IL L I N 0 ISUNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS AT URBANA-CHAMPAIGN

PRODUCTION NOTE

University of Illinois atUrbana-Champaign LibraryBrittle Books Project, 2009.

f

OF THEUNILVERSITY,OF ILLINOIS

824J28s

sjL NOI'S1S

OFTUE

LOGIC' AND BELLES LETTRES;

READ IN THE U NIVERSITY GLASGOWV.

Neque eft omnino ars ulla, in qua onnnia, qut. lia arte ef ici

poffunt, a dodlore tradantur : fed qul primarum et certa-rum. rerum genera ipfa didicerunt, reliqua non incommode

perfequuntur. CIC. oc RAY

G LAS- COWVAT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS,

P~RINTED BY J. AND J. SCIRYMGEOUao

-1801®

Glafgow College, 1 805.l71IAE Locic, or Firft Philofophy Courfe, in the A.cademical- Curriculum of the Univerfity of Glafgow,is placed immediately after the Rudy of the LATIN

and GREEK languages; and the Leotures are general-ly delivered to Rfudents, from fourteen or fifteen, toeighteen years of age.

During the reign of the Scholaffic Philofophy,-thepreleEtions delivered to ifudents of Logic, werechiefly occupied with an explanation of the Analyticsand Metaphyfics of Ariftotle. But the change ofpublic opinion on fubjeas of Literature, and theprogrefs of liberal fcience in this country, have occa-foned a correfponding change in the manner ofconduding this branch of the Academical Courfe.While the ufeful and curious parts, of the ancientLogic flull occupy their proper place, the bufinefs ofthe clafs has been extended to the elements of otherbranches of knowledge ; which,. though not imme.diately conneded with the former, are thought fu).fervicnt to the great ends of general education, inthis firf department of philofophical Rludy.

Only the out-lines of the Led ures referred to arenow publithed ; and, though the whole fubjels. ofIthe courfe, comprehending feveral different b ranches

of literature, have certainly not-all the uity of fyfm

tem, they will yet be found clofely related in

ther point of view-namely, in their fitnefs and tend-

ency to unfold progreffively the powers of know-ledge-to begin and to eftablifh that habitual exer

cife in the minds of young perfons, upon which thea~qive bufinefs of life, as well as that of fcience, de-

pend. The Letures delivered in this Clafs, which

are accompanied with copious iliufiration, and great

variety of examples, are compofed and adjufed upon

the followRinig principles and views.

i. That the powers of Knowledge, of Tafe, an

Communication, can only be improved by exercifc.

2. That the exercife of thefe powers is called

forth, by propofing or prefenting fuch objeas as are

heft fuited to promote it----by arranging and dif-

pofing them in fuch a manner as may beft facilitate

that exercife----by fuggefting and impreffing the

Rfudent with fuch motives and inducements as may

heft fupport and encourage a regular plan of induf-

try and exertion.

3 rThat ledures, or preleElions, delivered to young

perfons in thle--circurnftances above Rated, howeveringenious t hey may be, cannot reach the great end

of education, unlefs they fhiall be aided by a RtridL

and regular examination, followed up with a fyftemn

iii

of effays, or fpecimens of compoftiofm, required

from the ftudents, on the moff ufeful and important

parts of the lectures.

4. That the firft effays or fpecinens fhould be ac-commodated to the previous attainments and habits

of thofe who enter the clafs ; and the fubj cs ofthem be fuch as to accuftom the fludents-to dif-

tinguih -to divide- to define-to analyfe-to feled and arrange if a clcar and luminous

manner-to exprefs with plainnefs and perfpic ii.ty.

That after the methods of Analyfis and Synthefis,and the rules of condudting. fimple and comple

Trheines, fhiall be explained in the courfe of the lec-tures-Subjedls of Reafoning, of Tafte, and Com-pofition, flhould be prefcribcd;° to which the rules ofCriticifmn, as they refpc2 dilrrent kinds of co'pofitionl, may be applied.

~.That the method of condur ting and reviewIN g

fuch fpecimnens publicly in the clafs, fhould be fitchas to give the rTeacher an opportunity of pointing

out defects or furcccfsful tAfforts, in the ma~tter, me-

thod, or flyle of fuch compofimos; and, by judi-ciouis apl robation or cenfure, to encourage and

promote higher and more fp irited exertionas. In a

iv

word, the Profefibr, in the difcharge of the duties ofhis office, muff defcend to the humble occupation ofthe mjcr in the common arts; and, in the Workdone, or fpecimens given, point out to the youngartift, wherein the ajay is defeaive, and in -hat re-

fpets it may be improved.

Einally, The author of thefe out-lines, conceivinthat every part of the Academical Courfe fliould beadjufed in fuch a manner as to fit men, not onlyfor the purfuits of Science, but of Bufinefs and ofAdtiveLife, has endeavoured, for many years, to pro-mote in his particular department, thofe fundamen-

tal habits upon which both Science and Bufinefs de-pend-habits of Thinking, of Reafoning, and of

Communication by Speech or Writing.

If there be any thing fuitable or ufeful in the planof Rfudy adopted in the Firft Philofophy Clafs here,

the merit of it belongs, in a particular mnarner, tothofe youth who have Rtudied in this Clafs ; for it hasbeen fuggefted by the experience of the indultriousand fpirited efforts of many young adventurers inScience, wvho have left deep impreffions on the mind

of the teacher, and have enabled him to mark, withfome accui acy, the natural j7eps and progr rj/ in theacquifition of Knowledge, in the habits of Commu-.

ncation, and in the cultivation even of the more

delicate powers of Taste.

OF THE

LECTURES

LOGIC AND BELLES LETTRE S

BJECT of the courfe, "To explain the"14 methods of improving the powers or

"9 faculties of knowledge, of tafte, and of conm

"municafion by fpeaking or writing."

The courfe confiffs of three parts, each partadmitting of two general divifions.

PART I.

The Powers or Faculties of 'Knowledge.

z. AN analyfis of the powers of knowledge,illufirated by the principles of general grammar.

A

4-2. The art or method of improving the

powers of knowledge, illuftrated by the hif-tory of logic, and an explanation of the prin-cipal rules of that ancient art.

P -ART IT.

The Poers of -Thfa

I. AN analyfis of the powers of tafte, orreflex fenfes, illuifrated by the principles of thefine arts.

2. The method of improving them, illuf-rat-ed by the principles and rules of criticifm.

PA R T III.

Thc Power-s of Commuinnication.

i. ANALYSIS of the powers of forming and

applying figns in communic Lion.2. The art of improving them, ill-Afrated by

the principles of 'Rhetoric and Eloquence.

The propriety and ufefulnefs of 'comapre-hending theye fubjeats in the bufinefs Hof a, flrft

Philofophy clafs. Their conncEtionwithfarther progrefs in the Rudy of Philofophyand Belles lettres.

Every plan of improving thefe powers, a-dopted in an academical courfe, fuppofes cer°-tain data on the part of the Teacher, and ofhis Students.

Principles and maxims illufrated, which

u ft be adopted, and prahffed, by thofe who

defire to profecute their fludies with fuccefs.

Falfe and erroneous notions on this fubjed

frequently difappoint the expecations of teach.ers and of ftud-ents.

-T'he Pythagorean f yftern of trial and difci.pline, undergone 'by_ thofe who entered upoiithe Rludy of their philofophy.

Q~uin6ailian's marks of improvable difpofiL

tions in the charaecrers. of youth, "1 Pzi iiilkW detur quem3 laus cxcitat, qu mz gloria ;u vat,

"quz ViRI.Sfjiqe'at-"

A 2

6

PART IL

On the Powers of Knowledge.

I. ANALYSIS of the powers of knowledge.

Every propermethod of improving thepowersof knowledge fhould be preceded by an Analy-

fis of thefe powers, and of their Modes of o-

peration.

The nature of philofophical analyfs.-A-naiyfis is the great inftrument of acquiring andcommunicatingknowledge.- tt fimplifies the

objeds of' knowledge,-adapts them to thepower of attention-and acc the fludent

to a regular mode of inveftigation.

Trhe powcrs and faculties of' the mind are

proper fubjedts of philofophical analyfs.---Pneumnatology is the Centre of the fciences andarts. -- The or ioinal conifitution, the growth,progrefs, and dccline of the Human faculties,form an important branch of the phenomenaof nature.- Difin& knowledge of Mindcannot be obtained in any other manner, than

'by direfting -and fixing the attention of the

mind upon it's own operations

The analyfis of the facutdesof the mind maybe fuccefsfulLy condudted according to the prin.ciples of the Baconian procefs of inveffigation.Experiments may be made upon mind as wellas upon matter.-The method of condu&-

ing mental experiments.-The difference, betwixt mental and material experiments.-The obflacles and advantages which attendthem.

Such an analyfis, fubmitted to the fludents ofa firf philofophy clafs, muff be accommodat-ed to the adual fate of the powers of obferva-

tion and attention in the ftudents.-Thehigher branches of any f cience. cannot be in..grafted upon ignorance, -or imperfedt know-.ledge of its firft principles. Additional know-ledge mutt refit upon fads and knowledge A-ready acquired.-The path from the known;toy the unknown mutt be regular and progref-live,

The proper conduct of this analyf s will. nem;

A3

ceffarily require a previous explanation of cerdfain Terms, which, though they belong in a par-

ticular manner to Pneumatology, belong alfo infome degree to all the fciences.-The lan-guage ufed in the common intercourfe of fo-ciety is not fuficiently accurate in philofophy.

-T he figus or terms made ufe of muff bea faithful interpretation of thought.-Thcfollowing are amnong the number of thofe

'which require explanation:

Mind, Matter, Body, Law of Nature,

Subf~ance, Qualities, Caufe and Effe&,

Powers, Faculties, Phenomenon,

Operations, Habits, Hypothefis,

Scnfations, Ideas, Notions, System, Theory.

Kno-wledge, PhilofophY,

P 'ernr whi~ch do not admit of precife defini-

tion mucff, be traced to their, origin, and -the

circ*umfiances ?ftatcd in which they were. firftLiplied.-Tihe attempt to explain and fix; the

meianing of terms, is itfelf a proper and ufeful

exercife in a- firfit philofophy clafs.

GeeraI d iv'ifio of the powers of the mind

9into thofe of the Underfianding and the Will.- The powers of the underfanding or ofknowledge, may be divided into

if, The fimple powers or faculties by whichSenfations and Ideas are direayacquired -The Elements of knowledge are direcly and

immediately acquired by Perception, Attention,Refleation, Abifra ion.

2dly, The powers by which fenfations andideas, once received, are preferved and recal.led, viz.. Memory and Imagination.

3dly, The more complex powers, by whofe

combined operation the Agreements, Difagre&ments, and. Relations among our ideas are dif.cerned, viz. Powers of Judging, eafoning,

Invention, Genius.

Analysis of the Simpke Powers f Knowledge.

TUHOUGH' the powers of the mind genepala.ly acH in a combined flate, their, refpe~tive o-perations are objedts of Confcioufnefs, and maybe feparately obfe ved. .An analyfis of themwill prefent

To

I. The Qualities of each which are conto the general clafs.

2. Their different Offices or Fundions.

3. Their refpeEtive modes of Operation.4. Their Rank or order in the fyftem, and

their mutual dependence,

Of Perception.

No logical definition can be given of 1t, orof any of the fimpl-e faculties of the mThere are ,/rft phenomena, which efcape theniceft analyfis.----From thefe, the philofopherfets out, and begins with eftablifhing firft andimmediatefafls; elfe there would be no reftingplace in riquiry.-Thefe ferve to explain otherfadts, when they have, been well and carefullyobferved.

The Condud of this analyfis requires thatthe fubjed6 of obfervation be feparated from o-thers.---Let the faculty 'of perception, for ex-ample, be direded to a prefent material ob-jed, a Tree--a Rofe; the following im mediate

fads m-ay be obfervedt

i. That perception is one of the forms or

II

modifications of the power of knowledge, andfupplies the firf materials for the operation ofthe other powers.

2. That the faculty of perception is inde-pendent of the objea perceived; and thatthere is an important difference betwixt theknowledge of an objeQ, and the object ofknowledge.

3. That fome things may be obferved whichrefer to this modification of the knowing power,and other things which belong to the materialobjea known.

4. That when the power of perception isdireaed to a prefent objet, the firft fep in theprocefs of knowledge is an Impreffion madeupon the external organ by the material ob-jeet.

5. That this impreffion from the obje&confifts of a variety of individual impreffionsfrom the parts of the objeat; which is the im-mediate caufe of a certain Effel produced up-on the mind, viz.-a Senfation.

6. That the perceiving power conneas andunites the variety of impreflion into one whole-or, in other words, conceives the objec, orforms a.notion or idea of it.

12

7. That to be confcious of a fenfation, andto perceive, are two different things, thoughthey cxit fimultaneoufly.-The mind is paffive in receiving fenfations, but exerts aaivityin conceiving them.

8. That the faculty of perception is exertedby the medium of external organs on whichthe imprefion is made.-The term Inzr/orhere denotes an unknown effe&.

9. hat the external organs, the medium ofperception,arrejve in number, and five differentclaffes of fenfations are received by them.

io. That, though the intelleanal at be thefame in all, it is differently modified in eachof them,--Oppofite fenfations are received bythe fame organ.--Examples and illufrationsof the above propofitions-.

A particular analyfis of the five external

fenfes, or modes of perception, -is neceffaryand ufeful in a firft philofophy clafs.-.I-Teyare the firft avenues of knowledge -'The

fenfations and ideas received by theme becomethe fubj-ed of the, other operations of the m id.

-The figns or terms, which form the lanii

guage of the fenfes, are by analogy applied toIntelleaual and Moral qualities.

Analysis of the externalfenfso

Smelling,Tafling,Hearing,%Seeing,Touching.

This analyfs comprehends an explanation of

-. The different qualities of material objefswhich imprefs the refpedive fenfes.

2. The Natural hiflory of the Organs or

aedi' rs 6f fenfation.

3. The Perceptions and Senfations received

/by the refjea'ive fenfes.4. Singular ph enomena of fom'e of the fenfes.

5. Immediate judgments following aas- ofperception-called judgments -of the fenfes.

A comparative view ,of the external fenfes.--- The union and correfpondlence which

takes place "among them,-The manner in

wh ich they aflft each other.-Tr he known

'14

diffinguiffied from the unknown in the procefsof perception.- Remarks on certain theoriesof perception.

Analysis of Re/feion.

