

5. Substantial economic retuns and global benefits have been derived from genetic materisand chemical compounds from wild plant and imal species. Biological diversity has contributedto improvement of the agricultural, timber, and medical idusties. Genetic diversity fromnatura vegetation has been used to improve agricultura productivity around the world. Fortyto 60 percent of improved crop yields are the result of breeding efforts using natural geneticdiversity. Undiscovered or unexploited food sources have the potential to increase theintnational food supply; there are esdmated to be 75,000 edible plant crops, but thoghouthuman history only 3,000 have been eaten as food. Similarly, only a limited nmber of plantspecies have been screened for their medicinal value. As of 1988, 90 plants were the source of119 plantw-derived drugs. It is estimated that the potentia worth of undiscovered plans withmedicinal value amouns to US 15 billion dollars. These values witl never be recognized,though, if species are lost before they are ever found.

B. TIREFATh TO BIOLOGICAL DIVERSIY

6. The greatest threat to biological diversity is habitat loss and f eon due to humaninfluences. In Sierra Leone, biological diversity has been greatly reduced by the conversion ofnatura areas to agricultura lands. Two hundred years ago, an estmated two-thirds of SierraLeone was covered by mature dosed canopy forest-a richly diverse biological habitat. Today,only 5 to 10 percent of these forests remain, most of which are in government-controlled forestreserves or in areas that are inaccessible for logging or agricultural use (IUCN, 1993). Thecontinuing reduction of biologically-rich natural areas, combined with the lack of legalydesignated and enforced protected areas, threatens the ecological stability and resiliency of SierraLeone's land and natural resouce base. ITe loss of biodiversity also undermines the countrysnaturab heritage, as biological diversity contrbutes to socia, cultural, and religious traditions.Development goals must be tied to conservation of biological diversity and ecowstem fiunctionin,raising the human stadard of living wih a long-term perspecdve requires protecting theecological stability and fill species composition of the natural landscape.

C. THE ROLE OF PROTECTED AREAS IN CONSERVATION OF BIOLOGICALDIVERSITY

7. Conservation of biological diversity depends on the maintenance of ecosystems, ecologicalprocesses, natrl habitats, and viable populations of species. To preserve biological options forthe benefit of current and fiuture geneations, it is necessary to establish a system of proectedareas where specia measures are taken to conserve biological divesity. Protcted areas shoddbe designated on the basis of their biological richness, ecological sensitivity, degree of threat,management feasibility, and represenativeness or uniqueness of the habitat type (McNeely et al.,1990). The presence of endangered or threatened species, rare or endemic species, or keystonespecies are also critea for selection and prioritization of protected areas (see Table 1.1).

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Tal 1.1 ANALYIlCIAL FRAMEWORK: CRrUtIA FOR RIORTZNGNATtI)AL AREAS FOR CONSERVATION OF BIOLOGICAL DJVERSITY

L Ai. Cs_ificatios of bimeSoorjm pcB. Am of sito pwposed fbr potctonC. Origina distibutin or eatd of tki bio/cosystem tpe ama one ovd)D. Prrceatage of ths biom osyem ty remainIng in tdo county (or regi, or wrdeIL P_eenta of this biome/ooo m tp in pecd areias the ecouty (or rego, or worl)F. P _rctg of tis bome/cossem tpe in manndor enforced prt d areas

IL Spece RknessA. Plant

1. Total number of speciszaze2. To m r of endemic speci/a

B. Mammal1. Totd number of specis/area2. Total mber of enda speciesarea

C. Birds1. Toal number of specie/ama2. Total number of endemic spec /am

IIL ^ dogia Snstvity d the SiteA. Presne of areas which prot s l from em3. Prsce of aes with fAs or Inet; sil bet sued for suppotig aurl vegwtaiC. Prsnc of areas which provide waot catebme andfiD. Preen of area which am ne ar to pepetu phat or animd sei with ged or

medcinsl valuI. Pesene of araswhich provide habiat to ttened or eaongrd spc

IV. DWegee TlbreatA. Number of species threatened with cxttionB. Number of speces _tated with local tirpadonC. Number of endemic p _e thaed wih etncinD. Typ intesy, feqecy of thm (antrpogeno, natmlB. Human poplation deny and population goath in te ea

V. Soil and Cua ImpoanA. Psenoe of ind owus peple with trdoal rsur managane pracD. Peece of indigmus reserve reft oulal diversity and inodircy pro°tt bhiolc

diemiyC. Use of plAs or anas with medicinal value In o D. Prsence of naturalra wih reSigous, spirul, or uural value (eg., aed bush, bur

grounds)

VI. Maamet FesMhtA. Accesby of sie; inraue in country to failitate, managemeC. Potenals for esablishing rsrch faes to monitor th st

Daa tends to be mon comlet for pbn, mammals and bir

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8. Protetd eas are designated with diffent nms to reflect the padcula managemetobjectives of the site. Itese names vary from country to country, and consn can aise whena name has different meag in different places. To amdiorate the problem, the IntenatonaUnion for the Conservation of Natre (IUCN) has defin eight di categories ofprotcted areas which allow for varying deres of huma use. In order of increasing intentof human use, these categories are: () scientific reserve/strict natue reserve, (II) national park,Ml natural mo/ nertlnatural landmark, (IV) managed nature serve/wildlife scua, (V)protected landscae, (VI) resource reserve, (VII) natual biotic area/ogical reserve, and(V mutipde-use maent area/managed resoue area (IUCN, 1990 in WCMC, 1993).Category I protected areas are designated to preserve naurl areas and permit the least amountof human use. Categories I through VIII allow for increasing a ogenic influence, withcategories VI though VlIl generally permitting controlled resource extraction and utilization.

D. STATUS OF SIERRA LEONE'S ROECED AREAS SYSTM

9. Siera Leone's network of protected areas consists of the fores reserve system, which3s comprised of 34 forest reserves ranging from IIJCN categories VI through Vm, and sixadditional areas ta have been accorded a greater measure of protecuio one national park(IUCN category MV), one game reserve (IUCN cate IV), and fu nounting forest reserves(IUCN ategory VI) (WCMC 1993) (se map entitled, Vegetation/Land Use Zones andEcologically Sensive Ares In Sierra Leone). The tminology for describing protected areasin Sierra Leone does not corspond exacty with IUCN categoies; management objectves varybetwee the two dlassification schemes. Furthermore, faue to enforce theobjectives of protected areas in Sierra Leone ofte undermines their status as conservaton ars.Human red uces even legally declred protcted arem to paper pars," prctedareas lacking effective Impl n n and maemeant

L. Forest Resene Systm

10. The foest reserve system, established in 1910, is the motinstibtuonalized form of landmanagement and protection in Sierra Leone. Forest reserves cover 3.9 percent of Sierra" eone'sland area, a tota of 294,700 hectares, and incbude nearly all of the couny's remaining mature

closed canopy forest. The 1988 Forestry Act classifled three types of forest reseves: nationalproduction forests, for production of forest resources; national protection fbrests, for protectionof soil, water, flora and fa; and community forests, for the supply of forest products and/orprotcdon of forest ecosystens and resources on the community level. The ftree kinds of forestreserves range in IUCN dasfication from "managed nture resavelwldHlfe sanctuary* (IUCNcategory IV), to 'resource reseve' (lUCN category VI), to "MUle wUS managemt ara(RUCN category VI). Very few of he forest reserves have mmagement plans, however, andonly 27% have been invenoried. Management and protecion of frs reseres are indequate,and all are subject to agricutu encroachment and il2egal hunting (IUCN, 1991).

2. Other Protected Ares

11. Sierra Lone's 1972 Wildlife Consertion Act set a legad frework for the protctonof wildlif and creaton of proteted arems in h coutry, pviding definitions and mnagobjectives for stdct nate reserves, onatiol parks, game reseves, game santuaies, conftolledhuing areas, and non-hunting forest reserves. While these designatis are similar names

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with IUCN categores, tey itanslate into diffeet IUCN categories of management. To date,Sierra Leone has only designated Ssi national protected areas beyond the forest reserve sysmThe first two are: (1) Outamba-Kilimi National Park (tota area of 80,813 ha, nofied in 1986but not officially gazeted) and (2) Tiwai Island Game Reserve (1,200 ha), both of which areclassified as IUCN category IV 'managed nature reserve/wildlife sanctuary. The rem arefour non-huntng forest reserves classified as IUCN Category VI *resource reserve" wherehunting or caping any animal requires a permit from the Chief Conservatorof Foret: (3)Kangari Hills (8,573 ha); (4) Loma Mountains (33,201 ha); (5) Sankan Biriwa (part of TingiHills) (11,885 ha); and (6) Westem Area (17688 ha).