THE power of knowledge, when direted toobjets of confcioufnefs, is called Refleion-by fome, an internal fenfe.-By it, notionsof the powers, operations, and flates of mind,are acquired.-The power of refletion dif.tinguillhed from Confcioufnefs.---Reflec-tion is a power fufceptible of habit-Confciouf-nefs is not.----Upon the improved habits ofrefletion depend progrefs in fcience and inart.

Aalysis of Attention.

ATTENTION is a mental act, and belongsequally to perception and refledion.- It is apower of fixing upon an obje~t, and is eithe-r

voluntary or involuntary.-It may be di.re~ted regularly to the feparate parts and quali-ties of objets, till.-the, whole be conceived.-

It maybe exerted with more or lefs-force ;--andthe notions formed will be more or lefs clear

and diPin.&- The acquired habit of exer-

cifing this power, extends its influence to allthe other powcrs of the mind.--Exampleswhich illuftrate the operations of this power,and their efledts.

Analysis f Ab.fra~ion and Generalization.

ATTENTION is the foundation of both.The mind can attend feparately to the parts orqualitihs of objeds, infeparable from the ob.

jeCts themfelves--ana render them feparateand difiinat objects of thought.---This is ab-

Jirac2lion.--Senfible figns or terms are necef-faryto preferve them in their feparate fate.Hence fuch terms are called abftrat terms.

The mind can alfo obferve and attend to

qualities which are common to many objects.and to qualities in whie~h they differ.- -lfenceit proceeds" to' generalize, or formn claffes'-.more or lcfs cormprehenfive. J-Tncethe neceffity of general termns denoting thefe

laffes.

Children and favages are taught by natureto abftraa and generalize. -Improved minds

B

exert thefe_ powers to a greater extent, and inmore difficult circumnftances.-There is lit-tie or no appearance of abftraaion and gene-ralization in the inferior animals.-Ads ofabflradion and generalization are difficult,when the qualities of things are blended to-gether, and cannot be eafily feparated-whenthe claffes or families are very comprehenfive.

Advantages derived from the power of form-ing abftraQt and general ideas.--Upon this

power depend Clafification, Science, Theory.-Iflu fition of abftra~t and general ideas.

[See Lat. Compend, part I.]

Opinions of phiiofophers concerning univer-fal ideas.- -The controverfy on this fubje~l

betwixt the Nomninaliffs and Realiffs.-Singuplar cir cumliances attending this controverfy.

Such are the powrers of the mind by whichfcnfations and ideas are firfi received, and thepr oceffes by which abftrad and general ideasare generated.-Differences may 12e obferv-ed in the notions or fenfations acquired, arifingeither from differences in, their obje~ts, or

17from the different form or modes of exertingthe power of knowledge in acquiring them..- Examples and illuftration of the principaldiiintions among ideas.-Clear, obfcure,diflin~t, confufed-fi-mple, complex, abfra&,general. [See Lat. Compend, part I.]

The. Powers of Know/edge by which Senfations

and Ideas are preferved.

.Analysis of Memory.

TiN office of Memory is different from that

of Percption.---That of the Iac~er is to ac-quire-of the former to preferve kno-ledge.----Their modes of operation are alfodift'erent.- The one aas by the medium. of

-external organs-the other does not require

them.

Objedts which have once been, prefent, mayin their abfence affedt the mind in a niew and

different manner. The m-ind has a pow~erof retaining and recognifing its former fenfa-tions and ideas.- This power, of knowledge

is called Memory or Reminifcence.B 2

i8

The analyfis of memory prefents the follow-ing immediate fads.

I. That ads of m-emory fuppofe certain de-

grees of attention given to the objeL vhenprefent-the immediate caufe of memory. -

2. Tha the acd-s of emiry are neceffarilyaccompanied witll the confcioufnefs of its ob-jeds having been formerly prefent,

3. That memory not only preferves the no-tions of obj"ds, but the order and conneionWhich fublfis among them when pbrceived.

4. That the memory is fometimes adive,and at other times paffive in its operations.---When it is ative, and takes the affiffance ofother operations, it is called reeolleion.-Il-luff ration.-,Sin gular, phenomena of memory.

5. That the notions of fenfible objeas aremore eafily retained than intelledfual or moralnotions-and the objects of fomce of the exter-

nal fenfes more eafily retained than thofe ofother fenfes.

6. That the power of recalling and recog-fifing is gradually dimniniflied, and is often al-together loft.

7. That the memory is diffinguifhed by dif-

19

ferent degrees of readinefs, difinctnefs, and te-nacity, in the minds of different individuals.

8. That the memory is fufceptible of greatimprovement. [see part II.]

9. Theories of memory which explain itsoperations by traces and vibrations, are altoge-ther unfatisfaaory.

kalysis of bIagination.

The faculties of memory and Ja inatioiare intimately conneded.-Their r fpeciivc o-perations may be diftinguifhed .--Eamples offeparate acts of memory and imagination.

The oflice of memory is to preferve the fen-fations and notions received.-- hat of ima-gination to reproduce, or prefent them again.to the mind fromi the field of memory..

The reproduetions of the imagination re-femble the original--but differ from it in pre-f~ice, in reality, and in force.-.-The idea

received from the reproduced obje~a is coin-monly called the image of it.-ilence thename of imagination is given to this faculty.

20

The office of this faculty is to reproduce

fenfations and notions of every kind receivedby the mind-intelleCtual and moral, as wellas thofe that ire fenfible. Some philofophershave -onfined its office to the reprodution offenfible images, and call it Phantafy or Fancy.

The fmple exercifes of this faculty muff be

diftinguihed from thofe that are complex,which include the operations of other powers.-nattention to this has perplexed the ana-lyfis of imagination.

The direQt and fimple exercife of this faculty

require only previous ats of perception andmemory. Its more complex atincludeoperations. of. attention, abfration, judging,combination.

The procefs of the imagination, in making,up i~moff extenfivc groups or combinations,explained and illuftrated.

This faculty is diftinguifhed by different de-grees of flrength or weaknefs.---ACtivity or in-

a~ivty. -Regularity or .irregularity in, the

minds of different individuals.

Though the immediate caufe which deter-mines the reproduaion of objets, when nolonger prefent, cannot be explained, the lawsof reproduaion may be obferved.

x. That the imagination can neither repro-duce nor combine fenfations or ideas, but fuchas have been formerly received by the mind.No at of the will can call up a fenfation al-together new.

2. That the imagination is not confined tothe reproduaion of objeds as they were ac-tually perceived--but can reproduce them inwholes or in parts, or in combinations whichnever adually exifted. The procefs of theimagination in forming extenfive combinations.

3. That the imagination is the inftrument

of reproducing ideas in thefe fucceffions, re-gular or irregular--voluntary or involuntary,which form the conftant employment of themind.

4. That it does not reproduce at random,but is fubjeaed to certain laws of affociation,viz. of contiguity, refemblance, contraft, caufeand effea, and other relations. - Thefe

laws explained and illuftrated by exampLs.

g. The laws of affociation are affeaed bycuflomz and habit.-Remarks on the pheno-mena of dreaming, and on fome theories of it.

Upon the varieties of the faculty of imagi-nation- and the laws of affociation-the intel-ledual charaters of mnen greatly depend, and

diverfity of genius in the different depart-ments of fcience or of art.

The imagination is fufceptille of improve--inuent. [See part II.]

23

On the powers of knowledge, by which the agree-

nzents, df agreements, and other relations a-

mnong objes, are d f cerned and determined.

Analysis of thll'e Faculty o j/uding.

B the faculty of knowledge in its mdde ofperception, notions of obj'ecs, as individualsand wvithout, relation to each other, are ac-quired.----By another of is naodes, they areviewed in conneOdion and Lheir agreements ordifagreements, their. differences or their likenefs, and other relations, are difcerned.

This mode of the faculty of knowledge iscalled judgn.-The origin of the term,and the analogy upon which it has been appliedto an as of the mind.

- A.Es of judging may be faid to be coevalwith perception.-Immediate judgments fol-low fenfations. -A fenfation is produced---its, Connection with- the fentient being isdetermined .- An objeat is- perceived-its

2 4

external exiflence is determned.-Thefe arejudgments of the mind.

Other judgments are paffei after a conipari fnof the objects; that is, after an alternate-view

of them. Judgments fo pafed are called in-tuitive.

A judgment of the mind is the knowledgeof a fa&, viz, of an exifting relation betwixt

two objeds.

The judgments of the mind are as numerdous and various as the comparifons which maybe made among objeas,and the relations whichfubfift among them.----Philofophers have invain attempted to bring them under certainclaffes or categories.

When the mind difcerns -and determines

juncion or agreement betwixt the objeds

compared--the judgment is affirmative. When

it difcovers and determines feparation or difa-greement-the judgmnent is negative.

When it affirms or denies any thing con-cerning claffes, or particulars, or individuals--

25

the judgments are univerfal, particular, orfingular.

When the mind difcerns and determines re-

lations among objects which really exiff-the judgment is true. When it difcerns and

determines relations among objeas which donot exift--the judgment is falfe.

Vhen it affirms abfolutely, or without con-

dition or limitation---it is categorical.---'Ex-amples and illufration of thefe clafes ofjudg-

ments. Vhen it-affirms and determines with

limitation or condition-the judgment is hypo-thetical or conditional.

The grounds on which the mind determinesagreement or difagreemrent among its ideas,are called evidence.---The nature of evi-.dence, and kinds of it. [See part III.]

A judgment of the mind may be a fecretoperation, and paffed without the afliftance oflanguage.--A judgment expreffedin words,is called a propofition.--A. propofition is afentence expreffinig a judgment. .The claf-

26

fes of propofitions are the fame as of jud-ments. The-parts of a propofition muff

correfpond to the operation of judging. Thefubje6c, predicate, and copula, reprefent theparticulars that may be obferved in ,as ofjudgment. An analyfis of propofitons is ananalyfis of judgment.

As all judgments imply the exiflence of theirobjects---the verb denoting exiftence, is necef-fary in the exprion of judgments. Withoutit, we fhould only have Panies -with it, weform propofitions. [See Latin Compend, part

IJ.]

Analysis f he ftcully ef Rafoning.

T IE oflice of the power of knowledgVe in its

modificationj, called Reafoning, is the dif-covery of thefe relations among tIngs whichcannot be difcovered. intuitively, or b y immre-diate co rifn-hnthey are difcoveredby intermnediate ideas, they are acquired byreafoniw.

Tthe faculty of reafon fuppofes the previous

exercifes of Perception, Judging, and Memory.

--- There muff be granted the notions of the

two things to be compared-.--together withthat of a third-the medium with which they are

compared--before the relation can be difcovered.

The new knowledge, or knowledge of the

relation, is faid to be inferred-drawn--or to

follow, from the former knowledge.----,-The

meaning of thefe terms illuifrated.

If the relations of things could be known

by immediate comparifon, there would be no

need of reafoning.-.Beings of a higher or-

ler may difcover the relations of things with-

out intermediate fteps.The faculty of reafon in man, is a mark of

fuperiority -over the inferior, animals, but. a

mark of inferiority with refpeEt to fuperior

orders of Beings. -- W-ee fpeak of the reafon-

ings of men--but of the judgments of God.

.--- The refult of the molt complex aa of

veafoning is a judgment.

Nature prompts and infruais men to rea-C

fon, as it does to perceive and remember.They reafon before they can analyfe the

procefs of reafoning.

When, from the memory of a former fenfa-tion, and the immediate prefence of the ob-jea which prodtfces it, the child withholdshis hand from. the candle -it reafons-

It fuppofes the knowledge of a fimilar event.'There are appearances of fuch a&Is of

reafoning in the inferior animals.--Examples

Men firft reafon about individual objeds

---- It is not till they have acquired lan-guage, and the ufe of abftrad and general

terms, that they fan reafon generally.

When the relation among things cannotbe difcovered by immediate comparifon, themind falls upon an expedient to obtain thatknowledge.-.--.-That expedient isr--The dif-covery -and intervention of clearer and morefamiliar ideas.

When the carpenter applies a common mea-fure to two logs of timber--when' the gold..

fhilith tries two pieces of yellow metal by a,

qua fortis -they exert acts of reafoning.

When- the relations of things cannot be dif.

covered by the comparifon of two thingswith one ncd'iun--the fame fagacity of mindleads to the, difcovery of a fecond, third,fourth, or an indefinite number of media.-

In proportion as mens knowledge increafes inclearnefs and extent---they become more readyand dextrous in the ufe of fuch expedients.This is called a complex a6 of reafoning--.a chain of reafoning.---Illuftration of this -procefs of the mind.

The nature of fome fubjeas admits of alonger, others of a liorter chain of :reafoning.

The fciences. of Geometry and Arith-metic may admit of twenty or more Rleps.-Moral and political reafonings, feldoi of morethan three. or four.- Examples.

A fentence 'which -expreffes a fimrple a& ofreafoning-that is, when the relation is dif.covered by one 'nwdiuin, has been called a

C2

30

Syllogifm----a complex ac of reafonig iscalled a Sorites.-.--Origin of thefe terms,

Explanation of the parts and firudure ofSyllogifms--and of "the technical terms ofSyllogifmn. [See Latin Compend, part 111.

The faculty of Reafon is fufceptible of greatimprovement. [See 2d Divifion.]

Analysis of Genius.

GENIUS is not a new or different faculty ofthe Underfianding from thofe which have beenanalyfed-but certain fuperior degrees of fa-"culties common to all... 7 -- Remarks on vari-ous definitions of _it.

Genius .may be heft explained by its effcd1s.VM- Invention and Difrovery are the criteria ofgenius.--The difcovery of caufes, pr~inciples,laws of nature-----the ,forming new coi-

binations--or a newr and happier application.thereof in Science and Art-are the certainmarks of genius.

31

Genius has accordingly been uniformly a"fEribed to thofe perfons who are the authorsof difcoveries, inventions, or great improve-ments.-Confirmation--from the hiflory of in-ventors and difcoverers in the fcicnces and inthe arts.

In th progrefs of the arts, thofe who haveinvented in difficult circumfiances, are entit-led to greater merit than thofc who may af-terwards have brought them to greater per-feaion. -- Military and political genius chief-

ly depend upon circumfiances and fituation.

Genius has an :immediate relation to thefac~ulties of reafon and iragination.-Theexercife of thefe faculties illuftrated---whichlead to 'difcovery and invention:.

Th~e immediate caufes. of diverfity -of genius

explained -and illuffrated. -. Advantages aftrifing from the diverfity of genius.

Cir cumftances favourable to the produdionand encouragement of genius.-Genius toa certain degree' may be acquired.- Early

indications of genius.03

32

Conclufion.-Review of the powers ofknowledge.

The Powers of Knowledge illrated by the principles of General Grammar.

THE Analyfis of Thought may be traced inthat of language.---The powers of the Mindmay be known, by ftudying the fenfible fignswhich reprefent them--The caufe may beamined in the effe.

The Power of communication is a branch of

Reafon.---Societatis e vinculum ratio et oraio.-..Thefe faculties have a reciprocal de.

pendence on each other. -- Reafon direds informing and applying, figns.----- DiftinaInefsand perfeaion in the figns extend the powersof reafon.

The inferior animals are not altogether demprived of powers of- communication, but theyare incapable of forming. a language.-This does not arife fo much from the want of

oral organization, as from defedsi in the powers

which employ it,. --Without powers of form-,

33ing a language, man would not be much N'perior to the brutes.

Nature prompts men to make ufe of fenfi.ble figns, and teaches them to underftand oneanother.-------The caufes which produce thismutual intercourfe..

Language, in the moft general fenfe of thatterm, comprehends 61 all the means of ex."4 preffing thought." --- The thoughts andfeelings of the mind have their correfpondingfenfible figns.

The fenfibleigns, by which men hold inter-courfe, are either natural or articial.

Natural figns are rnodi-fcations of the fea-.

tures----variations of gefture-.-----modula-tions of the- voice.---Thefe confitute theoriginal or primitive language of every fociety,and are formed gradually as they are -foundneceffary.-d

The firft figns are fuch as ferve to reprefentprefent obj e~s, together with the attention di-reed to them.

34Abfnt fenfible objeas are firfi denoted by

imitative figns. -= Mental feelings and opera-tions by figns that are analogical or figurative.

The colletion of flgns, made ufe of in ori-ginal or primitive languages, is called NaturalLangug-e.

Natural language is fuffcient for the ordi-nary purpofes of communication in early andrude focieties, as appears-from the languageof favages-of children--of dumb perfons.

The figns of Natural language would bemultiplied and improved when men had no o-

ether mode of intercourfe.- Some of theclaffes -of natural fignns are more fufceptible of

improvement than others.-T-1he qualities ofthe different claffes of natural, figns.

The Pantomimic art, ancient and modern,

lhews what maybe effeaedby natural language.--- Anecdote of Cicero and, Rofcius on thisfubjeat.

The progrefs 'of :fociety 'and civilizationwould graduially difcover the bounds and de4.

35feas of-natural language.-- circunftances

and occafions of intercourfe which would ladto the invention of a more perfe mode of in-tercourfe. Caufes which would gradually

lead to the multiplication and application ofvocal utterance, and to the arrangement of vo-cal founds.

The Mind would readily difcover manyanlogies -betwixt the qualities of founds and of

fenfbok objefs-and the imagination wouldmultiply and apply them.

There are no records of Nations which

mark the firfi .eps of departure from naturallanguage, and the firt application of arucialfigns. -The difference betwixt natural andartificial f g ns.

The invention of artificial figns would beflow and gradual.No---Nonation could form a.fyftem of artificial figns all at once.

The firft artficial figns were not altogetherarbitrary, but muff have had fomce connection,with the things fignitied by them, or with the.

36natural ig ns.-- Na ral language is theInterpreter of the frft artfcia! figusd Theaffo'ciation once formed, nenzoy and habit wouldconirn it.-The ar/rial fgn would befubftituted in the place of the natural one.Convidions of utility would affift and pronmote this natural progrefs.

In procefs of time, the artificial figns wouldpredominate, the natural would be ufed onlyon particular occafions.----They are infepara-ble in every perf&t mode of communication.---- Even when artificial language has arriv-ed at its moft perfeQl fiate, frequent recourfemuf be had to natural language.-The per

fea orator mull be fiilled in both languages.-Thne qualities of natural and of artificial

Ji3 ns.

The difficulties and embarraffments which

would neceffarily occur to the inventors andimprovers of artificial language, have appearedto fome philofophers fo infuoperable, as to ladto afcribe it to a miracle.-There is no ne-ceffity, however, to have recourfe to -fuch in-k erpofition.--h 1e invention is withini the

37reach of the fagacity and ingenuity of man.-The Author of Nature has not only con.

ferred the neceffary power, but the difpofitionto apply and exercife it.

An artificial language is the joint refult ofInftin&, Neceflity, Defire, Sagacity, Labour,Experience, Reafon.- The fuperior geniusof fome individuals would overcome obftacles,fuggeft new analogies and modes of applica-tion. - The names of the inventors and im-provers of language buried in oblivion.The progrefs of language keeps pace with the

,progrefs of civilization and refinement.

In fobme nations, and in fome advanced pe.riod of their progrefs to civilization, a writ-ten language would come to be invented.It muft always be poflerior in its origin to afpoken language.- A written languageforms a communication between the fenfes offeeing and hearing.

Caufes and fituations which would renderneceffary figns of thought more permanentthan audible figns. The natural pfeps

38

which mark the progrefs of written language,from its rude to its more perfe& ftate.-Illufiration of this progrefs from the hiffory ofrude nations. An account of the Egyp-tian and Chinefe mode of writing, probablyfounded upon the firft rude attempts.

The defec's and imperfe&ions of Hiero-glyphical charaters would, in fome nations,lead to one of the nobleft and moff difficult in-ventions, viz. that of an ALPHABET.There are no records of this invention.-----Thetraditions concerning it.----Rude nationshave been difcovered who have no Alphabet.

The fieps which would probably precedeand accompany this invention.--An Alpha-bet once invented, was adopted by different na-tions.----An account of the origin of Cypher-ing, and of the invention of Printing, and ofthe eminent advantages derived from them.The original method of placing lines-and theancient inplements of writing.

The Science which explains the Rules andPrinciples which have direted all nations in

39

forming and accommodating Pgns for the pur.

pofes of communication, is called UNIVERSAL

GRAMMAR.

Caufes which render the bafis or fubflanceof- all languages the fame.

Caufes which give occaifion to particularGrammar.

The whole artificial figns which are necef-

fary to exprefs or paint thought, may be ar-ranged into certain claffes.--Univerfal Gram-mar explains,

Ift. The different claffes of fgns, and the

changes or alterations which they muf- necef-farily undergo.

zd. The principles which lead to fuch pofi-tions and combinations of them with refpeSIto one another, as the complete exp-reffionl ofthought requires.

ft. The d firent claj es of Signs, &c.

The claffes of Signs, or Parts of Speech, are notnumerous ; but various divifions, more or lef'scomprehenfive of them, have been adopted -by

D

40

Grammarians.----The firi rammarians re.arked only the important diftinlions of

Nouns and Verbs.-- -Attributives and Conneaives were in procefs of time added.-----The differences-in the claffes of figns muff be

taken from differences in the things reprefent-ed by them. Every dfi rent fign muff

be abfolutely neceffary, and muff perform anoffice or fundion which no other fign can do

for it.

The moft common divifion is into Noun,

Pronoun, Article, Verb, Participle, Adverb,pofition, Conjunction, Interjecion.

Noun.

Signs of that clafs which reprefents ful.

Jiances are called Subfiantivc Nouns.-- T hefe

fubflances may be material oi' mental-=}-finguMlar or general--abftraEt- or abfolute -real orimaginary.--Hence the different kinds ofnouns.-Examples..

The names of Q~alities, Relations, Time,Place, Number, &c. are included under the

ciafs of fubfiantives.--Whatever fgns re.prefent notions 'which are the bafis of othermental operations are called Nouns.In Univerfal Grammar, a fubifantive noun iwhatever may be the fubje o a logical pro"pof tion.Lxamples and illuirations.

Nouns Adjehlve are defcriptive of fubfIan-

tives.- -They unite with the, and the twoform one conception.-They are called Ad-jeaives, becaufe they add to the notion of nounOba-ta of quality.

Some adjealives denote limitations, modi'

cations, accidents.-ouns denoting- qualities and relations may be limited-but notthofe which reprefent individuals.- Com-mnon nouns, or nouns denoting claffes, may beboth limited and extended.-The differencebetwixt the noun abftra& and the noun ad..ajeaiveL, illufrated. -The clafs of adjectives

in- every language muff be very comprehen-five, but they do not admit of a perfedt ciaffi-fication.

The qualities common to fubftances adm-it

D2

Aid

of more or /efS."-.-Thiis difcovered by corn-parifon..-Hence nouns adjedive admit ofDEGREES OF COMP ARISON, commonly calledComparative and Superlative. The fuperla-live is itfelf foundedon comparifon.-Excefs,and the greateRft excefs, are marked by com-parative and fuperlative--Definite degreesare marked by particular terms. Someadjedives do not admit of comparifon.-.-Ex-

amples.

The degrees of Comparifon are marked bychanges on the termination, or by additionalwords. Some adjeives are regular, o-thers are irregular, in. their modes of compari-fon.---Adjedives of the fame clafs, in manydifferent languages, are irregularly compared.

Pro-nouns are fo called, becaufe they fuipplythe place of nouns-but that is only a part-of

their office.'-They denote the prefence ofthe obje&, which the noun does not.--.Theydiftinguifh the perfons who take part in dif-courfe, and fuperfede the frequent repeti-

43

tion of the noun.-Examples of perfonal pro-

nouns.

The ufe of pronouns is poferior to that ofnouns. ---- Children do not at frft make ufe of

pronouns. ------ The utility of pronouns illuftrat-ed by examples of fentences, in which thenoun is ufed inflead of the pronoun.- Thepronouns are more numerous in fome lan-guages than in others.

There are different claffes of pronouns whichare marked by terms denoting their particularoffice; E. G.-- -relative----demonftrative--per-fonal, &c

Article.

ARTICLEs have a reltion to common or ge-neral nouns.--Their office is to mark when thegeneral word reprefents the whole clafs, a fewof the clafs, or individuals.----They are ne-ceffary to render the noun definite in its figni-fication.---Proper name.s do not require ar-

ticles.---Exceptions.

Articles are common to all .languages.--Their number is different in different, lama

D3

44

guages.--""Articles in all languages are ge-nerally monofyllables---or fiort words.

The artifice of language, in limiting or ex-tending general nouns, is curious.------Exam-ples and illufiration of this part of fpeech.

Gender of Nouns.

THE noUnS, or names reprefenting animals,

admit of the diftindion of Gender.-Tisdiftinion is founded in Nature.-It is notneceffary that the diftmndion of gender be ex-tended to the names of all animals, but chiefly

to domeftic animals.----Utility and conve-

ence muff regulate the extenfion of them.--The names of many infeds do not. mark gen-der, nor is, it neceffary.

The languages of different nations are. notuniform with refpedr to the extenfion of gen-der to nouns.---It is reflrided to the natural

difindtion of fex in fome languages, in others

it is extended to all nouns.. The caufes'which t~he Grammarians have affigned for the

ctenfion of gender to all nouns, and the ad-

45vantages which are faid to be derived from it.

The analogies pointed out, on whichthis extenfion is founded.

The'advantages of confining the diftinaionof gender to thofe nouns which denote dif-ference of fex. The gender of nouns ismarked by changes in their terination.

The diftinction of gender, by a grammaticalartifice, is extended to, the names of qualities,or adjeives, in fome languages.

Numzber of Nouns.

COMMON or general nouns admit the dif-tin~tion. of number.®-The general namecalls up the idea of the whole clafs, but not ofan individual--or feveral of the clafs..'Hence the difiin~tion of fingular and plural

--more definite numbers are expreffed byterms called Numeras.----T-ihe diftin 61ion

of fingular and plural in nouns is to be foundin all languages, but different languages varyin their mode of marking it0. Some lan-guages have. a dual nu mber-By a fimilar

46

analogy they might have a ternaI.- Inon®

veniencies arifing from the extenfion of a dualnunb.er to all nouns and verbs.

saes of Nouns.

In all languages, the ative or paffive flatesof the noun, and the circumifances which at-tend the noun, are marked. In fomelanguages, by variations of the terminationcalled Cafes; in others, by prefixing wordscalled PrepoJitions. - -=The number of cafesis not the fame in, differentianguagc..-The more common and familiar relations aremarked by cafes in the ancient languages..- Modern languages havefew cafes, andmake ufe of prepof tions.-Th- e refpe tiveadvantages of thefe methods. The com-mon names- of the cafes, viz. Nominative,Genitive, &c. mark thefe relations in a vague..a~nd imperfeaL manner.

The Verb.

THE verb is an important part of, fpeech.'4-.nouns reprefent objeats a'nd qualities as

47exitling feparately.-.'The ejelnnts of df-"ourfe muff bo .- united, w -xe>nder' ngu ageproper Treprefentative of.-Thou gh#

No reciie -,definition caV- , given., whichwill apply to all thole words called Verbs.

When genzeral terms cannot be definedby any thing common in the nature of the particulars included under them, they may be de-defined by fomething common in their ufe orend.

The office of- the verb is to exprefs JQDG-MENTs--of exj/lencc, aflion, fufering, and re-lations belonging to objes.--The fimpleftand clea-reft notion of the verb may be acquir-e, by attending. toy the operation of judging.

'--.-That faculty determines the exilfingrelations of jundion, feparation, agreement ord-ifagreement, difeerned among _objeats.

The firif judgments which the Mind paffes,are. judgments of exiftence of the objeats ofits fenfations. ----- ence the fubftantive 'verb'is the original, radical verb. The otherwrords called Verbs, imply in theme the Verb of,

48

Exifence.-With terms denoting attributesor qualities in union with the fubantive verb,judgments may be expreffed. _.xamples offentences which have in them no other than

.fbatanive verbs.

Judgments are formned alfo concerning .Ener-

gies exifiting in objeats, or aaions exerted orreceived. - -Hene verbs denote exf/ence andenergy, and, according as the energy is com-municated or received, affume an afive, or apafive form or. voice, as it is called.

Ations or energies imparted or received,fuppofe an agent-=and a patient, or obje& of theenergy..--Thefe are in nature conneaed,and ought to be conneated in the expreffion of,the.-They may, however, be feparated.

-When, in a, verb, energy is flated asan attribute of the fubjdl, the verb is an ac~iveverb. When the eff'e6 of energy is flated asan attribute of the fubjed (the former obje~thaving become the fubjeE), the "verb .is a paf-

five verb. When fimple fate or condition isthe attribute, -the verb is a neuter verb-Ex-

49amples-vc'rbero, vapulo, liveo.-PDerenceof form not abfolutely neceffary.