12. Ihe protected arem of Sierra Leone face the same problems as the country's forestreserves: a lack of management capacity and threat from agricultural and huntpressures. Ihe Wildlife Branch of the Mnistry of Agriculture, Na Resources, and Forestshas little funding and no vehicles to manage and enforce protectd areas (Burgess, 1992).Furthermore, the few protected areas tat do exist fail to represent the fill range of habitat typesir Sierra Leone. They will not suffice to conserve the country's array of biologica diversity.

13. For effecdve conservation in Sierra Leone, proteced area magement must bestrengthned and a greater number of high pririty naturl areas wus be legally designated withprotected area status. Eighteen ecologicly-sensitive arm which are currently unprotected hmbeen proposed for protected area status; this would add five game reserves, two game sactaries,six strict nature reserves, and four national parks to the country's protected area system (WCMC,1993). In addition, a number of the forest reserves have been recommeed for more singentlevels of protection (See map entided, Vegetation/Land Use Zones and Ecologiay SensitiveAreas in Sierra Leone).

14. While many natra areas in Sierra Leone merit increased conseraion aention, a lackof resources, institutional support, and poltica wiU have prevented proposals fom becomigrealities. Overcoming the obstcles to conservation initiatives requires acceptg tat acivingconservation objectives will at times requwire a tradeoff between various short and long-termbeneft and goals. The tradeoff need not be absolute; in many cases conservation can pay foritself, tbrough the quandfiable economic ret from controlled resource extraction or theunquafiable reun of maintainin essential ecoystem services and fmnctions.

15. Arguments for coevation are weakened by the failure of traditional econometicmethods to measure fully the values of biologic diversity. A more complete accounting of thevalues of biological diversiy is needed to support the establishment of an effective network ofprotected areas. Protected areas systms also require the commitment of federal support, thedevelopment of broad-based public support, local participation in decisio-making andmanagement, revenue sharing to offs the cost of conrvaton, and compatible development inarm adjacent to protced areas.

E. THE THREE LEVELS OF BIOLOGICAL DIVERSiTY

16. Since protected areas are usually established to preserve a particular habita type orspecies of great conservation concern, they contribute to the conservaton of biological diveriton the three levels at which diversity is mesured: genedc, species, and cosystem. Geneticdiversit is the finest measure of diversity, reflecting the herale encoded variation within a

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species Which determin its ability to reproduce successfully, adap to environmental change, andresst the onslaughts of disease and disturbance. Spedes diveity is the nmiber oftaxonomcally defined living organism found in a designated geographic area; this is the measuremost often referred to when biological diversit is discussed. Eaysta diverty is the varietyof habitats, successional stages, and ecological systems which provide particular ecological orenvironmenta services to society. When efforts to conserve a particlar species result in theprotection of an entire ecosystem and Its full array of biological diversity, that species is calledan umbrella species, since many species are protected under its auspices. While conservation wDIultimaty only succeed at an ecosystem level, it is i=nf ve to have a broad sense of thespecies diversity in a given, area, as well as pardcular species of conservation concern that mayserve as umbrella species to protect the entire ecosystem with its greater diversit of life.

F. BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY IN SIERRA LEONE FROM A SPECIES-LEVELkHERSPECTV

1. Overview

17. Doean of Sierra Leone's biological diversity is incomplete and limited to theaeam which have received greatest study. Available information is biased towards bird andmmmal species, which have been most extensively identified. While more basic research andcomprehensive data collection is needed to inventory the ful range of biological diversity inSierra Leone, the following discussion gives a broad sense of recorded species diversity in thecountry, including endemics and other species of conservation concern.

18. Plants-In the Gola Forests alone, more than 2,000 plant species have been identified(Bnya, 1993). Country-wide, there are at least 74 endemic plant species and one endemic plantgenus (Stuart and Adams, 1990). BIrds and Mammals-The World Conservaion MonhoringCenter (1992) reported that Sierra Leone has 761 species of mammals and birds. Of the 614identified bird species, six forest terior birds are theatened with exnction (IUCN, 1992).Sierra Leone supports a great diversity of antelope species fr a country of its small size (Teleldet al., nd). Of the 20 antelope species which were once found in the country, 18 are dteateedand two have become extinct. Although the West African lowland moist tropica forest wne hasrdativdy less biological diversity than some other regions, its primate diversity is one of thegreatest on earth; the ountry provides habitat for 15 of the 50 species found in the region (Oates,1990). Ihe country is also home to the leopard, nine fruit bat species (icluding one endemic,F&== , and the threatened forest elephat Other mammals remaining in limitedareas of the country include the warthog, the giant forest hog, the vunerable red river hog, andthe treatned pygmy hippopotamus (Suart and Adams, 1990; IUCN, 1992).

19. Inomation on invertebrate, repiles and amphibians in Siera Leone focuses on speciesthat are consevation concerns becamse they are endemic or threatened. There are known to betwo endemic dragonfly species, and the rue African giant swallowtail is found at the westernexent of its range in Sierra Leone (IUCN, 1992). There are also four near-endemic and twoendemic amphibians of oonsvation concern,Cadioglosaureoliandfiocitgla Alffrcrocodile species are found in Sierra Leone, but their numbers have been greatly reduced due tohung pressures and habitat alteraion. Three tue species-the green turte, loggerhead turde,and hawksbll turde, have been observed in the wats of Sierra Leone and nestng on the beaches(tr and Adams, 1990).

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2. Forest Spedes of Particular Concem

20. Biological diversity is highly concenat in moist tropical forests, where it is theorizedthat stable climatic conditions and intensity of solar energ have allowed for extensive specatloThe most endangered species in Sierra Leone are those which are dependat upon mature dlosed

forests for their survival (CSSL, 1993). Deforestation, primarily as the result of agriculturaextensification and timber harvesting, has reduced the habitat of much of the coun0trys forestdwelling species.

21. Among Sierra Leone's vulnerable forest-interior species there are six treted birdspecies: the white-breasted guineafowl, rufous fishing owl, white-necked picauiartes, yellow-tiroated olive greenbul, western wattled cuckoo-thrike, and Gola malimbe (Shart and Adams,1990). The bare-headed rock fowl, yellow-footed honeyguide, and nimba flycatcher are also rarebird species warranting conservation attention (CSSL, 1993). Protection of theatened birdspecies has attracted a great international constituency of support; non-governmental conservatiorgnizations such as the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds, the International Council forBird Preservation, and BirdLife nmternational have sponsored research to identify avifauna andhigh priority habitats for bird conservation in Sierra Leone. The Gola Forest has beea singledout as one of the highest priority areas for bird conservation, as well as one of the key forestsfor bird conservation in all of Africa (Collar and Stuart, 1988).

22. A mber of threatened forest-dweling mammia species have also been idlentified forconservation attention in Sierra Leone. There are only 200 to 250 forest elephants remabng inth country, which are found primarily in the Gola forest, Loma Mountains, TIngi Hills, andOutamba-KlGimi National Park (Stuart and Adams, 1990). Antelope species thratened by theLoss of closed canopy high forest habitat include the Jentinks duiker, zebra dulker, royalanelope, and bongo. Out of the fifteen primate species found in Sierra Leone, eleven are forestspecies, including the chimpanzee, Diana monkey, two galago species, Campbelt's monkey, spot-nosed monkey, sooty mangabey, three colobus species-black and white, red, and olive-and thepotto. Conserving the country's remaining closed canopy forests is essential for the survival ofthese species.

G. ECOSYSEM APPROACH TO CONSERVATION OF BIOLOGICAL DIVERSrIYAND PRED AREA DESIGN

23. The most effective way to retain viable populations of individua species is to takb anecosystem-level approach to conservation. An ecosystem is defined as 'a unit of biologicalorganization made up of all the organisms in a given area intercting with the physicalenvironment so that a flow of energy leads to a characteristc trophic structe and material cycleswithin the system" (Odum, 1969 in Clark and Harvey, 1988). The ecosystem concept underlinesthe high level of interdependency among species and tdes individual spe8 es' survival tomaintig the naural structure and fieuioning of intact ecological systems.

24. The ecosystem management approach provides additional guidelines for selecting areasfor protection. To maximLm the success of conservation efforts, the area should be large enoughto ensure long-tern survival of species which occur naturaly in the system, to perpetate theessential ecological processes of the system, and to support a nabt disurbance regime.Conservation efforts at the ecosystem level are designed to prte both biological diverity and

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the ecosystem services which are essent for human survval, such as nutrient and water cycling,carbon fxation, and soil production and protection his holistic perspective calls forunderstnding several key factors: (1) the naural components of the ecosystem, (2) the naturaland anto ogenic forces that influence the ecwystem, (3) the indicators that reflect the heathand stability of the ecosystem and (4) the socia and eonomic frc that influence mnaementsaegies (Clark and Harvey, 1988). These elements must be considered when designingprotected area systems to conserve ecologically sensitive sites in Sierra Leone.