The words called Verbs, are often renderedRill farther complex.. The fubjeis of

energies are moff frequently perfons; but ac-tion and paffion are, by gure, attributed attimes to. inanimate objecis, and perfonality isafcribed to them.-Examples.-Hence the

verb becomes ifform more complex, denotingexifience, energy, perfonality, and even numo

ber, united; for the fubjef of energy may beone or many. The precifion of fome lay.

,guages in marking numbers.

judgments, of contingent exiftence and e-

:nergy have a neceffary relation to Time.-..Notions of time are generated by a variety in

fucco'/ion. -Time is property divided intopaft and future.-- -- The common notion of aprefent time examined.----Paft- and futuretime admit of fubdivifions ; and in differentlanguages, they are fubdiVided with more. or.lefs_ accuracy.-------On account of the clofe con-neion of energies with the time of their exift-

5o

ence, they are conneced alfo in the form ofthe verb.

There is no definite number of imes or Ten-fes.----The ancient languages are more per-

fed in their tenfes than the nodern.--Theperfeecon of the Greek language in this re-fpe.--A few tenfes only can be marked in%the form of the verb.- -When more accu-racy is required in marking the times of ener-gy, other words muff be employed.

Afions and energies have a clofe connec-tion with the mode or mianner of their exiffence,and with other important circumftances.--E-nergies may be fimply firmed or indicated.---- They may be modified by inclination, de-

fire, Power, authority, contingence, &c.-Hencethe moods of verbs ; indicative, optative, fub-jedive, infinitive, imperative.--There mightbe other, moods .than thofe commonly enume-rated.-There might be an interrogative--a prom ifing mood. ,

The fimple ideas which make up the comr-plex notion of a verb, are marked in the teramination of the verb.

The idea of Energy reprefented by the verb

may be ftated, fiript of Affirmation, Perfon-

ality, Time, &c.---Hence the nature of theInfinitive-which becomes equivalent to thenoun fubftantive-and fometimes to the nounadjeaive.

Participles are adjefives denotingTime.---They exprefs the properties or qualities offubftances, and admit of comparifon.-'Grammarians have fuggefted many queftionsconcerning Participles and Infinitives.-Areparticiples neceffarily derived from verbs ?-orverbs from participles ? When participles orinfinitives are ufed as fubftantives, are theyreally fubfantive nouns? What is the difference betwixt ACTION, ACTING, to ACT?Is the' participle ever ufed as a fubftantive in,

the Greek and Latin languages ?

General obf ervations on the complex formof the Verb in different lPA fguages. --. The

difference in this refpe& betwixt the ancientand modern languages. Modern lan.guages fupply the defet of form by auxiliaries..

E

)INOIS LIBRARt,7

s2

--. The nature, ufe, and,, funaons, of auxili-ary verbs.

Some languages have a variety of conjuga-tions, or ways of arranging verbs according totermination.-In forne languages, there are

forms by which the fignification of the verb isvaried., Such are Frequentatives, Defidera-tives, Inceptives, &c.----Verbs called 1mper-fonal, are fo only in forn.- Enumeration ofdiferent claffes of verbs.

Adverbo

AaVER s are attributives, and are properlycalled or natural appendages ofverbs, and cannot be underftood without thema.-- Some adjed'ives or verbs, denoting quan-

tity or quality, have .adverbs joined to them,denoting intenfion or remiffon.-There areadverbs of relation, quality, time,, place,. &c.

-The cl affes of a~dverbs varioufly refrid1, ,mo-

dify, and abbreviate, expreffion.---The placeof the adverb is. near the verb, and, after neu-

ter verbs.

53

Prepojition.

T HE diflinaion ftated betwixt Adverbs andPrepofitions.--- The office of prepofitions isto exprefs the union of fubftantives, or themanner in which. they coalefe with adjetUves,verbs, participles.

The firft prepofitions denoted fenfible andlocal relations. Examples.----Were afterwards

extended to incorporeal fubjeSs.-Soeprepofitions are infeparable from verbs, andchange their fignification.-Prepofitions, in all

languages, fupply the def&l of cafes.Claffes of prepofitions.--llufration..

Conjunfion.

THE difference betwixt Prepofitions andC onjunc ions.'-Their office is to connect

parts of fentences. Examples.-=Though con-junaions conne&E the parts of fentence°s, they

frequently disjoin2 the vwauning-. Examptles.

ConjunaUons are either mere copuaives orcontinuati'vs.-The names of the different claf-fes of prepofitions -eiain their particular of-

FJ 2

54

flces.--Copulatives, disjunaives, adverfatives,

Interjeeion.

INTERJECTIONS are different from all theother parts of fpeech.--Their office is notto exprefs ideas..-but lates or modes of feel-

ing, or fentiment. Every different flate,or mode of feeling, has its own interjedion, viz.

of Admiration, Fear, Indignation, Contempt,&c.

The founds made ufe of are much the

fame in all languages.-Jnterjeions are theremnants of natural language-probably the

\roots of many other words in every language-- There are fewer interjeftions in the, mio-

4ern than in the ancient languages.

SECOND PART

OF UNIVERSAL. GRAMMAR.

Adnalysis of the principles by which the di rentc/afecs f Signs are combined, -in order to ren-der them a complete reprefintation f T hought.

LANGUAGE expreffes thought by confecutive

figns.--The connections and relations which,

5

fubfift in the elements of thought, muff be ex-preffed by correfponding conneaions and re-lations of the figns.

The immediate obje{ of grammar is thecompofition of afentence.--A SENTENCE iSthe complete expr//on of a complete thought.Remarks on the, definitions of a fentence byAriftotle, Quinailian, and modern granimaIruans,

A PERIOD is a fentence of a particular kind.----- The definitions of a period by Cicero andQuinilian, vague. Examples of fentencesand of periods.----Some fentences are propo-

Jitions, others not.

In rude languages, one fign would probablyexprefs a. whole fentence. As Human

thought unfolded, itfelf,, complex figns wouldbe broken down.-The parts of fentences, re

prefenting the parts or fraedions of thought,are called Claufes or Members.

Remarks- on the length and. fhortnefs offentences- the number- of claufes, &c.-

Illuftration of L'Abb6 GERARD'S fubdiviflonof fentences. --The rules of puneluation ap.plied to fentences.

The rules of fyntax and confirulion regulatethe order,conne&ion, and dependence, of wordsin fentences.-The principles which regulatethe pofition and arrangement of words in fen

fences, are derived from

ijf, The Natural arrangement, in which thefigns are placed according to the order fug-gefled by the natural inftinl of communication.-- This principle prevails in rude languages.

2d, The Philofophical arrangement, in whichthe words follow the connedions of the natter,

under the influence of reafon.

3dly?, The &centimental arrangement, in whichthe order of figns is regulated by the defgn ofthe fpeaker, and the efedl intended to be pro-duced, under the influence of imagination andpafions,.-.Examples of thefe arrangements.

Thef'e arrangements are to be found in e.very, language, according as natural inftind,

57realfon, or imagination, has been predominantin the formation of it.

Languages have been called Analogical,Transpoj7tive, or Mixed, according to the pre.valence in them of thefe refpeaive qualities.--- In early periods of fociety, the order ofthe figns or words, is moft inverted or tranf.pofed, becaufe the imagination chiefly direts inthe forming of language. Circumftances

may promote or prevent this effea. -Poetry,the firft mode of compofition in every lan-guage, promotes inverfion.

The ancient languages, on account of theirvariety of flexion, are more tranfpofitive thanthe modern. The Latin language ismore tranfpofed than the Greek.- The pro.

bable caufe of this.

The matter or fubjefl of difcourfe affeas thearrangement.- Some kinds of compofitionadmit of greater latitude in this refped thanothers. The general order and arrange-ment of the different claffes of figns in lan.guage.----The preference of particular founds

muff affea arrangement.

The ct~fonzary arrangement of every Ian-

~giage appears natural to thofe who ufe it, andunnatural to others.-Many different kinds

of arrangement are natural.-UNIVERSALGRAMMAR is the flandBard by which differentarrangements are to be tried.--xamplesof cufloinary arrangement which are not na-tural.

Conclufion of Univerfal Grarmar.-Ad-vantages of the ifudy of Univerfal Grammar.

-It illujirates the operations of the HumanMind, and tends to ftrengthen its powers.-It explains the jlruct ure of Language, and the,principles of Criticfnz. It ferves as a hiftoryof the mofit ancient and ufful art.-.-Theknowledge of it is neceffary, in order to writeor fpeak with propriety, and elegance.It furniffies principles, examples, methods of

analysis; and fuggeffs means of farther-progrefs.-,

59

PART IT,

OF FIRSt GENERAL DIVISION.

The' Art of iniproing tale Powers of Know/edge;

ill ut rated by the Hi!/lory f Logic, and an exl

planation of the principal Rules of that Art.

THE meaning of the terms culture, iniprove.ment, explained and illuftrated.-The law ofculture is general, and extends to the powersof inanimated as well as to thofe of animated and rational natures.

Man is diftinguiffed from the inferior ani-mals, not only by fuperior original_ powers..but chiefly by a more extenfive range of im1-Provernent.--The human infant, though in~.ferior in many refpedts to the young of otheranimals, contains the feeds of higher and no-

biler facu lties.-Man can acquire, by culture,

what- the higheft of the inferior animals cannot.

The principles .in the human mind, which

prepare and qualify man for high degrees of

6o

improvement; viz. Curiofity, Aaivity, andHabit.

The means of bringing the powers of know.ledge from their original to their cultivatedflate are either fuch as are natural or artyfcial.

Natural Culture.

THE natural means are fuch as nature fur-nifies and applies without inftrudion, or theaffihfance of art.-- The effeas of natural

culture may be traced to the earlieft Hate ofman.- -In infancy habits are acquired;

which, are effential to_ the future unfolding ofthe human powers-- t is difficult to draw

anl exadl line betwixt what is natural and what

is acquired.

The. powers both, of body and mind are

improved by every thing which gives occafion'(

to their exe cife.- The objcS s and circum-mflances which produce pleafan t and painfulfenfations in man, are the immediate caufesof the firft exertions of the powers of know-.ledge and, of adion.

The chief improvements of men depend upuon fociety-upon the intercourfe and colli'

fion of minds--upon the powers of formingand ufrng an-artificial language-the powers

of recording fads, and profiting by experienceand example----the powers of forming andmaintaining a political union.

The effedt~s of natural culture upon the

powers of knowle-dge, may be illuirated by aview of the.progrcfs of thefe powers, from a

rudv and favage ifate to a ftate of civilization.- ----Of the objea s, circumfiances and fitu-ations, which tend gradually to unfold them..- Of the kinds and degrees of knowledge

wich the progreflive conditions of men

tend to promote.--Of th-e gradual progrefsof invention and difcovbery, without any bene-fit from artificial culture.

Some of the powers of knowledge, in everycondition of mnan, receive their chief improve-mnehts from ttoe na nral tnea as of culture.--The external fey.-Pt-s, Memeory arid 'Imagination,

:are unfolded at an early period.-wthe na-

62

ture and means of that improvement whichthey may receive.

The powers of Judging and Reafoning are of

lower growth. -- Their improvement deupends upon the progrefs of other powers, viz.of AbfradEion, Generalization, and Language.."---They may arrive at great degrees of per-fedion by the experience and effeds of the inf

dividual, with the affiflance of general rules.The means of improving the powers of

judging and reafoning, without the affiftance ofgeneral rules, is called Natural Logic. -- Cer-tain favourable difpofitions of objeds and

circumflances--th e intereffs, occupations,.and paffions of men, furnifh motives whichexcite and dire& the rational powers.- In-this refped-the original -powers of fome inifdividuals, and the circumiflances in which they

are placed, may be more favourable than o-thers.---The natural Logician may be fu-perior to the artificial one.-------The defedtsof natural logic.

6)3

THOUGH the powers of knowledge deriv a

their firfi improvement from natural cul-ture, all of them are greatly afifted and pro-moted by artificial culture.- By art!Acialvulture is underitood the art of training the fa-culties of man by the difcipline of rules and:precepts, inftruaion and example.

That fyftem of rules and precepts, which ex"perience and fagacity have fuggefted and ap-plied for the improvement of the powers ofjudging and reafoning, has been, in later times,called LoGic. The povers of external fenfe,memory, and imagination, are lefs under the.direa ion of rules and art.

The general end or objed of this art is tofubjecq the powers of knowledge to voluntary,dire ion and methodical procedure, to render=them more aaIive, acute, and comprehenfive,,in the difcovery of the laws. of nature, and in

-the regulation of human condu&t.

64

Remarks on different definitions which havebeen given of the art of Logic.- The fepa-rate boundaries of Grammar, Logic, andRhetoric.

The affiflance, which the powers of know-ledge may receive from the culture of art, willbet appear from a ihort account of the origin,progrefs, and explanation, of the principal rules-- of the ancient art of logic.- This me-thod is better adapted to the purpofes of a firftphilofophy clafs, than an abftra6 or metaphy-fical explanation of the principles of this art.

The hiftory of logic may be convenientlydivided into three periods

1. The hiftory of logic, previous to the pe-riod of Ariftotle.

2. - from the time of Ariftotletill the revival of literature in Europe.

3. --- from the revival of litera-ture till the prefeht time.

Firf Period.:

T-HE powers of knowledge are exercifed

long before men attend to the mode. or man-ner of -their exertion. Principles in hu-man nature, which firft induce men to exer-

cife their powers of knowledge.

Men muff have frequently applied their

powers of knowledge to fubjeas of natural andmoral philofophy, before the exillence of anart of improving them.

The firfi rules, of this- art, like thofe of e.very other art, muff have arifen from the ob-fervation and experience of individuals--Rules are not effablilhed till they are found

neceffary and ufeful.-Difficulties and obifa-Iles, which occurred in the application of thepowers of- knowledge, would fuggeff, the ne.-ceff'ity of rules. Succefs or difappoint-menit,. in the application of thefe powers, wouldlead the firft phil ofophers to attend. to the,

means wvhich facilitated, and to the obfiacleswkrhich- retarded them.

F,

66

The rules of individual experience wouldfoon be multiplied.---They would beimproved by the number of fhofe who follow-ed them, and by the frequency of application.

In procefs of time, they would be car.ried, from individual or particular fubjeas, tofuch as are general.

The firif ftep towards an art of reafoning,like that of every other art, is a number ofrules, formed, as occafions and circumifancesfuggefied, without any bond of connedion a-mong them. T------ he charaaer and geniusof thofe, who efitablifhed or recommendedthem, would give effecE to the application ofthem.