25. The theories of island biogeography and landscae ecology conibute to the concept ofecosystem-level conservaon by suggesdng certain optimum coniguratons for protected areas.Ideally, protected areas should be as large in size and as round in shape as possible to mmizethe number of species protected and to minimize the amount of habitat edge eposed to externalinfluences and anthropogenic pressures (eg., hunting, fires, intrduction of exotic species). Ingeneral, as land area increases, so does species richness. Edges, or the lines where twolandscae types meet, influence species composition; although species diversity is often greaterat edges due to the intection of two landscae types, cerin species such as forest interiorspecies cannot survive at habitat edges. Habitat frgmetation is very detimeal to speciessunival because it increases the effect of edges and decreases the core habitat area

26. It is opimal for protected areas to be located as close to each other as possible and to belinked by corridors of intact vegetation If natural connecidons still exist. This configurationpermits migration of species among protcted areas and prevents sites from becoming isolated

simgment of nature-analagous to islands-surrounded by a sea of development and habitatalteration. Connectivity in the landscape is an essal element of ecosystem resfliency andstability. Thus, ecosystem integty and reserve design, as well as biological diversity, shouldbe considered when representative natural habitat types are selected for protected area status.

H. SIERRA LEONE'S MAJOR ECOSYSTEM TYS

27. Climate, geology, evolutionary processes, and human influences have endowed SierraLeone with biological diversity cast over four broad vegetation zones: mangrove swamp alongthe coast, moist tropical forest, forest-savana mosaic, and savanna. Within the broad ecologicalzones there are a number of biomes-_istinct habitat types with particular assemblages of plantand animal species. Ihe biomes support ecosystems which should be represented in tie nation'sprotected area network: mangrove swamps, bolilands, lake systems, mature closed moist tropicalforest systems, and savama-woodland systems. Ihere are also remnant pahs of biologicallyrich systems within the converted forest-grasand matrix of shifting agriulture and forestregrowth which warrat conservation attention. The following descrptions of Sierra Leone'smajor ecosystem types leads to recommendatins for increased protection of partcular areas toensure conservaion of the couty's biological diversity.

1. Mangrove Swamps

28. It is estimated that mangrove forest cu y covers 171,000 ha (1.4%) of Sierra Leone'stotal land area (IUCN 1991; IUCN 1992). Originally, mangrove swamps filled most of SierraLeone's 825 kilometer coastline and extended 30 to 50 kilometers ioland in the estuades of thecountry's three major river systems-the Scarcies River, the Sierra Leone River, the SherbroRiver, and Yawr Bay. The distribution of mangrv has been reduced by two major pressures:

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draining for rice cultivation and wood harvestng for fuel and building materis. Sierra Leonessix mangrove species, dominated by Rbphoa rap R. mangle and R..hagii, areadapt to surviva in sarated soils and disbuted over a range of salinity.

29. Mangrove ecosystems serve very importamt ecological fiuncios and provide habitat toa diversity of fauna. Mangrove root systems prevet coasta erosion, build up land bysequestering silt and organic matter, and purify water by filtering out heavy metals and orgaicwaste. They offer a breeding groundand nury for fish and crust and aupport thusansof migratory and shore birds (CSSL, 1993). As there are currently no mangrove systems withiSierra Leone's protected area system, designation of some mangrove areas for strict protectionand others for controlled resource extraction and managed use is a high priority for the country.

2. Bolilands

30. Sierra Leone's ten river systems flow through the country in roughly paralel courses,runming from the uplands in the north to the mangrove samne sysms along the coast. Thrivers contribute to the ecosystem diversity of Sierra Leone, including a particular type ofseasonal wetland called bolilands. Bolilands are grassland swamps which form in depresionsduring the wet season when river systems overflow and dry out after the rainy season. Bollandsare theatened by conversion to rice cultivation and are subject to anthropogenic fires in the dryseason (CSSL, 1993). Although there is a tradeoff between agriculture and conservation ofnau areas, it is necessary to recognize the value of bolilands as importa, habitat for adiversity of migratory watfowl and water-ependent amphibian and mammil species, andgazing lands for buffalo and waterbuck. he establishment of Manunta-Mayoso WidfeSanctuary was directed towards protection of boliland habiat, yet the area is seriously impactedby agricultural encroachment. Bolilands are also represented in Outamba-Kilimi National Par

3. Lake csystems

31. Three lake ecosystems have been identified as high priorities for conservation in SierraLeone: Lake Mape and Lake Mabesi on the coast, and Lake Sonfon in the northeast of thecountry, near the Loma Mountains. Lakes Mape and Mabesi are part of the Waanje and MalenRiver drainage systems; they are freshwater systems surrounded by swamps. Although LakeMape remains full of water throughout the year, Lake Mabesi shrinks to swampy graslandsduring the dry season. The two lakes are habitat to many waterfowl and waders, as well asmanatee and crocodiles (Phllipson, 1978). Lake Maesi has been recom ed as a wetand-of intraional importance due to its exceptional habitat value. The two lakes are closely locatedand have been proposed for joint designation as a national park, covering a total area of 7,511hectares (WCMC, 1993).

32. Lake Sonfon is located in the northeast quarter of the country wihin the Sula Mountains.Althoagh Lake Sonfon is the only permanent lake on the inland plateau, it shrinks during the dryseason and supports emergent vegetation. The lake also supports extensive birdlife andwaterfowl, as well as game species. Although the currently unprotected lake is relativelyunimpactd by human influences, it has been proposed for designatio as a strict nature reservecovering 5,180 hectares for long-term conservaion (WCMC, 1993; . agh, 1993).

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4. Closed high moist tropical forest

33. Siefra Leone's moist tropical high forest was part of the broader rain forest belt whichoriginally covered a wide swath along the coast of West Africa. Marking the westemost extentof the taed Guinea-Congolian region of plant endemism, Sierra Leone's moist tropicalforest once filled the country's low plateau, eastern regions, and Freetown Penisul Theantopogenic pressures of timber extraction and agricultural conversion have reduced SierraLeone's closed high forest to only S to 10 percent of its former distribution. Today, closed highforest occupies only 3 percent of Sierra Leone's land area (IUCN, 1992).

34. There are two kinds of closed high moist tropical forest-evergreen and semi-deciduous-which are found in both lowland and high altitude enviromnents (CSSL, 1993). Themost substntial patches of closed canopy moist tropical forest in Sierra Leone are found in thecountry's forest reserves on hillsides, particularly at Gola, Kambui, Nimini, Dodo Hills,Freetown Peninsula, Tama-Tonkoli, Kasewe, Loma, and Tingi Hills (FAO/UNEP, 1981). Whilethere are also a number of smaller forest reserves scated throughout the country, efforts toconserve the larger remaining forests are more likely to be successfiul since larger areas are morestable and resistant to naural and anthropogenic disturbances. The Gola Forest, Sierra Leoneslast major area of near primary lowland rain forest, is part of a greater forest block whichextends across the border into Liberia. Ideally, consevation of this greater forested ecosystemwould involve cooperaton between the two countries, but current political instability in Liberiahas halted conservation initiatives in the Gola area.

35. Although the West African moist tropical forest zone is relatively less diverse than theAmazonian or Central African rainforests, it is biologically rich and worthy of conservationefforts. Becase tropical forests are the country's most species rich ecosystem type, many of theremaing areas of mature closed forest in Sierra Leone warat upgrading to greater protectedarea ss.

5. Savanna-Woodland Ecosystems

36. The northern 18 percent of Sierra Leone is covered with Southern Guinea savanna, whichis comprised of savanna-woodland and mixed tree savanna ecosystem types. While the savanna-woodland habitat type is characterized by a predomhiny closed canopy of trees reaching 15meters in height and grasses up to 3 meters tall, the mixed tree savana habitat type supportsscattered trees instead of a closed canopy (FAO/UNDP-MANR, 1976). Although the savanna-woodlan: region is less impacted by humans than the forest-grassland mosaic of agricultural use,it is still subject to agricultural and hunting pressures. In areas where shifting cultivation ispracticed and soil fertility is depleted fiom short faMlow periods and repeated burnings, savannawoodlMand can support few trees and land is degraded into savanna grassland. Savanna-woodlmdecosystems provide habitat to anima species such as the aardvark, warthog, bush pig (or redriver hog), giant forest hog, African civet, genet, and leopard (CSSL, 1993).

37. The greatest initiative to protect savanna-woodland in Sierra Leone involves the creationof Outamba-Kilimi National Park. The national park is comprised of two unconnected segmentsas a result of grouping two former forest reserves into a greater protected area complex (WCMC,1993). Although Outamba-Kilimi was announced as a national park, it is still not officialygazetted and residents remain within the park's boundaries practicing shifting cultivation. Efforts

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to strengthen protection of the park must consider the needs and interests of local people as theircooperation and participation is essential for consvation efforts to succeed.

6. Partcular Savanna-Woodland Systems: Lopira Savanna and Coastal Tree Savanna

38. One particular kind of savanna-woodland ecosystem is the Lophira savanna, which wasreported to have covered 10 percent of Sierra Leone in 1978 (Phillipson). Lophia trees are asecondary species which develop in pure stands on poor soils unsitable for agricultre, oftenover a latedte hardpan. Although the habitat type is a sign of human disturbance and landdegradation, Phillipson (1978) recommended conservation of eprsenve ohirasava areasat Port Loko and Bo. Lphira savanna should receive increased management attention becauseit is being over-exploited for fuelwood, which can lead to further degradation of the savanna(IUCN, 1992).

39. Another form of savanna woodland, coastal tree sava, is found only along the coast,prmarily from Sherbro Island to the mouth of the Moa River. Coastal tree savanna iscracterized by scatr shrubs or trees up to 15 meters tall redominanly Earark trees) andlow grasses up to 1.5 meters tall (FAO/UNDP-MANR, 1976). In an annex to the TropicalForestry Action Plan for Sierra Leone, John Waugh and Sam Musa-Jambawai recommended thatthe coa&tal stretch from Sherbro WIland to the Moa River be granted conseraion attention andprotected area status (Waugh, 1993). The coastal savama is itepsd with fnging swampforest and closed canopy coastal woodland forest, two narrowly di buted habitat types meringincreased conservation attention (FAO/UNDP-MANR, 1976).

7. Legay of Forest Conversion to Agrlulhtwe Foret-Grassland Ecsysems

40. Approximately 60 percent of Sierra Leone is comprised of a mosaic of farmland andaorest regrowth as the result of forest conversion to agricture (Phillipson, 1978; IUCN, 1992).Anthropogenic influences keep the firestgrassland mosaic in varying stages of succession-fromgrasslands to forest regrowth to immature secondary forest. If the land were not degaded andclimatic conditions were favorable, some of the areas, given 80 to 100 years without hunaniterference, would regenerate into mature closed canopy high forests.

41. Although biological diversity is reduced in these areas compared to closed moist tropicalforests, pockets of biological richness remain in the landscape: remnant high forest patcheswhich have escaped shiftng cultivation; swamps and bolilands; and gallery or riverine forestssurounding streams or rivers. Many of the rural communities maintain areas of sacred bush withsignificant cultura and social value. These areas ae locally consved repositories of biologicaldiversity outside the national protected area system. One under-utilized channel for the officiadesignation of protected areas is through the auhority of traditional chiefs, who can choose todeclare lands within their territory as protected areas. This method was how riwai Island GameReserve was established, the only fully gazetted conservation area in Sierra Leone (IUCN, 1992;Waugh, 1993). Ibis community based, bottom-up method cf natal area protection should befrther used for conservation of biological diversity in Sierra Leone.

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L ISSUES AND CONSTRAINTS TO CONSERVATIC i OF BIOLOGICAL l)VERSITYIN SIERRA LEONE

42. The discussion in this annex and in the body of this report suggest a number of economic,social, and institutional constraints to the conservation of biological diversity in Sierra Leone.These constraints must be clearly identified and confronted to succeed in protecting the biologicaldiversity, environmental stability, and ecological services of the country's remainig naturalareas. One of the primary limitations to conservation of biological diversity in Sierra Leone Isthe lack of finding for conservation initiatives and the need to invest limited resoures to dealwith other envirommental problems centra to human well-beig, e.g., land degradation and watequality and availability. Becae investments to protect biological diversity in naril ecosystemshelp to maintain natural vegetative cover and ecological processes, allocation of resources toconservation efforts is a proactive measure to ameliorate other ewnironmental problems. Theanalytical fraework presented in this report for prioritzing environmental problems in SierraLeone (Box 9, p. 37) suggests that while the potential costs for interventiou to protect biologicdiversity are low, the potenti benefits are high.

43. The lack of public awareness and understanding of the impace of biological diversityand natural areas also detracts from conservation efforts. Ihe pressures for agriculuralextFnsification and the lack of incentives for land aonservation provide LWe support forconservaion initives. It is nessary to understand local social, demographic, economic andpolitical conditions to design conservation programs. Conservation efforts will not succeedwithout local participation; communites must be consulted and included in the development ofmanagement plans for protected areas.

44. As previously discussed, a major constuntto the conservain of proteced areas i thelack of insional management capacity. On the federal level, political will and a regulatoryfamework ft conservation must be developed before insutional cacy can be strengthened.While the protected area system must be expanded to cover the full range of biological diversityand habitat types, designating an area with protected stas is an empty distinction if managementobjectives can not be enforced. These issues suggest a mmiber of recommnd for actionto conserve Sierra Leone's biolog. tI diversity.

J. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR ACTION TO CONSERVE SIERRA LEONE'SBIOLOGICAL DlVERS1TY: DESIGNATE IGI IORrTY AREAS WITSINCREASED PRtOTECtED AREA STATUS AND S NGTHEN EINlITltONALCAPACITY TO MANAGE CONSERVATION AREAS

45. In developing a National Envionmental Action Plan, Sierra Leone must include a strategyfor managing land and coastal resources which incorporates the consevation of biologicaldiversity. To retain Sierra Leone's naturl heritage and ecological stability, a number of keyareas have been recommended for increased protection on the basis of biological rchness,ecological sensitvity, degree of threat, and representativeness. Ihese crteria can be used as partof an analytWc framework for defining priorities for conservaon effrs (see Table 1.1). Basedon these stanards, the high priority sites for consevatin In Sierra Leone include the GolaForest Reserve complex and nearby Tiwai Island Game Reseve, the Loma MountaS non-huting Forest Reserve, the Westen Area non-hunting Forest Reserve, and Outamba-KilimiNaionfl Park, as well as a number of mangrove areas and the sites highlighted in the previous

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disussion, such as LAe Sonfon and the coastal stretch from Sherbro land to Lakes Map ndMabesi. A number of these high priority areus are dibed In greater deta in the followingdiscssion to emphasize thdeir impor for conservation of biological divesity and ecostmfimconing.

46. Goba Forests. -he 75,000 hectae Gola Fo Reserve complex, comprised of GoaNot, Gola East, and Gola West Forest Reserve, is thelas large sement of near-pmaryclosed canopy lowland rain forest in Sierra Leone (WCMC, 1993). lhe Gola Forests are oneof the most important rain frest areas in West Africa for coneraton of endemic and threatenedmamm and bird species. At least 78 mammal and 84 bird speces, many of whih are ofconsevation concern, have been observed in the Gola Forests, includn the forest elephant,pygmy hippopotamus, bongo, chimpnzee, leopard, dima money, colobus monkeys, goden ca,whit-rasted guineafowl, and seven other reatened species of forest-dwelig birds (WCMC,1993; Davies, i987).

47. Many different proposais have been advanced to inease the protction of the GolaForests. Gola East and Gola West have been proosed for upgradi to national park status.Other suggestions have called for the designation of Mogbai in Gola North and Wemago in GolaEast as strict nature reserves. Another initiative seeks to join the Gola Forest Complex withTiwai lfand Game Reserve and some small isands downsream In the Moa River SD for abiosphere reserve with core protected areas and managed resource use zones. Efforts tostgtben the protection of the Gola forest region have been complicated by rebe invasi fromLibria. For long term protection of the Gola Forests, conevation effort must involve bothSierra Leone and Libera, since the Gola Forests are part of a larger forest block which extendsinto Liberia. Corridors of vegetation shoud be retaed between the two coun to Pernitmigdion of forest specis throout the geater forest ecosysem (tuart and Adams, 1990;IUCN, 1991).

48. Loma Mountains. he 33,201 hectare Loma Mounin Forest Reserve is widelyrecognized as one of the country's most int natual areas, supportng montane everen highforest and montae grasslands, as well as savanna woodlad at lower devations (Philflpson,1978). Ihe Loma M _untains have te highest mounain peak, Mount Bi_tumaW in tho regionwest of Mount Cameroon. The area has been rm ed for upgrading from fioest reserveto naiona park status becuse it is a center for endemism in the country and spports greatfaumal diversity. A 1992 survey of the Loma region by the University of East Anglia and theInternatal Council for Bird Preservation rewrded 245 bird specia, including the ftreenedwhite-necked picaares; 10 primate species, includingthe ddmpazee and Itree colobus speies;12 unuate species, includig the water chevrotn and 6 duiker species; 5 carnivore species,including the leopad and the forest genet; 3 bats, and 15 rodent species (ICBP, 1992).

49. he Western Area. The Western Area Forest Reserve on the Freetown Pennsula hasbeen recommended for designation as a 17,688 hewt nationa park. The Freetown Pninsula,including the forest reserve, supports over 370 bird species, including the rare bar-headed rockfowl and white-necked pica8trtes (WCMC, 1993). Over 33 mammals have been observed inthe reserve, and it is etmated that half of Sierra Leone's larger mammal speces e fod inthe Western Area. These species are not plentiful, though, primarily due to heavy huntingpressures (Philipson, 1978). As a result of the reserve being located on the Freetown Peniawhere 17 percent of the country's population is concentated, the area is impacted by hunting and

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felwood etaction pressures (IUCN, 1993). Ibese anthrpogenic ftreats underline the need toupgrado the conservation status of the reserve to naional park. Dewdeopment of a national pakwould be beneficial as the area has gre poteni for education and touism due to its proximityto the capital.