The colleTion, of unconne&ed rules would,in due time, become thenfelves an objea of at-tention to philofophers. Their fubfer-viency to a common end, and their mutualconneiions and relations, would lead to claffifi-cation and arrangement. They wouldaffume the appearance of a regular art.

The origin of the art of reafoning muff be

67

fought for in the progrefs of philofophy in

Greece.-No peculiar modes of inveftigation or analyfis have come down from any ofthe more ancient nations celebrated for theirknowledge.----T he earliet period of Greekphilofophy furnifhes us with no fyftem ofrules of reafoning.

The rules of reafoning were, for a longtime, not feparated by the Greek philofophers

'from the other branches of philofophy..

No regular fyftem,. or feparate art, is to befound in- the writings of Plato; but manyufeful rules are interfperfed fur the purzfcationand regulationI of the powers of knowledge.. -he fame degree of progrefs may be ob-

ferved in the writings of the ffoical philofophers..

From. the time.-of the feven Wife-men inGreece, a growing attention to the e1Iablifh=menit of an art of reafoning, may -be obferved,

..-- Caufes which gave occafion to it.

i -The 'attempts then: made .to explain thephenomena of nature,. by eftablifhing hypo9thefes-t

68

2. The eflablilhment of the Greek fchools

of philofophy.

3. The diverfity of opinions among the phi.lofophers of that period.

4. The natural adherence of the fcholars to

the opinions of their maffers.5. The reciprocal attack and defence of

their refpe~tive opinions, in their private andpublic conferences.

Their nodes of reafoning, generally in the

form of dialogue, would foon difcover theneceflity and utility of general rules in con-duing them. Hence arofe the dialedicart, which, under the dire ion of vain, often-

tatious men, foon degenerated into an art ofwrangling or of -fophiftry.

This falfe and captious art., 'generally prac-

tifed by the floical philofophers., and others ofthat time, was more calculated to concealthan to difcover truth.---Vain -and oftenta-tious difplays of it called forth the indignationand talents of Socrates, who moft fuccefsfullyopp1ofed it. He endeavoured to eftablifh,in its place, a familiar, praatical, mode of rea-s

69

foning, founded upon juft views of the pafBons, prejudices, and underfiandings of ,men

-This new and dextrous mode of rea-foning, pradifed by Socrates, has, ever f nce histime, been called The Socratic Dialogue.-

Remarks on the principles, condu&, and ten-dency of it, in examples of it recorded byXenophon and Plato.

Upon a review of the fate and progrefs of

the art of reafoning, during the firft periodofits/hiftory, it will be found, that the rules, e-ftablifhed and pradifed by philofophers, chief-

ly refpe~ted the power of forming notions, andthe means of rendering them clear and diftinin the expreffion.----it does not appear, dur-ing this period, that the philofophers taughtor pra~tifed any artificial modes of comparifonand inference.

Though the notions formed from the im-.preffions which objeds make on the fenfes areneceffary, and cannot be altered, the mind ,iscapable- of various acts of attention directed tothem, by which they, may be rendered more

exact and definite.

70'

Clearnefs and diflinlnefs Qf ideas, the firfflep in reafoning, are promoted by analysis, d /poftion, and arrangement.-The inifrumentswvhich this art makes ufe of for thefe purpofes, are rules of Dfnition, Div!/ion, and

Clq//j/cation.

Explanation of thefe rules, and of the man.ner in which they affift and improve the powerof forming notions.,

Second' Period of the Ilftory of Logic.

WHILE,- the rules of reafoning chiefly re=fpeded the firft operation of the mind in rea-foning, much was wanting to give them theform of an-art..

The, clearnefs and certainty of inference de.pends, not only upon diftin&, notions, but

upon the previous judgments formed by, themind, and the modes of comparifon adopted;to difcover the inference.

.Arift'otle not onLy pradifed and improvedthe rules of definition, &c. but firft endea-

voured to circumfcribe the more complex opperations of Judging and Reafoning, by ef7ablifhing rules of comparifon and inference,and by inventing a general method of arrange-

vient.

The invention of the Syllogifm is a proofof the great genius and comprehenfion of A-riftotle. The firfi idea of the fyllogifin

has, without jubeen afcribed to amore ancient philofopher than Ariftote

The objet of Ariftotle, in the invention of

the fyllogifin, was to introduce the fame clearnefs. and certainty into other branches of Phi-lofophy, which had taken place in Geometryfrom which fcience he probably tooks the idea.of the fyllogifmn

The fyllogiftn is a complete analyfis of theoperations of reafoning-of the terms ex-preffing the ideas or notins--of the va.rious j udgments of the mind expreffed in pro.

pofitions-.-of the claffes and affinities ofpropofitions which enter into the fyllogifm.----.

See Logic Compend, part H1.

Explanation of the parts and flru&ure of thefyllogifm-of the fyllogific axiom Dc oniet de-nu/k-of the general rules which re-gulate fyllogifrns-.-- of the fpecial rulesof mood and figure----of the redu-tion offyllogifms.-'-.-.Examples of fyllogif.--See.Lat. Compend, part III. chapters i. ii. &c.

In the fyllogifr, it is effential,

Ift, That a comparifon be a ually made bTthe mind, of each of the extremes, with themiddle term.

2d, That, in the difpofition of the extremesand middle term., they -hall be arranged ac-.cording to the- order of their conneajion and-dependence--that the connedlion of the con-clufion with the premiff'es -may be clearly and,certainly difeovered.

When. the relations among _the terms arethofe of equaity,, it. is- of little moment howthe terms are arranged in the propofitions ;but, if the relations which are the obje& of thereafoning, be thofeaof fimilitude or diffimili-

73

tude, &c. it is then no longer indifferent inwhat manner the terms are arranged in thepropofitions.---Examples and illuftration.

Every kind of reafoning may be formed into a fyllogifm. .----A complex fyllogifm com-prehends finple ones.----The rules effablilh-

ed for the latter are applied to the former.

After Ariftotle had invented the fyllogifmus a model of reafoning, his next attemptwas to- render it more perfe&, by contriving

remedies againft its natural imperfedions anddefets.---Hence the forms of irregular Syllo.gifms, Enthymeme, Dilemma, &e.--See-LatinCompend, part HI. chap. vi.

As th-e truth of the conclufion in the fyllo-gifm depends upon the truth of the premiffes,;hence the attempts of Ariftotle to eflablifh thetruth of the premniffes by an analyfis of thenature of evidence, as certain or probable.-Of the principles and rules of demon-

flration-direa or indire&ft--a priori or a p/e

yriori.-.See .Lat. Compend, part _III. chap. vii,

As, notwithflanding the perfeion of this

logical inflrum-ent, Ariflotle found that it couldnot altogether exclude error, his next attempt

was to expofe the fources of error-to circ

cumfcribe all the poffible modes of reafoningfalfely and deceitfully, in the external forms ofParalogifms or Sophifms-.and to eflablifhrules for the detea ion and folution of them.--See Latin Compend., chapteY ix.

rfhe books -of Ariftotle, in which he has ex,

plained the dorine of fyllogifm, are calledAnalytics. --The name Logic was io: givento this art by Ariftotle.----It does not apear that Ari -flotle made ufe of the fyllogifm inhis other writings.------ Rules of difputationfeem to have been early founded upon it.

-The application of the rules of fyllo-gifm, and of method, to the management offimxple ;or complex themes.-c.-.See Lat. Com"

Pend, part III. ,chap. ix.

The hiftory -of logic continued--ThoughGreece was celebrate, for its ph-ilofophy -and

arts, yet-, long after, the time of.Ariflotle, theart of -logic perfeated by Ariflotle dloes not

Teem to have produced the fruits he expetedfrom it.- It was not adopted by his imme.diate fucceffors.-Probable caufes of this.-- During the reign of philofophy in Greece,the art of Reafoning was not feparated fromthe other branches of Philofophy.

The great admiration of Greek fcience, andthe reputation of the celebrated philofopherswho taught it, induced the Roman youth tofludy at Athens. ------ In procefs of time,the writings of Ariftotle became known atRome.- Anecdotes concerning the fateof Ariftotle's writings, and the tranfmiflion ofthem from Greece to Rome.

After the writings of Ariftotle became knownat Rome, a growing attention may be obfervedto the dodrines of the Peripatetic fchool.On account of the various fubjeds of them,and the fuperior acutenefs and ingenuity oftheir author, they were preferred to the o-ther Greek writings, thofe of Plato except-ed.- In particular, his Analytics and hisRhetoric attra ed much attention. AtRome, Rhetoric was cultivated along with Lo-

G

76

gic, as they confidered a knowledge In bothrequifite in the art of Perfuajion.

From the decline of literature at Rome, tillthe i2th or 13th century, the analytics ofArifitotle fhared the fame fate with the otherGreek and Roman authors. During thedark ages, fo called from the general igno-rance and fuperiition of the times, they werenegledled, corrupted, and the languages inwhich they were written were imperfe6Uyknown, only to a few perfons in cathedralsand monafferies.*- - Hence fprung the Schoilaftic Philofophy-a -corruption of Greekand Roman learning, mixed with the fuperftiation and theology of thefe times,

The objeEls of the Scholaftic philofophywere ufelefs and frivolous..--The infhitutionsand ;plans of fludy, then eftabliflhed, were fuitedto the fpirit and ambition- of thefe times.-The writings of- the Scholaftic Philofophers

were, in their flyle, barbarous, and altogetherdevoid of tafte.

The Greek philofophy, and particularly the

77analytics of Ariflotle, wee early cultivated. among the Arabians; and Commentaries of foreof the Arabic philofophers have come dow1to us.- --- By the conquefs of the Arabians

in Europe, the progrefs they had made inthe Rudy of the Greek philofohy, was unitedwith that which it had previoufly made in Eunroped

During -the Scholaflic ages, the art- of logibecame feparated from the other branches ofphiLofophy. -Caufes of the increafing at-tention to the analytics of Ariflotle, and thefubfequent- high admiration of it. Theprogrefs of philofophical and-theological con-troverfy promoted the Rudy of them.The fyllogifm was found an ufeful inftrument;for attack and defence,. in, carrying on thefe.controverfies._

'The analytics of Ariffotle foon became the-foundation of an obfcure and fubtile mode ofdifputation,. fuited to the fpiirit of thefe tiMes.-The talents of managing, and of excel-ling in 'debate and controverfy, became thechief obj ec~s of learned, ambitio - .-

G 2

78The whole fyftem of academical inifitutions anddifcipline, were fo eftablifhed, as to give full ef-fea to the progrefs of the art of Controverfy.---- A fyfterem- of rules founded upon the

analytics, for managing difputes, became thechief object of ftudy.

During the reign of the Scholaflic phofa.phy, the art' of ancient logic ingrof ed the,whole attention of the learned. -All 0-

ther fciences and arts were negleded as un-wQrthy of notice.- The whole plan of pub

lic education- as fo conduaed, as to prepare

and qualify for difplays of logical ikill and ad"

drefs.-Regular modes of difputation wereeft~ablifhed in the fchools, according to therules of fyllogifM. The authority of A.-riftotle on every fubje~t, previous to the revivalof literature, was univerfal and defpotic --The encomniums beftoxvcd upon his logic are-extravagant and ridiculous.

Third Period f the Hi//tory, of Logic.

A vIEW of .the caufes which led to the rewfloration of true, learning, and to the over

79throw of the Scholaftic philofopy-Theeffe~ts thereof tended to dirninifh the authori-ty of Ariflotle, and particulary to withdrawthe general attention from his logic.-Radi-cal defeas of that mode of reafoning and in-veftigation .

Philofophers foon arofe in different parts ofEurope, who difputed the authority of Arifto-tie on every fubjea, An account of theattacks made upon it in France by Ramus,Defcartes.---The difficulties they had to en-

counter, and the attempts made by them to reform the ancient- method of reafoning.

The art of reafoning received its greateft re-form from the comprehenfive mind of LordBacon in England. The -principles onwhich his reform was -eflablifhied.----The pro-grefs' of his labours, and the refult of them.

-H-is obj ed was not to reform the an-.cient fyflem-but to overthrow-it, and to eftw.

blifli a better mode of .reafoning in its place.His mode -of inveftigation is -dd ine~ated

in his works, "De A-ug~nntis Scienticirumt," andhis 4" .Novur Oirgdlnwam-"

G,3

8o

Lord Bacon was not the inventor of the induive mode of reafoning,buthfifwoapplied it to the interpretation of Nature.It was at all times, and every where, pradifedin the common affairs- of life. He firf taughtthe regular application of it to fcience and art.

The principles and procefs of induive rea-foning explained.--.-The common defeCts ofthe Induflive Procefs, viz.

ift, The drawing a general conclufion fromtoo few inftances.

2d, The overlooking differences in cafes ap-parently fimilar.

From, thefe defeds have fprung falfe hypotathefis in philofophy, errors in conduct, vulgarnotions of omens, unlucky days, &c.-- LordBacon's. rules of eftabliffling- a .legal indudion.

-The great d /?deratum is to diftinguifhbetwixt. an imperfedt and perfedt indudion.

Benefits derived from; Lord Bacon's works,,

and particularly from his new Mode of invef.tigation. The few' difcoveries made be.

fore his time, and the numerous difcoveriesmade fince, are the beft proofs of the advanftages derived from. his writings and example.

Sir Ifaac Newton followed the plan LordBacon had delineated, and improvedHis rules of philofophifing are founded on theNovurnz Organm.- --- Succeeding philofophers,in every department, have applied Lord Ba.con's rules, and profited by them, often with-out due acknowledgment.- Imitation ofLord Bacon's genealogical tree of knowledgeby foreign philofophers.

The experience of near two centuries hasconvinced the learned, that in Natural Philo-

fophy, experiment and jft induetion alone areato be trufted. The induo-ive procefs maybe fuccefsfully applied. to the- difcovery of the.laws of alind, as well as of matter.--lluftration.

Though, by the efforts of Lord Bacon and,his fucceffors, the logic of Arittotle was laid a-fide as an inftruinent of invefhgation, it fiillkept its ground -in fchools and univerlitie6, as

a principal branch of educaton ITccaufes of this explained and illufirated.

Various attempts have been made, in later

times, to accommodate the logic of Ariflotleto the general improvements in philofophy, bycommentaries, abridgments, &c. rThe

beft of thefe attempts have not eftablifhed anynew principle, but have removed fome defects,and feparated the ufeful from the uclef.-The. principle of the ancient mode of reafoningis radically defecive.