50. Oth osed hgh forst areas needig lneased protetion. The Tingi Hs ForestReserve, with Sankan Biriwa Game Reserve at the peak, supports high-altude closed canopymoist tropical forest and montane grassland ecosystems, as well as rest elephants ad the

ep'elc toad rif. Tiggi OHills are also reputed to have an unusual community ofgiat fen (FAOIUNDP-MANR, 1976; WCMC, 1993; Stuat and Adams, 1990; Waug, 1993).k has been recommended dt the Ingi His Reserve be upgraded to national park stus,poteniy in cojuncftin with the nearby Loma Mountmin area and Lake Sofon. Kuru HlsForest Reserve and Kangarl Hills Forest Rrev e importan for consevaon of evergreenclosed fo communities; both have been reco d for upgrading to game reserve whichwiL afford them with more stringet protcted area status.

S1. Outmba- Inu Natinl Pa Sierra Leones' rich ecystem and speies diversityis wel rpent wii t boundies of the proosed, but not gazeted, Outamba-KimiNational Park. Over 260 bird species have bee recorded in the par* Eleants, lopards,waterbuck, aardvark, warthogs, and genets are among the many mammal species foud withinthe pa's boudaries. Altough the park is predominate by sa-wwdlnd, it also containsgrassands, patches of high forest, boliands, and galery forests. Gallery forests are nrowbads of flood-olerant tree species which develop along sam systems in moist savnnawoodlands. hey provide cordors for t-ependent sspeies to migrate krm patch to patchof frest land. Outamba-Kilimi has bee the focal point of subntal conevation attentio andiv _nmt In Sierra Ie; both te World Wfidlfe Pund and U.S. Peace Corps have dedicatedresourc to Its Purher efbrts wM be needed to work out mnagement plns forthe area to saisfy bot conservation goals and local population needs.

52. Mangov E. A number of curTly upoected mgrove ecostems havebeen proposed for protectd area status: Bonie Mangrove Swamp Strict Nature Reseve (10,101hectaes), Bumpe Mangrove Swamps Game Sacuy (4,921 hectares), Kagboro Creek (YawiBay) Game Reserve (5,000 hectares), Kpaka-Pujeunm Game Reserve (2,500 hectares), ScarciesRiver Eary Game Reserve (23,000 hectae), Sulm Mangrove Swamp Strict Nature Reserve(2,590 hectares), and Yelb Island Strict Nature Reserve (3,885 hectar) (WCMC 1993).Prtcton of the Sheabro river system, the Sma and Waanje ivers, and Bagru-Motea creekswodud help proct three important mammal specis-anee, clawless otter, and spot-neckedotter (chwarz 1992).

53. Ihe Bunce River area widtin the Sierra Leone River System has been Idenfied as apriority area for the conservaton of marine blodiversity, as he estary is used by over 20,000migratory watfowl and is a maJor spawnig gromund for marine organisms. Schwarz (1992)recommendd that the area be designad a biosphere reseve to ceate a bane betweenconsevato goals and the human pressur which threaten the system: fishery exploitation andmove cutg for fuelwood. Creation of a biosphere reserve would require the ddineaonand maagement of sticdy proteced core arm and multiple-use zones for local communities.MaYqpment of the remdning mangrove frest systems for conservation and sustinable resourceutilization should be pursued as a major conservton prioity in Sierra Leone.

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Forge an Understanding of Conservation Priorities and Develop Jns0tulozs to StrengthenConservation Efforb In Sierra Leone

54. Declaring protcted areas wil not ffice to comerve Sienra Leone's biological diveritand natural areas; the capacity to carry out the management objecdves of protectd areas mustbe improved, as well as the public understanding of why conservation is an essent long-termpriority. For conservation efforts to succeed, the protected status of natsu areas-along withthe instttional capacity to manage them-must be strengthened. Broad-based public acceptaceand support must be secued through a participatory process of consensus building and educationto show tlat conservation can create benefits on the local, national, regional, and htrnatiodnallevel. The following recom ons have been advanced to increase commitment toconservation of biological diversity and natura areas in Sierra Leone.

55. Develop national consensus on consevation priorities. Use a participatory process ofdiscussion and information sharing to assess national priorities for conservation in Sietra Leone.Evaluate the needs and concerns of communities to foster broad-based support and understdingfor conservation efforts. Determine priorities for conservation on the local, regional, and natilevel; involve the public and private sectors; and engage both traditional leaders and governmentauthorities.

56. Develop Institudonal capaity to manage protected areas. Explore funding optionsthrough the Global Environmental Facility (GEF), donor contributions, and "Debt for Nature"swaps to establish the in-country capacity for managing these areas. Dedicate some of theseresces to training goverment staff in the parks and wildlife division of the Ministry ofAgricuture, Forestry, and Natura Resources and provide management with infstucturalsupr such as transpion, equpmn, and uniforms. Improve the status of careers in'4nservatlon and enironeal management by developing incentives to study and work in theprofession.

57. Strege apacity of national and Intonal no-govnmental o on.Establish linkages between national NGO's and organizations such as the IUCN todevelop the capacy for magement of protecd areas. Explore opportunities for GEF fudingto national NGO's and international conservation organizations with a history of consevationInvolvemen atnd experience in Sierra Leone, such as the Intaional Conservation division ofthe New York Zoological Society-The Widdlife Coaservation Society (frmerly WiddlifeConservation Inernational), the World Wildlife Fund, the Royal Society for the Protection ofBirds, and the Intenational Counci for Bird Preservation.

58. Develop support for cndsevaion through envirnental education prrms.Encourage more liaisons with intratonal NGO's to obtain financial and tedhnical resources andtriig angements. Facilitate cooperation between the government and national consevationNGO's in environmental education initiatives, such as the Conservation Society of Sierra Leone,which has recently been recognized as a member of the International Union for Conservation ofNature; SLENCA, the Siefra Leone Environment and Nature Conservation Association; orCHECSIL, the Commonwealth Human Ecology Council. Develop public education programto instil an unde g of ecology and the environment, and to create a constituency forconservation efforts. Communicate pride in the country's unique natura heritage, and the social,economic, and clturli value of biological diversity.

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SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY FOR ANNEX 1

Bakarr, Moh.aned 1. August 1992. Sia Leme: Conseration of Biological Diversity (rft).An assessment report prepared for the Biodiversity Support Progm. Washington D.C.

Burgess, Neil. 16 November 1992. Letter to Mr. Jan BqJ8, of the World Bank, EnvironmentDivision, Afica Reion, regrdig consevaton of biociersa in Sierra Lene (from theAfrica Inteonaal Officer of the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds).

Clark, TMm W. and Ann H. Harvey. 1988. Management of the Greater YellowstoneEcosystem-An Annotated Bibliography. Northern Rockies Conservation Cooperative. 7-24.

Collar, NJ. and S.N. Stuart. 1988. Key Forests for Tratnd Birds in Africa. ICBPMonograph No. 3. ICBP and IUCN Species Survia Commission.

Conservaion Society of Sierra Leone (CSSL). Jamny 1993. Wildlife and Nature Reserves ofSierra Leone. Freetown. 51 pp.

FAO/UNDP-MANR. 1976. Map of the Vegetation and Land Use of Sierra Leone. Landrsurce srey project SL/ 731002. Freetown: FAO/UNDP-MANR.

eo nal Union for the Conservation of Nature. November 1991. Protecd Areas of theWorld-A review of national systm. Volume 3: Afiruopical. pp. 247-253, Sierra Leone.

-. 1992. Ihe Conservation Adas of Tropical Forests-Africa. Ed. Jeffrey A. Sayer,Caroline S. Harcourt and N. Mark Collins. Chapter 29: Sierra Leone. pp. 244-250.Gland: IUCN.

Kelleher, Graeme and Chris Blealdey. 22 January 1992 DrafI A Global Representative Systemof Marine Prtecd Areas. A Report to the World Bank Environment Depame. IUCN,Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authorty.

lindbeg, Kreg. February 1991. Policies for Maximizig Nature Tourism's Ecological andEconomic Benefit. Washington D.C.: Wodd Resources Institute.

McNeely, Jeffrey A., Kenton R. Miller, Walter V. Reid, Russell A. Mitermeaer, and TmnothyB. Werner. 1990. Conserving the World's Biological Diversity. Gland, Switzland andWashigton D.C.: IUCN, WRI, Cl, WWF-US, nd the World Bank

Oates, John. Huner College Department of Anthropology, Fellow of the NYZS WildlifeConservation Society, I ntena Conservation Division. Personal Communication 6/7193.