A comparative view of-the fyllogiffic and in-dulive modes of reafoning, and their refpec-tive merits and demrnerits fairly fRated.

Since the period of Lord Bacon, his method ofinveftigation has received. great -impr-ovements_fromn,.

ifi, The more clear and diflind notions ofthe powers of k-noxledge-their. operations- andofhices--their extent -and limits, by Locke

Hurme, Reid, Condillac, &c.

.2dly,. From the. many beautiful and corred

83fpecmens of Synthefis and Anafyfis to befound in their works, and in thofe of otherphilofophers.

The end and objes of the art of realoning,have of late been greatly promoted, by an al-teration in the manner of teaching it, adopted

in the univerfities of this country. Thebufinefs of a firft philofophy clafs is not now,

as formerly, confined to an explanation of thelogic and metaphyfics of Arifiotle. -- Thiswas an improper introduaion to the Rudy of

philofophy, and calculated to excite prejudicesagainlt logic..

An art of reafoning cannot be acquired by

-the mnol perfeai comlprehenfion. of its rules...The fure foundation of progrefs in thatart, mnuft be laid in training, -the attention of'the Mind,

1. To a careful -obfervation of' immediate,

faEns, the firfl principles of knowledge.2. To the kinds and degrees of evidence by

which truths are fupported..

84

3. T 'o difin and accurate methods of corn-parifon and inference.

4. To a fimple and regular procefs of analy"fis in the fi dy of every fubjea.

Defeds of the rational powers which muffbe guarded againft in a courfe of ftudy.--4Caufes which retard and prevent the improve-ment of the powers of knowledge, Obfla-

dies which may be removed, and means which.may be emjployed, to promote their, improve-ment,.- Conjeaures on the high degrees ofimprovement to which the powers of know.ledge may arrive, under the direajion of natu.ral and regular, modes of, inveftigation

ND OF THE SECOND GENE RA L DIVISION

SECOND GENERAL DIVISION.

On the Powers of Tafe.

I. ANAL YSIS of the Powers of Tate.

1I. Ti-in Art or Methods of improving them.

PART I.

Aalysis of the Powers f Tafte.

THE powers of take are original.-Theare a compound. of certain powers of know"ledge, and certain capacities of fenfibility.

The powers b'f knobwledge exrcifed aboutobjects of tafte, are the fame powers of per~cepton, judginig, and reafo in g, which ae m

ploye4 about obje~ts of Icience, .- Thereare, howtever, certain modifications of thee

powers, whichi may be refpedively adaptedto each of thefe obje~cs. ~-That modifica-

86

tion of the powers of knowledge adapted toobjeas of taite, the French writers call Beliefprit.- The difference betwixt Genius andTafte illuitrated.

The capacities of Senfibility which are calledPowers of Tafte, are in various refpe&s dif-tinguifhed from the other capacities of fenfa-tion, viz.

I. By the peculiar qualities in the obje&swhich excite them.2. By the external fenfe through which the

impreffion is made.

3. By the emotions being direly and im-mediately agreeable, without reference to anyother end.

4. By their being unaccompanied with de-fires or paflions, or the ftronger fenfibilities ofour nature.

5. By the peculiar effeas produced by them,orthe faculty of imagination.

Illuftration of thefe Particulars.

Many definitions have been given by dif&ferent authors 'of the powers of tafte -a

87''

proof that there is no good definition, and thatthat there are difficulties in the attempt.Definitions of the powers of taffe, and remarksupon them. Every good definition of

them muff comprehend both ingredients of thecompound, viz, original powers of knowledge,and capacities of Lcnfibilitv.

No regular analyfis of the powers of tafe isto be found in any of -the Greek or Romanwriters, though there are references to themin Ariftotle, Cicero, and %inffilian..-The abtra terms Tafte, has no equivalent in

the Greek or Latin languages. The

ancients have left finilhed models of tafte, but"few fpeculations on the powers of tate.

Thefe powers were not thought worthy ,of

fpeculation during the fcholaftic ages.

Since the revival of literature, many effayson the powers ogf tafte have been publifh-ed by

Englifh and French writers.--Mr. Addi-

fon's'papers, in the 6th vol. of the Spectator,contain the firifl regular analyfis of the powersor tafte in the En~glifh- language.- HJe has

H 2

8

been followed by Hutchifon, lume, Burke,Gerard, W~air, Allifon, &c.

The powers of tafte have bcen called by'Dr Hutchifon, internal, reflex, or fubfequent.fenfes.- -Foundation of the analogies bywhich they have been fo called, and particulary of the analogy betwixt them and the externalfne of 2J/6 ~er mm hichthyavboowcd W-h, niame.

That branch of the confitution of mind,called Internal Senfes, comprehend not onlypowers of tafle, ' but alfo thofe of virtue.-The former 'are the reflex fenfes of Novelty,Grandeur, .Beauty, Ridicule, Imitation.T he- latter are the moral fenfe, and the fen feof fympathy, which are intimately connealed

with the, former.

In condu~ting this analyfis in a Firft Philo-fophy CLafs, fom.L affiftance' may be receivedfrom confidering the powers of taffe under thefam iliar notion of fenfese

89An analyfis of the reflex fenfes will com-

prehend an explanation of

r. The original power or capacity of receiving agreeable emotions.

2. The qualities in objeas of nature or art,which call it forth.

3. The peculiar emotions which are receivedby the reflex fenfe.

4. The final caufe or purpofe ferved byeach of the reflex fenfes.

In the explanation of thefe fubjeds, carenuff be taken to avoid the ambiguity of cer-

tain terms which are fometires applied to the

reflex fenfe, and at other times to its objeas.

A naly sis o the eflex Senfe ofNovvelty..

I.. THEi reflex _fenfe of novelty may. be _dif.

tinguifhed from the emotions of novelty. -The mind at all times poff'eff'es this power;;the emotions are occafional, as ,thcir objectsare prefented.- The term Curiof zy, oneof the, firft principles -of motion in the mind,is fometimes applied to this reflex fenfe-

H 3

go

but it embraces, other objeds than thofe whichbelong to this reflcx fenfe as one of the-powersof tafte.

11. Novelty is not an inhcrent or poftivequality in objeds like extenfion and folidity.It is relative to the prcvious knowledge andexperience of the obferver, and the claffes ofobjecrts he has been accuftomed to obferve.

The objeCts of novelty muf be objets fittedto produce emnotions. -Many new objeCts-that is, obje~cs feen for the frf time, do notproduce the emotions of this fenfe,--The

proper obje~ts of novelty as a reflex fenfe, arenot merely the new, but the uncommon-rare.- -firngular-or unexpedc'ed.-.--Examples and

ill uffration.-Obje(_s not new inl certain cir-.

cumft~ances, produce the emotion of novelty.

Novelty, in works of art, is the refult ofgienius~-and compr ehends new inventions inart-niew diicoveries in fejence-or new views,

of obj ets formerly known..-lu ftration.

111. The emotions arif~ng from all the refiex

9'

fenfes, have in them, as a principal ingredient,the pleafure of active exertions of underfland.ing, and imnagination. -As new objeas mayoften poffefs other interefling qualities, it be.

comes more difficult to analyfe the emotion ofnovelty.- The peculiar and appropriate ef

motions of novelty, are wonder and furprife.-Thefe emtotions are temporary-not per.

manent- -and difcover themfelves by certainexternal marks.

IV. This reflex fenfe is in a great meafure

peculiar to man.-It makes its appearancein early years, and continues through life.The period o(-f youth affords the moft completegratification of it.. - - -The operations of this

reflex feni>, are moff beautifully defcribed byMilton,, inl the 8~th. Book of Paradife Loft.

The agree hle emotions of novelty, are thecaufes 'of thofe exe.rtionas of mind and body onwhic 1 future i-,npr ovcments depend. -- Theyare wifely inten ded, to excite to action, indulf-try, and difcove-Ty.

92

AXnalysis of the Reflex Senfe of Grandeur.

I. The reflex fenfe of grandeur may be difinguiffied from the emotions of grandeur.-The original capacity of difcerning grandeur,and of receiving agreeable emotions from it,exiffs in the mind at all times, though it is onlyexercifed when great objecs are prefented.-To the former, we afcribe notions of ac-

tive power-to the latter, paffive effeds.

I1I Greatnefs and littlenefs-are relative terms,

and derive their meaning from comparifon.- Greatnefsm-the objed of this fenfe mu tbe relative to the different claffes of objeds,and to the degrees of greatnefs that are familiarto the obf erver..-A fmaller objq& of oneclafis may produce the em otions of this fenfe,when much gr eater obj eds of canlother_ clafis donot produtce. them..

rrhe qualities.. in fenfible objects which af-

fed this fenfe, are,I. V.-Utnef s of Climenfion in extent, breadth,

or thickinefs ' p.er in fingle objcds, or ingroup of objcds having a variety of parts

93clofely united or related.-Exampes.

2. Loudnefs or f rength of found, proceed.ing from natural or artificial bodies.-Exam,

ples.

T . -a f1fthe e ets of thefe are fentions.They become emotions of tafte, in fo far as

by affociation they afe& the imagiation, andlead to the notyLus of that power and inte11igence which produces them.

3. From fome analogy or refemblance tothe great, in inanimate objets, great charac-ters, great virtues, great genius, are contemhplat

.ed with fimilar emotions.

I1. The peculiar and appropriate emotionsof this fenfe, are admiration-kv ain--- ex-

a/tcztion of mind. -Though the new and thegreat mnay be both united in the fame objeEa,and the, emotions may be blended, they are.fpeciflcally different.- -~The agreeablc emo-tions of novelty foon ft blide, and the object isdefected.- The- emotions of grandeur are in-6

creafed and enhanced by frequent furveys ofthis obje&, and new impulfes given, to theimagination.*

94

On Sublimity.

THE great and the Jublime are nearly allied,

.- any writers on tafte do not attempt tofeparate them.------ Some ades of difference may be obferve1 in the qualities and in

the enwtions. --- Sblimity may belong todifferent claffes of great ob cannotbe meafured by the'- fenfes.-It is greatnefs,abjolute, v hich does not admit of conzpari/on.Examples of fublimity.

Sublimity is afcribed metaphorically to cha-raders and virtues, and to a certain kind offtyle.----Illuf tration.

The emotions produced by f'ublime objedsmay be diftinguiffied from thofe of grandeur.--- Sublime objeas mingle with, admirationand elevation of mind, emotions of awe, ap-

prehenfion approaching to terror.- ---Thefublime and the terrible difigihd---e

marks on fome theories of the fub lime and

9S

IV. The final caufe of grandeur, or the purepofe. ferved by this reflex fenfe, is, to trainthe mind by the contemplation of fenfible and

intelledual grandeur, to greatnefs that is fpi-ritual and divine. The early direaion ofthis fenfe is of great importance to youth.

R eylex Senfe of Beauty.

THE analyfis of this reflex fenfe is more dif.ficult than that of the other refx fenfes.-

The caufes thereof explained.

I. This reflex fenfe, or power of 4ife

ing and relifhing beauty, may be diftinguifh-ed from the emotions of beauty. Thispow'er, though original in the human conftitu-tion, does not appear fo early, as fomie of theother reflex fenfes. - Young children feemnto have little perception of beauty.

II.- Beauty is an inherent quality in 'fomeobjeds. Trhe emotions produced by it,are always accompanied with a judgment offomething excellent in the object..-No com-kmon feature can be afeertained in all the dif~fereat objedls called BeautifuLo -. Exam~q

96

pees of a variety of different objects, calledBeautiful.

The term was probably fift applied to ceno

tain qualities of vifible objects, and afterwardsextended to other objes. -Analyfis of vifimble beauty in colour, figure, variety, r egularity, proportion

Analyfis of audible beauty, melody, harmoafly, expreflion.

Analyfis of metaphorical beauty-of virtue

charater, adion.

Analyis of intelledural beauty in fcience

works of genius.

Analyfis of the effreds of cuflom, fafhion'

utility, affociation, on the judgments of this

fenfe.

1II. The a greeable cmotions of this fenfe aredifferent from thofe -which are produced by-the new, or great, or fuLblitnle.- The ap-propriate emotions of this fenfe, are certain

97modifications of love, and maintain one uni-

form tenor of fweetnefs and gaiety.---Themoft powerfuil emotions of this fenfe are pro-duced by beauty in the human countenance.

4. The final caufe of beauty.-Remarksupon fome theories of the beautiful.

Reflex Senfe qf Ridicule.1. The reflex fenfe of ridicule is the power

by which we difcern, and ate affeaed by theridiculous, in actions and opinions.-.- It is pe-

culiar to man. -.--- " Smiles from recfyn flow."

This reflex fenfe is different from the poweror talent of ridicule.--AII perfons in fome

degree poffef's the former ; the latter is a raretalent. --Their refpectve boundaries fet-

tled.

II. Analyfis of the qualities in objectswhich affed this reflex fenfe.

JAL iaiculous aaions are adions of intelli-gent beings,

93

No qualities of inanimate objets affea thisfenfe;

None of the ations of inferior animals

Nor of infants, idiots, or madmen.

All ridiculous actions are palpable deviattions from the Jiandards of Reafon and CommonSenfe. Not criminal deviations whichexcite horror; but flighter, though not lefs ob-vious deviations, from the above tandard.

Ridiculous actions arc inconfent with theexercife of reafQn, and cannot-be fupported by

argument.

Specimens or examples of the kinds and de®grees, of faulty exceffes, or defects in action,which fall-within the range of this fenfe.--Various reifrictions and qualifications of themr.

The ridiculous in opinion, are f milar pal-pable deviations from the common fiandardsof belief and evidcnce.-Specimens and ex~amp _les of the- ridiculous in opinion.

99

I1 The nature and qualities of the emo.

tions which arife from this reflex fenfe, di&tinguifhed from the emotions of the other fen-fes.s Tlhefe emotions have a peculiar ex-preflion in the human countenance, fromwhich this fellle takes its name.

The general expreffion of emotion in thehuman face, to which the term Laughter is

given, admits of- great variety and diftinaion,according to the qualities in obj eas from whichit proceeds.

The rifible is altogether different from theridiculous, and may be diftinguifhed from it,

x. By the qualities in obj ecs which produce

laughter.2. By the very different emotions produced

in the mind.3. By Inicer differences in the general ex-

preffion of laughter.