-.- P, 1990. Action Plan for AMcan Primae Consavation 1986-90. IUCNISSC PrimateSpeciis Group. UNEP, IUCN, WWF.

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Phllipson, John. 978. Wildlife Consaton and Managemet in Sierra Leon. PrWared forthe Minisbtry of Agriculture, Natural Resources, and Foresy. Sierra Lone. lbe British

Schwawz, BeatLice. April 1992. Identificatin, Estlis and U of SpecyProtected Area in he WACAF Reglo Nationl and Regiona Co vaton Pdoriies ntems of Coatal and Marine BLoodi t. USlr Len" p,. 53-60. Gland: WJCN.

Stuart, Simon N. and Rithard J. Adams. 1990. Biodiver In Sub-Sahaa Africa and itsslIands: Conservaon, Management, and Sustainable Use. Occasional Papers of 1he 1UCNSpecies Survival Commision No. 6. Ga IUCN-TheM World Cosevation Unio

Tdeld, G., A.G. Davies and J.F. Owte. Sierm Leon." n Anteo-Globa Suv andRegionalActon Plans, Part 3: West and Centrl Africa. Compiled b-- R. East. UCNISSCAneope Specl Gtoup. nd.

Univadty of East I -t C ICounciforBirdPreevat July 1992. MonLomaRainfrestEpeIitio-Preiminary Report

Vedder, Amy. Aistant Director for Africa, hrnatiml Conevadon Dision of NYZS-TheWildlife Consevation Society. Personal C uicaton 6t/93.

Waug,:, John. RUCN-US, Diector of Potected Ara. Perona Cc 6/o 193 and7/IM93 Wodd Conrvadn Moniyt Cente. Ecoogically Sensitive Sites in Afric.Volume IV: West Africa. Washion D.C.: Ihe Wodd Bank, 1993.

World Co ad on MAo rg Cete. 1993. Ecoogicaly Sensive Sites In Africa VolumeTV: West AficaL Wasngton D.C.: Ihe World Bai

Wodd Wildlife Fund Inten lm. nd. The Impotance of Biologicad Die . Bts. PauSpenerWacdtel, Leyla Alyanak, Soh-Koon Cg ad Jacqueline ug. Glad, Swzland.

~~1i XLI. IFI*~'IFi1'i~jI.g or .*i iih i.ii

L8~*U* ii 111 to*j?11 I~~~~F

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Under such a classifici, a Category A' project, would require a thorough envIronmentalimpact sessmet before proceeding, either becas they have major enoeta Impacts orbecase a complet review of the avaiabe ental techologies is necessary to detminean appropriate envirmel Componen.L

S. An importat aspect of the screening is tD dentify ptetia negtive enviro at.Such projects should be cla;fied 'A' or 'B' and an EA shwd be earied out ady i theproject cycle. k is important to note that even projects which have the objective of redressinga specific environmena problem may have negtve en mental pacts io other sectors. Itis beyond the scope of this sectoD, of corse, to evauate a of the projects within Sira LeonesPublic Investment Program. Hosever, i the following table, we have screened tenrojectsfromth Investmet Program to Iusate how a screening prcedu may opeate. Some of theprojects classified 'Category B' may only require limied vir analysi, raer ta afuIl EA. Preparation of a mitigation plan to address potena adverse hnpact may suffioe formost of thes projects. Ihe exercise carried out in Table 2.1, is of couse, only ilusta

6. Sceeng of the complete public invese progm wi a view to kdenfyin tsprojectwhich pottily threate he coutry's environment in high and moderae prorty area i anearem priority. This screeing shold in principle be exended to all invesme fimded bybiateral or multieral aid. Such an exercise wil also snify te need for eIrom a impact

to be conducted on select projecs i high pririy sectrs. Ih the near-tem externalsistanc may be sought i carying out EAs in select projects. Over the Iloger teom, It is

necesary to build In-couty capacity to carry out BAs. A costctve method may be toncourage the prvte sector to perfom thiS fnction

7. SewIng of PoWlices. m sceng oeconomic poicy iatesto asin the potialenIronmnta Impact is a longer-em prort. Such a sreeing wil define areas wheremitigative meares can be idefied whether i tie fom of direct ierventions or evironmentapolicies, to offs any negative e impacts of prpoed policy initav. Wherenegtive impac are unavoidable, appro mivepolicy _ maybentfiadmeasures tkn to implement them.

8. Montoing and Evalmtion of "oct and Polcy Imp t It is also crtcal tomonitor and evaue the Imple of poject and poicies. Such monito andevalation procedur wi ensure dt e Iro problems are being contaned. A challeogeis to put in place uch mechm ensure mon and eauato Succ wil onthe codination mechanisms established by the main en agency h te country.Sectoral rves on tecnical comm can play an important role in monioing ndevaluating projects and policies in their respective secto. Ater option is to caq out an EAof policy and to allow the results of such mtm to enter deson g structures. Sucha policy screening and ssessment pces may be capable of Idtfingpotentialdstoions and enable nmdifcations and/or migatve measures to be cosidered or whereappoprbia separate midgative environmental policies to be formulated. It is 1impat,threfore, dth Sierra Leone establies mecaim within the NEAP process that wil develpguidelines for both project and policy screenig and evaluation.

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Table 2.1SAMPLE SCREEING OF PROEI IN PUBIlC INVES PM PROGRAM

PROJEC1 CAISGOR COMENIS

Rebabil"moof wenimet SecoadySls C Do na Inole negaiv emAomeal Impac_______________ _____ B~~~~A normally not neceomey

Power 3ec ReaIbiluhPhjec B d shateUI lo scommof equipment in xngints. Nbe c ft t ispoje bct.

mvW Oi pa *o pw hompw

Bumb_ Hydro ectric Ptoject A Hydro schme ilv munof-e plant addom. Full I wuld bo aeemmay Inding anaont _ of _paca d ooaWlngedl of _ tas wel as _ownurem

I u~~~~~~~~~~~~~ad bOWlpgon_ , luki

Do-Pujehn Rud Development B Objeces ae to delop aSgiculr adfished.. -oma -wome prhat=bhafthca aod d biding. Sec _ eavroamnrimpa of arulua ac e and ipet ofte d buiding wi need to be emoL

Oak Foreacy Pkoe A Spificaly atd at conevaon and<vedopmt of fot renurce of the co9un7.

____________________ _______ kouiren asmasmeat of options.

Natoal Family Planing hogrem C Objectivaes t to ~abll a noainal "BUyplaning iprgm In Sierr Leone Poositi

Labo IntesIve Rura Works bogrm B Invlve rbIdtatla-oonsructInotmrad,healt center, primar wchool and fidahgjctny.

____________________________ _________Shoul aamm IVmpc of conatuotion activOiti

Inlad Valley Swampwopm U I Involves vdavlpment and cultiatioa of inlanvallqswamp.. &vauaion needed of agiculturdbeeft co-nad to Ima on endog,

Interatd FIshrie Dsveopmim a Objective to enhance incme fret fishingactiviies Asmncmen tno covw .astinabULy of

_ _ _ _ _ _ hog_veagmethPublic Sector Managemen Suppc C Objectiv to Wengtha Governments cpa ci)ty o

Implementth adjuamo program ad lonrM - atrep No dgifican

_ _ _ _ _ _ _~ enImen Imdac_

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ENVIRONMENTAL INFORMATION SYSTEMS

introduclon

1. Sierra Leone conss of a number of wateshds draing to the sea. Ihese watehedshould form logical units fbr the collecdon of land and natwua resource information and provideholistic systems for integrated plannine and m nIn tem of Institutions, Sierra Leone'senvionmental informadon datase is dispersed among many sectoral agencies and is not easilyaccessible. A number of instunal considerato influence the developmem and use of thfedabase. First, instutions are rluctant t share data that they may consider to be sensitve.Second, bureacrats do not like the prospect of partng wi daa whic they conider the sourceof their power. Third, seemingly compatble data generaed by one agenc may not be acweptableto others as a result of differences in data formats, classification, precision, reportin schedules,or the ulimate purpose the data is designed to serve. For example, vegetaton zones delineatedby the rangeland department may by shown as savanna forest nes in the maps of the forestrydepartment. Nevertheless, we bdeive that sector agedcies are beter suited t central agencisto collect and manage resource and vromenta irmation on a sustainable basis. Thus, itis important to develop meanisms for free exchange of iomatio between sectors.

2. Followiag is a review of th natural resource and en men inormation in thecountry. Ibe review i intended to provide a framework for discussion of the strengths andweaknes of the available informa Since nal resource and environmental Informationin Sierra Leone is collected by sectors, the review is s8tcred along secoral lines.

Lnd Tenure and Cadate

3. The prinipa function of a cadastre is the provision of parcel based data concerning suchmattes as land ownesip, value, bounary and use. Parcel based information is required in awide variety of resomce management situations. Cadastrl data are basic to the development ofany environmental and land imaton system since they establish the firamework wilin whichlands and natural resources are acuay managed. Siemra Leone has two land tenure systems:a common law ownership system derived from tie British common law in the Western Area andan unwrt tribal communal system used in th rest of tie country. The commual system isvery complicated. A parcel of land, for example, may have many owners: one owns the land,another may have the rit to cultivate it, a third may own the trees, etc. and none of these arerecorded.

4. The cadastre and tie land records are incomplete and out of date, especially with regardto communal tribal lands. Ihe Department of Surveys and Lands, the agency responsible fordeveloping and maintaining the cadast records, is ill-equipped and under-staffed and has nocapacity to maintain any records. In developing a national eIrnlmena information sysem,strong support dshuld be given, to the Dept to produce upto-date topographlc and propercadaMsl informatk

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Land-Use Survey

5. Land-se surveys are essentia eleme for well-nffirmed land-use planning andsusinable management of tural resources. Such surveys have to be conducted at regularivals to monitor environmentl chanoges and to study the impact of policies and Inx tmnin the enviroment Before 1976 only spotty lnd-use surveys of cemin areas were mae. In1973, a UNDPIFAO project establed a project office which later became the Land and WaterDevelqpment Divsion of the Miistry of Agricultre. A series of tecdnical reports and otXtchnica documents were produced by the division and other national and itenatonal agencies.But its major acomplis have been the production of a country-wide reco soilmap at 1/500,000 scale and a land-use and vegetation map also at 1/500,000 scae. The land-useand vegetation map was based on a topographic base map from the Directorte of Survey (DOS)series. The information was collected through a field survey and theIntrpreton of 1975-76 iard color aerial photography (scale 170,000) obtid by IGN(=it Geograhique National) of Framce. IGN sdll has the negatives due to lack of storagefaides in Sierra Leone. The classification system divided the country into 19 ses andcategored domiant species of vegettion and land usages.

6. Sierra Leone has undergone massive land-use cages ince 1976. To monitor theschanges, the existng land-use maps should be updatd or new land-use maps at a basictopraphic coverage scale of 1/0,000 should be produced, and this exercise should be redeVey five to eight years.

Land and Soil Informatlon

7. Prior to ttie establishment of the Land and Water Development Divison, only limited soilsurveys had becn done, covering small areas and wih differing scales and classification systems.Mhe only existin country-wide soil map, produced by the UNDP/FAO project, was based onreconissance gld survey and inrpretatwo of 1975-76 black and whie aeral photography(scale 1/120,000), inaed aeria photography of the same years (scale l/0,000) and black andwhite aerial photography (scale 1/20,000) obtaned in 1951-54. Soils wereclassifid, using a land system approach, into 12 soil aociaions and 44 land systems. lheseprovide country-wide recon coverage of land systm but are not detailed enough toprovide the basis for enironmental management. The Divion also produced an agm-ologlcalatlas and four land suitbility maps for cashew, cassava, citrus, coconuts, coffee, goundua,maize and paddy rice. As paft of the UNDP/FAO project, the Division established 15 ago-meteorological stations at different agro-climatoogical regions. Most of these stations are nowout of service.

8. There is a strong concern that land degdation Is a serious problem in Sietra Leone andXt it is seading rapidly, but most of the findings are based on disputable, qualitative data.

Lae scale and ardsanal mining activities, for example, have been hilighted in many repoas part of the causes of soil degrdat. Lare fields are left stripped of soil in area ofabandoned mines. A recendy proposed law would requre minin companls to rehailieminig sies bere Abandoning them. Nevertheless, there are not enough dat to support thehypothesis that land degradaion from mining activities are more than temporary phenomena and

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at the sofls do not recover after the rainy season. It is important to develop soils and landcapacity infonnation at the basic topographic scale (1/S0,000) as an essental component of thenational environmental database.

Topographic Information

9. The Directorate of Surveys and Lands, a division of the Department of Lads, Housingand E has bee the main government organzation responsible for surveyiqg, mappingand land administation in Sierra Leone since its ixception in 1925. A series of topographic mapscovering the whole country at scale 1/62,500 was published in 1927. In 1961 a new map setiesat scale l150,000 was produced by DOS using 1m20,000 scale aeria photogmaphy obtaledbetween 1951 and 1961. A second edition of these maps with no updating was published in1973. Using standard 1/4 degree sheets, the country is covered by 111 sheets.

10. Another series of four sheets, at scale of 1/2S,000 derived from the 1/50,000 scale mapswas published in 1973. The l1500,000 scale one map sheet was derived from the 1/250,000maps and published in 1976. Town maps of major urba areas are ailable at different scalesranging from 1/10,000 to 1/2,500. Ihe first edtion of the Adas of Sierra Leone was producedin 1953; the second edidon was published in 1966. Ihe existng hydrographic charts are thoseprepared by the Royal British Navy before 1969. Some local rts, such as for FreetownHarbor, were prepared later than that.

11. The Departnent has two professional cartographers and two gedesist; three more arepursuing further studies abroad; the remaining staff are tecdhicians trained locally at a three-yearsrvey school which the departmen formely operated. Except for limied la-ge scae cadastralmap drawing, the Deparment has no capacity for topographic map preaation and prnting.Almost all map prindng was done by DOS. Many topographic map sheets are now out of prtand the Department has no resources to order any reprinng. With all the land-use ages thathave taken place over these three decades, the topographic coverageneeds to be updated. The basic scale of 1150,000 should be updated and used as a frmeworkfor other thematic coverage.

Water Resources In_ormaion

12. Systematic assessment of surface water resources in Sierra Leone began in 1972 ha UNDP pilot project for Detemiton of the surface water resources of Sierra Leone. Theproject set up 12 hydrologal stations. In 1975 project acvies were asmed by theHydrological Unit of the Ministry of Energy and Power. The Land and Water DeveopmentDivision of the Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, esblished in 1973, coLetand manages information about land and water resources in addition to land-use and agricullstatics. The functions of the Land and Water Development Division include so8i surveys, soilfertlity, land capability, agro-climatology, remote sensing and water resources data collecdonHowever, its atvities are limked to selected areas of the country and are frequendy hamperedby lack of resources.

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13. Surface water sources are ientoried in the hydrological year book which was lastpublished in 1976, but knowledge of ground water resources is very limited. Rece hydrologicaldaa are available as one hand written copy at th, Hydrological Unit lhe Hydrological Unit,atached to the Water Supply Department of the Ministry of Energy and Power keeps aninventory of water for domestic uses, but the Department of Aicuture deals with water foragriculture. There are only two professional hydrologis in the Hydrological Unit and they arestationed in Makeni, 126 miles from Freetown.

14. Ground water issues are in dispute among three ministries: the Water Supply Departmentof Minstry of Energy and Power, the Land and Water Development Division of the Miistry ofAgriculture, and the Geological Survey Department of the Ministry of Mines. The absence ofa single authority contributes to the poor availability of ground water in& rmation in Sierra Leone.No centralized set of well and borehole records exists. The rural water supply projects, the mostimportant sources of groundwater data, collect subsurfice data at varying leves of completenessand report in widely different formats. The records are dispersed among regional headquartersof various projects, where they are kept without any processing. Accessibility to the data is verypoor. Because of the very limited data available no checks on the quality of data have ever beenpefrmed.

15. Other agencies involved in water resource management include the Guma ValleyAutiority which has kept records on this water system and on the Dam since 1946. Waste waterand solid waste disposal fail under the Department of Health. The issue of water pollution is nothanded by any agency.

16. Quantitative and qualitative water resources inventory and analysis are urgently needed.Spatil water resource ifrmation shoud be prepared at the scale of the basic topographiccoverage as part of the enironmental database.

Coastal and Marine Information

17. The management of marine and coastal resources is shared between two instiuons: theDeatment of Marine Resources, the Institute of Marine Biology and Oceanography of theUniversity of Sierra Leone at Fourah Bay and Maritime Protction Services of Sierra Leone(MPSSL). MPSSL is a joint venure between the Government and the private sector and isarged with the surveillance of current fishing activities. One sixth of the land surface of Sierra

Leone is classified as coast zone (FAO, 1980). Nevertess, there is no plan to developiormation on coastal resources.

18. The 1979 Land Resources Survey indicated that Sierra Leone coastal woodland-magrveand swamps resources covered 286,000 hectares. A limited, preliminary ament survey ofmangrove rewurces was conducted in 1987 through a UNDPIFAO project The asessmn_testmated the mangrove resources to be 171,600 hectares. Mangrove management in SiertaLeone is still in its Iancy and although various fuelwood and forey studies ha providedsome infrmation about mangoves, the information base is far from complete.

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19. A proper database on marine and coastal resources needs to be developed. Ibreeproblems in pardeular point to the need for more up-to-date information

- declining resources and compettion affecting artisana fishermen, suggesdtigover-fshing by commercial fleets;

- marine-based pollution from ships flushing at sea, and land-based pollution fromdischarge of untreated industri and urban waste;

resource degradation and rllution resulting from deforestaton in the uplands,as well as the lowlands and the coastal mangves.