Wit and humour are allied to ridicule.-The analyfis of them is difficult. Wit is

foinetimxes applied to the effe~ts,, but oftener

10-0

to the caufe or powers which produce them.-----Philofophers have endeavoured to cir"

cumfcribe the talent of wit within two or threemodes of exertion, and have condefcended onthe various fpecies and claffes of wit.-Ma.fy difplays of wit are not reducible to theeclaffes.--------They chiefly confift in prefent-ing contrafts----in difcovering fimilarity inobjets that are different, and differences in fim

milar objets----in bringing together thingsunconneaed. , Caufes and effeas difpropor.tioned to each other.

The talent of wit confiffs in readinefs, quick-nefs, and vivacity of imagination, and in cor-refponding powers of expreffion.--Shake-fpear's defcription of the Witty Mtan.

The emotions- excited by wit, are various---are fifrongeft in perfons of quick appre-

henfion and lively imagination. -Surprifefuddenly excited or checked.-Gaiety-.brilk aaivity of mind-quick fucceffion -of

thought, -&c.

Humnou~r may .be diffinguiffied from ridi .

I0

cule, though the fubjeas of them are nearlyallied.'-----Inconfifencies, incongruities, od-dities, difproportions in charaaers and condu&,not inconfiftent with good and amiable difpo.fitions, and even good abilities, are the fubjensof humour.--Specimens of fuch caprices,weak anxieties, chldifhnefs, vanities, &C.

The talent of Humour, confifts in aptnefs orquicknefs in difcovering fuch peculiarities,.to-gether with fuch exercifes of imagination, andpowers of imitation and defcription, as maygive them proper colouring.

References to authors diftinguifhed by theirtalents of Ridicule, Wit, or Humour, as- thebefl method of. afcertaining their, boundaries..--Remarks on Cicero's diftinajons of Wit-

and Humour..

The final' caufe- of ridicule--The pur-

pofes ferved by it.-In what fenfe ridicule mraybe confidered as a teft of Truth.--Defeats and:'imperfeaions- of this flandard.,

1'3

102.

Initation.

IMIATION has been confidered as one of

the reflex fenfes.-= 'Man is endowed with apronenefs and a power to imitate, and receivesmuch: pleafure from it.------- He imitates before he can difcover any end or utility in imi-tation.

Imitation is not a dire6t, but 'a feondaryfource of the pleafures of tafle..--.-The plea-fure is not received immediately from the obwjeEt-but from a reprefentation of it.

Thefine arts, or the arts of tafle, viz. Poe.try, Painting, Mufic, Sculpture, Eloquence,&ic. are all fo many different ways of imitatingNature.

rfhe obje~ts imitated. - The mode of

their imitation.--Thie 'inf-r-uments by whichit, is Oeelted, are different, in--the different arts..Some of the fine arts are diretly and immedi.

ately imitative ; others of them are fo, mndi-.redly.--- Exam ples--lluflration.

103

Though Nature be the fole flandard of imi.tation in the fine arts, principles are admitted

in them, by which the lines and features of

Beauty, taken from a variety of objeas, are

formed into one whole, and produce a great-

er effea.-. Imitation not confined to beau-

tiful objets.- Mean, difagreeable, offenfiveobjeas, may be imitated, and give pleafure.

Perfeaion of imitation is not the ftandard,but approximation to it. The objea muff beperceived as an imitation, not as a prefent realobjet.

The emotion of pleafurereceived from imitation in the arts, may be diftinguifhed fromthe emotions arifing from the real objeas.---Were they the fame, the pleafure from the ori-

ginal would never fall fhort of the copy.-

This is not the cafe. There may be per.

fea imitation without pleafure. Examples.

The emotions of pleafure received from imi-

tation, are chiefly intelleaual, and arife,

x. From the aaivity of the imagination in

104

'comparing the imiation with the original.

2. From the perception and admiration of

ikill, and defign in the imitation.

3. This is enhanced ,by the difficulty of theimitation-from the difparity between theimitating and. imitated objed.--from every

circumfnface which increafes the difficulty.'4. The final caufe of imitation. ----- The im,

portant purpofes ferved by it as the inftrumentof utility, or of pleafure and improvement

Remarks. on the moral' fenfe, andfenfe of'fympathy.----Their connedion and affinitywith-the dire& fenfes of tafte.- Their influ-ence, and.- authority over them.

PA RT ILe.

The Arts or Methods of Improving thej Powers~

of Tafte.THE powers of tafte are- capable of culture..-The progrefs of, taffk in individuals

and in nationls, affords fuffici ent proof of

1 05

their improvable nature. The nature

of that improvement of which they are fuf

ceptible.

Though the original powers of tafte be pofwfeffed by all, yet all do not poffefs them in thefame degree-nor does any one indivi-dual poffefs all of them in their highet degreeof perfe&ion.

The powers of tafte are a compound of cer-tain modes and varieties of the powers ofknowledge, and of capacities of fenfibility.

..Each of thefe claffes of powers are im-provable--though not in the fame degree,nor by the fame means. The natureof that improvement- which belongs to each.

---- That happy union, or combination ofthofe flimple 'powers, which c onftitute a goodtafte.

The improvement of the -powers of .know,.ledge, direted to the objedts of tafte,. con.ft itute 'a corref tafte-r---of the, powers offenfibility, conftitute, a delicate tafte.--The:union of thefe in the fame individual, and ia;

io6

their higheff degrees, conflitutes the moft per-k-t tafte.

Though the fine arts be the chief provinceof the powers of tafte, they extend their influ-ence to every branch of fcience or of art --t~o condut and manners-to anufements as-

-vrvll as to ferious purfuits.

The original powers of tafte are the fame inall.-- Diverfity of tafte arifes from-differentmodifications and proportions of them in dif-ferent individuals---from the predominanceof fome of them over others, and from the un-

equal improvement of them.

T'hough there be great dixrerflity of tafte,there 'are general principles about -which- menare as much agreed as in morals. There-is, therefore, a fl andard of tafte, though it be

not a perfet one.-It is ereated on original

fimilarity in the powers of tafe---on fimi-lar laws to which the imagination is fubjeatedl

--confirmed by the general confent and ap-probation of all thofe who are qualified tojudge in matters of tafte.

The fiandard of tafle is a fandard of apaproximation-.---The things to which this

fandard is applied, do not admit of an exaLor accurate meafure.-----t determines, excellence, but cannot. fettle competition.Difference of taffe is not a proof of a wrongtaffe. -- R-emarks on the common maxim"D eguftibus non difputandun."

The original powers of tafle are indireily

improved by every thing in the fituation ofman, which has a tendency to produce clearand difindt apprehenfion-to refine and re6

gulate fenfibility----by fituations and circum-flances favourable to correanefs and delicacyof moral feeling.

They aire direfi ly improved-by furnifh~ing proper objeds, and. occafioiis for their ex"~ercife---by prefenting the beft models, andpromoting a familiar acquaintance with them-by rules and infirudions, founded upon

experience, applied, to them

The rimprovement of the" powers of tafle oc-cupy too f'mall a proportion, of the Academical

08

Courfe.---They are not only fufceptlble of

early culture, but of early corruption and

wrong direion.-They are not onlyfources -of elegant pleafure, but they promoteand -encourage thofe habits of inveftigationand analyfis, upon which progrefs in fciencedepends.

The fine arts, or the arts of tafle, Were confidered by the ancients as an important branchof education. They were found to prowduce powerful effeds upon the minds of men,

-.. The ancient views of the dignity ofthefe arts hinted by Plato, Strabo, and Plu-tarch, were entirely overlooked in the fucceed-ing periods-rand were loft in the Gothic andScholaftic ages..- _-Some -of the fine arts thenfell into the hands o®f ignorant artifts, and havenot yet altogether efcaped from fuch degrada-*tion.

An Academical Courfe of Education cannot

embraee the whole of the- fine -arts.-----

The models. of Painting, Sculpture, Mufic,arnd Architedture, cannot, be prefented or a-nalyfed in a Courfe of Academical Lealuress

109

---- In proportion as any of the fine artsdepart from" their cdmmoi origin] and dependupon mechanical habits, they become the lefsproper fubjecs of general (peculation,

The departments of tafte bet accommodatedto the ends of Academical Education, are Hiftory, Poetry, and Eloquence. The mo.dels thereof can be prefented and analyfed.

----The claims of Hiftory to be ranked a,nong the fine arts.

w ,

An Academical Courfe of Lecures on the measoinProving the Powers f Tafie -Jhould com-.

prehend,

L. AN explanation of the Principles andRules of the Art of Criticifml.

II. AN application of them in an Analyfisof the principal models of Compofition in U1if-tory, Poetry, and Eloquence.

X 1

I. TVie Art of Criticl/n.

TIHE object of this art is to furnifh rules forjudging in the fine arts.- There mufl becompofitions and models before critics.--Menof genius form rules to themfelves, which o¢thers follow.

The rules of this art, like thofe of every o4ther, are founded upon obfervation and expecrience. Men of judgment and fagacityobferve what gives, and has always given pleamfure, in all ages, in the produdion of the finearts.-F--Trom obfervation of the effels, they

proceeded to inquire into the caufes ofthem.-From this they -concluded what' ought to

pleafe, and ellablifhed rules of pleafing,

The rules of the ancient critics were follow-ed implicitly till the reftoration. of literature.

-After this period, critics arofe, wholhooked beyond the ancient rules--------to the na-.

ture of man--his capacities of receiving -plea.fure--- to the general. principles of the arts

Ito the end -which the artills have in view

L-to the means by which that end may be

belt effeated.

The office of the critic is not to praife or tocenfure-but to difcover what deferves praifeor cenfure. 1k- W who judges of the produc.tions of others, ihould know not only whatthey are, but what they ought to be.There are fpecial rules of criticifmn which be-long to the refpehve departments of the finearts..

The rules of eriticifin are ufeful. -Theydirst and improve thefaculty of judging.-They "lead to the caufes or fources of plea

fure. -- Thy determine the kinds and de-

grees "of pleafuire which the objels of tafte arequalified to give*.-.--hey furnifhi reafons for-

approbation or difapprobation.--They pro-mnote the improve ment of the _intelleanual

powers.

Objeaions againf[ -the rules of criticifin,- an-fwered.-Rules do not cramp, or reftraiagenius.-They can take nothing from, ge.

nius, but may prevent errors and miftakes.K 2 T

-Men of the greateft genius-have often er-red by transgreling rules.-Defeds in ge,.

nius are improperly afcribed to the ftrkt ob.

fervation of rules.

Illiberal, capricious crkicifn1, may be occaffionally hurtful,

II. Analysis fhe Principal Models o f Coznprtiono

INTRoDucTIoN.-PreviouS to an analyfis in

the Englifh language of compofitions in Hif-tory, Poetry, and Eloquence, it will be ufefulto explain,

1. The origin, progrefs, and peculiar -Qua-

lities, of the Engliffi Language..

2. The' Elements -of Englifh Compofition-.- V.ords--S entences-Idiom-Style.

1. Origin and Progrefs of the Eng4Jh Language..

rThe principles of Univerfal Grammar form

the bafis of all: particular languages...-

II3

Caufes which give occafion to particular lan

guages, and their different modifications,

though from a common fource.- The pro-

grefs of language in every nation muff keep

pace with the progrefs of civilization, of fcience

and art, and of intercourfe with other nations.

-- The language of no one nation has arriv-

ed at its moft perfet fiate, without receiving

affiftance from other languages...

The modern lknguages of Europe feem to

have been 'derived from three or four more

ancient languages, which have been called

Mother Languages.-- They are o called,becaufe there is no record of more ancient lan-

guages from which they are derived.

Origin of the Englifh language.---The

primitive language of Britain, previous to the

Roman invafion, was probably a dialet of the

ancient Celtic.-Changes upon the original

language would be produced at different pe-

riods by the the conquefts of the Romans,Saxons, Danes, Normans.

The Bafis of the prefent language of Bri-K 3

" 4

tamn, is Saxon, Greek, Latin, and French.It has undergone many alterations and fn-

provements, from the introduaion and iudy ofGreek and Roman literature-from theprogrefs of philofophy and the arts -of ci-vilization and intercourfe 'with other nations-and particularly from the extraordinary ex-

tent of its commerc, and the adoption of newterms- from cvery quarter of the world.

The progreflive alterations and improve-ments in the Englifh language, will be beft ob-ferved in the progrefs of Englifh compofitions,and particularly from the progrefs of poeticalcompoition).s.-Illluftraion.

Every ,language mnuff have its own grain-mnar. -The rules of gramm ar are- der ivedfrom the principles and cuftom of the lan-wuage, and do not produce the.-In theIr{[ flages of a language, there are no gram-rnars. -Grammar is a colledion of rulesfounded' upon an analyfis ,of a formned lan-guage. Remrarks upon the grammar ofthe Engiifh hii<;uaage, and _on thofe parts whichdemand particular attention from the fludcnt of

Engliflh compofition, viz, the Auxiliary Verbs,Prepofiions-M. Horne Tooke's theoy ofPropofitions and Conjunions.

A comparifon of the Englifh language withthe ancient languages, and- with tme of themodern languages with the itandardproperties of a perfect langiage, viz. Clearnefs, Diftinftnefs, Energy, and revity.

2. On the Elements of E' Go?? ztion.

On words-their fignification, literal or fi-gurative.-G-----On fynonimes-thcir ori in andufe. Idrsioms or forms of expreflion pe-culiar to the Englifh language. .. 'he powerof ufe and. cuftom in language.

Sentences are fimple or complex -T'hemembers or claufes of fentences.-Thelength or fhortnefs of 'fentences.-.-The ge-neral ftruwaure of Englilh: fentences, and ar-rangement of the parts or members of feinmtences.--.-The relative pofition of the differ-ent parts of fpeech in Englifh fentences..-The reqjuifites of u~nity, firength, and har -

ii6

vzony in fenteces.-Examples of fentences,which have and have not thefe requifites.

On Style,

Style is that peculiar choice of words, andof their arrangement, by which compofitions

on the fame fubjea are diflinguifhed from eachother. _ The term Style,-from the ancientStylus, was tirif applied to the comparativeclearnefs, brightnefs, or elegance, of engravedletters.-.The caufes of fuch differences wereafcribed to the ftylus, or infrument. Itwas afterwards transferred to the modes ofufing language, which produced analogous ef-fees.

Suech different effedts may be obferved in e4.

very mode of comnmunication.- Dumb menmay -be faid to differ! in their ftyle. -- In rudeand favage nations, their chiefs, or leaders,addrefs their followers with fimilar diftinc-tions, as the poliffied orators of Greece orRome.