20. A program to generate fisheries information has been estased by the FishedesDeatment with support from the Soviet Union, UNDP, ICLARM, EC, FAO and GIZ. Fisherydata are being collected, and a number of reports and studies have been published, especay onausanal fishing; estimates differ considerably, but the most quoted figures refer to the Sovtdata. However, there is need to include addional atrite relaidng to the condition of themarine ecosystems that swpport the fish population and other related environmen problems.Data on inland fishing and aquaculture are still lacking.

gricultural and Forest Surveys and Inventories

21. Forest resources information is scanty and out-of-date. It is difficult to assess thedeforestation problem based on the exist database. There is no regula monioring program.Whie deforestation is commonly perceived as a major e men problem,there is virtuay no detailed up-to-date information which migt provide reliable informadonabout the process.

22. The World Conservation and Monitoring Center keeps a datase on forestry in SirLeone which was produced through a EC/FNIDA/UNEP project in 1989-90. The inmationis generated from 1 km resolution NOAA/AVHRR-LAC satellite data for the whole of WestAfrica, classified into four major categories: foret, fallow, savmnna and mangrove.

23. Limited forestry data are collected by forest rangers, but only in forest reserves, andtheir reporting format is poor and limited to . artain attributes. A Forest Mana studycafried out in 1989 by P.R. Schatens provides a uefid survey and good forestry a Itnotes that current knowledge about forests in the country is inadequate for their management bythe Division. It suggested that new aerial photography and new base maps be produced, newforest invenories be conducted, and limt of allowable yearly cus be established.

24. Sutaiman Mohmoud, a Sierra Leonean, wrote a disertation on "Deforestation and theEcological Implications on the Weten Area Environment"; his analysis was based on aerialphoto ietation (1975-i6), field observations and questionnaires. The study indicated dteneed for more systematically produced vegetation maps. UNDP, in a 1992 report, proposed aproject to strengthen forestry capacity and provide secure land holding for the impe_cd oftho National Forestry Action Program. The project is Intended to: (a) survey and re-eblish

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boundares of gazetted forest and proteced areas, and (b) undetake a five percent invenowry ofthe forest estates in three regions, in addition to a number of other forestry related activities.

25. The proposed program for the National Forestry Development Action Plan of 1990, aswell as the FAO Joint Inter-Agency Forestry Review Mission of 1990, recommended a newfty inventoy including the acquisition of new infra-red aeral photography at scae of1120,000. Ihe existing aeral photography dates back to 1975-76 and is at a scale of lmO,000,allowing stratification only along broad forest types, and it is still far out of date. New basictopographic maps at scale of 1150,000 and forest thematic maps at a scale of 1/20,000 need tobe produced; the existing maps date back to 1961 and 1976. An ADD grant of US $2 milionis being used to finance a 32-expert team to develop an agricltural master plan The teamstaned work In November 1992 and the final rept is to be ready before the end of 1993.

l lvestoc and Wildlife Informaton

26. Livestock and widlife information is pardcularly poor. Stwistal ormation is eitheroudated or hard to find, and information disemiaton is inefficient Most of the areas managedby the wildlfe sector are mapped from a 1/950,000 scale map ' The Forest Estae at 31 March1961,' compiled by the DOS, showing forest reserves and protectd areas with update from theForest Division of the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry. s infiormation is held by theWorld Consvaton Monitoring Center. More up-t-date infaon is mapped in the 11500,000sae Vegetation and Landuse Mp prepared under the UNDP/FAO project in 1979.

27. According to Me and Roth the threat to wildlife In Sierra Leone is more dramatic ani any other place in Africa. The Livestock Department is ill-equipped tOD collect and manageda, and the Wildlife Division has even less capacity. A limted mammal survey carried out in1979 showed dudt wildlife disuions and habita conditons had been altered drasticaily, anddth wildlife populations and wilderness areas were in jeopardy. New rangeland, wildUfe, andlivestock surveys need to be iMa with spatianformation at the scale of 1/50,000 to be partof the database.

Urban and Industrial Environm t

28. Urban information includes cdastre, topography, inastructure, saniation, urban andIndial waste disposal, wat supply and health information. Freetown, the capital, ad themajor provicial towns, Bo, Kenema, Makeni, Moyamba, KaWa, Kambia, Port Loko, Kailahunand Pujebun were mapped by DOS at scale of 1/2500 in 1969-1971; some of the towns were alsomapped by the Depatmnt of Surveys and Lands at scale 1/1250. These maps are now morethan 12 years old and do not show most of the new infrastucta developments; they urgendyneed updaig.

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MeeoologIcalnformaon

29. The World Wealher Watch is coordated by the World Meeorlogical Org lon(WMO). In adition to global and regional data collected via satellite and regon system,meteorological data collected by national meteorological departments all over the world form theesental part of the global dataase. The ogition provides substantal techical and fincilsupport to naonal meteorological services through a well developed network

30. Meteorological and agro-meteorological infomation ha to be evaluated as part of anitegrated network. The meteorological deparme has to be supported to provide informanin formats and frequencies that support enmironmenta an

31. Climate and wecher data in Sierra Leone are colected by the Meteorological D etwhich is a speciized agency of the Minstry of Tranprt, Communication and Tourism hedepatment is funded by the Govement with some occasional support hom UNDP and WMO.Ihe functions of the Department include:

administration, _ and developmen of the national network ofmeteorological and agro-meteorological stations;

- disemination of infoRation to national agenies and ntentionalacording to agreements;

- provision of meteorological and agro-meteorological services for sutabledevelopment of natural resources and the envionment; and

- upplying meeorological fomation to civil aviation authorities for the safe andeconomic operaton of such aircrat

32. Pollowing are the stations tht make up the country's observation network:

0i Eleven synoptic stations where regular hourly observatos dtughout the yearare collected and tasmitd by radio telephone to Luni alrpomt Of these only7 are now operaional and due to budget madons are colecdng dat during thedaydme only.

(H) Forty-re cinatological sti, only II on which are now operational, andsome of these a manned by volunteers and NGOs. Obsevaton at osestations are collected twice daily and trsmitted to Freetown once a month.

Oii) One hundred and eight rainfal stations where data are recorded once daily. Atthe moment the only statons that are opertng somewhat regulay are dtsassciad with snptic and agometeorological stations.

(lv) Ten agro-meteorologiadl stations at Kallalun, Kenema, Potoru, Mau long,Moyamba, ah, Rol*o, Makalia and MusaL. he were establisbd in

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1978; two moe a Kamakwb and Bedpbu ame no longer operational.Another station at Katonga measur raa and emature only.

(v) Two upper air obso n statiom at Lungi and Daru designed to meuwre windare out of operation due to lack of resources.

33. Most of the data are ansmitted by radio telephone and some by mall to the head office.Ihere does not appear to be any established system of quality contrl; the data are bept inlonghand and some is reported to have been lost. Most of the equipment was acquied under aUNDP/WMO project in 1981-82 and due to lack of proper maintenance and spare parts is notfunctonal. Conumable iems such as ferrsilicon, sunsie cards, faslsmile rolls, etc., whichare not availle in the local marfet cant be replenished becawse of the lack of foreignexdcange.

Denoahic Informaton

34. Infmation on popation, distribution, age, sex, religion, enic rigin, occupation,economic stas, housing quality, etc., are roinely collected by staical departments toughreular or ad-hoc censuses. Derved normation esse for envirometa management suchas migration patens and populo pressr, can be derved from other sources suchas aeria suveys. The Central Statisical Office of Siea Leone has been collectng anddsseminating statstical and demographic data under a UNDP project (1981-1993). A nationhousehold census was conducted in 1985. h Office publishes an aual stadstica digest, aregular statistical bulleti, a natonal acco report and a monhly consumer price index report

Insitu Capaty

35. In developing nadonal envt omation system, intitui and legal issuesare even more imor than techimcal issues. Experiece has shown that successfilimplemention of enviromnmental information sysm depends on nstitiona caacity. Anotherfactor for success iS system sumabfility. Government insti ns responsible for producingresource and envruonmental information are often not maitned.

36. Enviomental infrmation agencies should be manag on basis tha they at least recovertheir costs. The problem will be how to value the price of envirom infrmation in orderto oprate these insons cost-ectively. The ultmae be ries of improedenvironmental information are the public at large and the ee nt i genera. Nevereless,the informaion is used as an importa input to many environment and development projects, andthe cost should, in part, be shared by these projects.

37. In many countries, the privat sector partcipas in genatng and managingenvironmenta In aon. Nongovea o io ave tradionaly been verysuccessful in the field of evironmental i mon; the Itional NGO ornizatons WRI,IUCN, and WCMC are good examples. Donor agencies have upported the developmen ofnational environmental informatior sysems in may African cuntdre.

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