Every perf'on who fpeaks or w"rites, may be

'flid to hav e a (lyle of his own; but, like differ.ences of characer, thofe only of prominent feamtures can be particularly marked. A riters

of great genius are as eafily diftinguilhed bytheir pecliar ityle, as perfons of great beautyby the features of the face.

Inquiry into the caufes of the great dverfityin ftyle.- On account of the intimate con-

nexion betwixt thought and language, differ-

ences of (Lyle muff be afcribed to original dif-ferences of intelligence and fenfibility in the

charalers of men---to certain predominantvarieties- of the powers of imagination, difcern-ment, and of the paffions.-Style dependsnore upon differences of fenfibility than of

intelligence.-JllIuftration of the. caufes ofdiverfity of (Lyle, by their effease

The ancient critics made little p rogrefs ini

the analyfis of (yle.--Accordinig to their o0pinions, differences of flyle chiefly dependedupon the diff'erent qualities of lang uage, as

plain or flgurative--and of the fubjeaa.OMNMO

The Greek and Roman di(LinaSions of (Lyle.

The qualities of ftyle- may be diftinguifhedinto thofe that are ential, and fuch as arechiefly ornanzental.- The effential qualities,Perfpicuity, Propriety, Purity, Simplicity,Energy.--The ornamental qualities areInverfion, Figure, and Harmony.# The requifites. of Perf'picuity, Propriety, Pum

rity, and Energy of Style.-Examples fromwriters difiinguiihed by thefe qualities of tyles.-.-- The want of thefe requifites will renderflyle obfcure, affefled, and feeble.-Exampleof thefe defec's and imperfeaions in Ilyle.

Analyfs of the ornamnental qualities of ffyle[See the Synopsis of Rhetoric.]

Rules for- acquiring a good ftyle.-Immrprovemnent in flyle fuppofes a critical know..

ledg of anguge--The ifyle muff be fuit..ed to the charader and to the fubje--The effential qualities of fty-le fhould be thefirft objed of the fludent.a---The peculiar ex-.cellencies of the flyle of diflinguifhed writermiuff be fludied and imitated.m-The nature

of that imitation of ft'yle, which is ufeful and

" 9

laudable... -- Frequent el'ays in compofitionM.O- MRepeated corre~fions.

Analysis of Eng/h Compotion.

THE term Compofition, may be applied either to the external form, or to the matter or

fubfiance of compofition. As the wordsare bound together by certain laws, fo is the

matter by certain conneIting principles.

Compofitions have been divided by LordBacon, according to the faculties of the mindchiefly employed in them, viz. Memory, Ima=

:gination, and Reafon. A view of thedifferent departments of human knowledgeaccording to the above principle of divifion.

Compofitions may alfo be divided accordingto the ends which -the comPofer has in view;

...- Thefe ends are,

I. To prove fome propofition , _or to conevince the judgment.

2. To narrate faaCs.-.for information, or

inflruaion.

I26

T To excite emotions and paffons-tperfuade.

'According to this principle of divifion, com.pofitions are either Philofophical, Hiftorical,or Rhetorical.-.Under this lafi head, are in-

tlu;dd all poetical compofition .

Philofophical or Didaflic C'ornptioC.

Thefe. affume different forms-Effays, Dialogues, Syflems of Science-which have each

their refpedive rules and form. Thyrules of conduLting philofophical difcourfes be-long to Logic. -{See Latin Compend, De heaviatibus.]

In the following analyfis of Hift orical andPoetical Compofitions, the attention- of -the

Etudlent will be particularly direaed,

i. To, the particular end which the corn-pofer -has in view xin the different kinds of coin-

pofition.2. To the nature and qualiies of thefe na~

terials.

I Y

3. To the means or methods by which thecompofer effets the end, viz. by Seleajon,Arrangement, and Style.

Hiforical Coipofitions.

The origin of hifforical compofitions.--- -There is a natural propenfity in man to tranfmit to pofterity the memory of great events.Rude nations, prior to the invention of letters,have their hifforical memorials, viz. Mounds ofEarth, Pillars, Traditions, Pefiivals, &c.

The poets are the firft hiftorians in the cha-rader of Bards, Scalds, Minfrels.-.The re-mains of this form of hiftory-have come downin this country, almoft to the( prefent times.

iliftory is a narrative of fads and events,and is either,

i%. Civil, relative to the conduct of men infociety.

2. Natural, relative to the, produEdions of

niature in the animal, vegetable, and mineralkingdomse

122

3. Sacred, relative to religion and the goAvernment of the Church.

ihis analyfis is confined to civil hifforyA

i. The end which the hifiorian has in view,is information and inflru&ion,

2. The nZaterials upon which he works, are,

Fit fi, The counfels, enterprizes, sand anionsof men, relative to the great interefls of Socie-ty, Peace, War, Government, Laws, Religion,Manners, Arts.

Secondly, The immediate caufes of events,and motives of the a~tors.

Thirdly, The charaters of the principal aggents.

.Fourth/y, Important and pertinent refleaionseccafi onally fuggefled in the narrative, andconcif ely .expreffed.

3. The hifizorian attains his end by hispowvers and fkill in the arts of Sele~tion, Nara.

ration, Defcription, Arrangement, and Style.

Firfi, His powers. of feleEtion are employed

123

in the choice of fuch naterials as are adapted

to the end he has in view, and in applying therules of evidence to them.

Secondly, 'The proper qualities of hifloricalnarrative, viz. Simplicity, Intereft, Brevity.----Examples of Iiifturicai narrative pofin

-thefe qualities.Thirdly, Defcription may be diftinuifhed

from Narration, and from Defnition. e-I

luftration,

The obojeas which the hiforian has to de-fcribe, are fenfibl. objes.-4 nternalobjcase

----Seitimenlets.--Emotions.-Objeds, fenfi

ble and internal.-Extraordinary events.

C har ateIrs.

The manner of condu &ing defcriptions istwo-fold, dircl and indire.--A direct de-

fcription delineates the object, by an enunmera-.tion and felea'ion of the parts or qualities of

the objeac defcribed.- -An' indireet defcrip-

tion delineates the fe:eling s and cmnotions pro-,dcdby the object& on the min-d of the fpec-.

tator.----Exam!ples of direst and indire t de-M

feription.

1 24

A comparifon of the dire and ndirefld.-frription.----Some objeds are beff defcribeddirectly-others, with more fuccefs, _ndi-recly. The defcription of great and in-terefting events partake of both--The hif.torian is moft fuccefsful by indireli defcriptionof mournful or calamitous events.

Characters may be defcribed direfly orindirely.-Examples from celebrated au-thors, who defcribe the fame charaters di-retly and indirely.----Rules of defcriptionapplied to the defcription of charaaers.

Difference betwixt ancient and modern hif.torians in their mode of condufting hifforicalcompofitions, particularly relative to theSpeeches of the Adors.--Ancient hilloriansdifcover but little political knowledge.Modern hiftorians have availed -themfelves ofthe great progrefs which has been, made in thefcience of Politics.

4. Analyfis of the principles of HifloricalArrangement. --- The order of nature-.orthe order of tinme and la-ce--is the moft gene"

125

ral principle of arrangement.-But thatprinciple muft fornetimes give way to the or-der of cazife and effef. Tranfitions anddigreffions in hiflorical compofition, requirefound judgment and good tafte.

The rules of hifforical compofition are ap-plicable, with confiderable modification, toAnnals, Memoirs, Biography, &c.-Eachof thefe have their fpecial rules.

g: The qualities of ifyle adapted to hiflori-cal compofition,. area Perfpicuity, Simplicity,Dignity, and Elegance.-Some kinds ofiyle, and fome kinds of figures, are altogetherinfuitable. in hiftorical compofition.--..-Theifyle of hiftory muff rife or fall with the fub-jed~-Remarks upon the excellencies or-faults of the principal ancient and modern hif-torians. _ The proper talents of the hifto-

nian.

The utility of the f udy of .Civil Hiffory..-The advantages which it dcrivcs from the flu-.dry of geography and c'hronology.-.---The efA

fe s of hiftorical knowledge on other branches

L 3

126;

of Pcience.---w-.A juft talk for real hiftory,early acquired, is the bell prefervative againftthe enticements of fi~titious hiftory.

Poetical Conpo ftion

Poetry is the art of painting objeas in mea-fured language or rhyme.--The meaning ofthe term Poem in the Englifh language.Poetry is diflinguifhed from Proe, both by thematter and the forma--- by the operations ofthofe powers of mind which are employed inthefe different kinds of compofition.

The general end of poetry is to pleafe--thatis, to excite agreeable fentimnents and, paffions,or ative and awakened ftates of mind.

The means -by which this end is effeCted,

are Fi~tion,' Imnitation---arbitrary Arrangement,-meafured Language or Rhyme-a Style

inverted-Energetic-Figurative.

The origin of Poetical compofitions. ---Poetry is the firft mnod of compofition, and is

127

-prior to the invention of letters. Caufes

which promote or retard the progrefs of Poet-ical compofitions. Early and urcultivat.

ed periods of fociety, are favourable to orig.nal genius in poetry. Poetical coipofi.tions are affeCted by the prevailing lpirit andpaflions of the times.

The connection betwixt Poetry and Muficin the fl-t ftages of their progrefs.-Advan-tages of their union..-Effeas of their fepa.ration.----The love of fong is natural to man.- - -Illufration. from the hiftonies of rude na-tions.

Though the general end of poetry be topleafe, that end may be affected by great di-verfity in poetical. compofitions. -All. poet..ical compofi-tions may be included in thefethree claffes, viz. Defcriptive, Narrative, andRe prefentative.

x . Def criptive Poems.

Defcriptive poems are thofe in which thepoet affeals his end, chiefly by raifing piatures

12

or images of pleafing obje s. -- 'The chief

claffes of Defcriptive Poems, are Odes, Paf-torals, Elegies, Satirics, &c.Of each ofthefe, there are varieties.

The Ode is probably the firf form of cor-

pofition in every country. The Lyric Poets,

Alcaus, Tyrtmus, and Pindar, appearedfirfi in.Greece.-The name LTric, given to this

fpecies of Poetry, is a proof of the early con-

nelion between Poetry and Mufic.

No exact definition can be given of the

Ode, which w~ill apply to-every poem that

goes by that name.---- t is a poetical ex-

preffionn of high and animated emotions of fen-fibility ; and is lefs fubjedced than any: otherfpecies of poetry, to the r ules of method, or,of language Odes have been brought un-

der thefe three claffes, according to the emo-tions which are expreffed.- The Sublimre jthe Tender, and the Gay or- Sprightly~-According to the fubjeasin, they have been di-

vided into the Sacred-Heroic--Moral.---B3old beginnings, unexpe6ted excurfions, and

poetic ardour and enthufiafrn, are the charac-

129

teriflics of this rpecies of compof ton.-Theform of odes is different.-Exaples of thedifferent kinds of odes.-Charmer of theprincipal lyric poets.----Remarks on theform and obje~ls of thefe poetic compofitions,called Madrigals, Sonnets, Epigrams, &c.-allof which belong to the defcriptive clafs.

Patoral or Rural Poetry.

The end which the paftoral poet has in view,is, to excite emotions of the gentler paffions--,-Sentiments of Love, Innocence, andTranquillity.

This end the poet effes by an imitation ofrural life--. --by a defcription of the moftpleafing objeats to be found in it,, viz, thebeauties of External Nature-.-.the fimplicity

and ingenuity -of Rural -Charaaers, and Man.-ners, and Arts.

The paftoral _or rural poet, like other poets,does not confine himfelf to an exa(t imitation,but feledts and embellilhes fuch objeas as. arefuited to his end. Not only the external

130

objeis but the characters and paflions whichare deferibed, muff be fuch as tray be foundin rural life -icious and violent charac-ters and- pafions, are altogether unfuitablee-- Coar fe and grofs manners cannot leafein the defcription.

Pafloral poetry admits of a conflderablerange with regard to its fubjeis.-Somepaftorals are confidered of a higher, others ofan inferior order.-Critics are not agreedabout the extent or limits of pafforals. MMThe conditions of fhepherds in-countries and_ages truly paftoral, admit of confiderable dif-tinaions in their character, with refpea toknowledge ahd improvement in fome of thearts.---Some have been clifpofcd to bringwithin the range of pafloral poetry, all poems-written i a- f mple and artlefs manner.

The form of- paflora] compofitions may bed ffrlptive, narrative, reprefntative-in theform of dia/ogue---Examp'le of thefe dif..ferent forms.-..-The ftyle---natural, f mple,elegant....--A particular fpecies of verfifica-

1t

tion, in diff erent languages, is accommodateto it.

Remarks on the origin ofpfoa oty-t nrModern paftorals are formed after the

model of the ancient paforals.-The fcenesof the ancient paftorals were not laid in the

age or countries in which the poets wrote.-The charaaters are taken from the Shepherdsof the Golden Age.----Notions of a golden age

ftripped of the embellifhments of the poet..- -=There is a- middle period in the progrefsof civilization, equally removed from the ex-tremes of rudenefs and refinement, to whichthe ideas of a golden age have referenc. -The tafle for rural objeacs and pleafures is na-tural and general.

The narmes of Eclogue and Idyllium havebeen given to the ancient paftorals.------Thenames of the ancient fhepherds are (ftill affo-ciated with the paftoral chara~ters---3urnotions of the ancient- fhepherds are takrenfrom their condition in Arcadia and Sicily.-

The condition of Ihepherds in northern climesis unfavourable to paftoral defcription.

r An account of the principal ancient andmodern paflorals, and the application of therules of criticifm to them.

FkPgiac Compotions.

f eLegy is nearly allied to paftoral poetry,both in the matter and in the form.

The end which the elegiac poet has in viewis to excite thofe melancholy pleafing Rates ofmind, with which there is a general difpofi&lion to fympathifeb

This end- the poet "effeds by defeription ofthe death of friends, and other occafions of:grief, and- melancholy.--He hais extendedthe bounds of this fpecies of compofition, todefcriptions -of tender fenfations of any kind-to the. comptlnts and 'lainentation s of Love'iand even to the emotions of Joy arid Cheer"fulnefs..--His defcriptions of Grief muft bemanly, dignified- without the appearanceof ,art or refinement-.

133The poems which have got the name of

Elegy, may be brought under three claffes:

i. Defcriptions of events and occafions, inwhich the poet is highly interefted.-Thisneceffarily gives unity to the poem.

2. Defcriptions of refleaions arifing fromfome one objed or occaiion, in which the poetis not particularly concerned.

3. Defcriptions of a melancholy train of re-fle&ions, of one uniform tenor or tendency,without much of chara&er or manners.-Examples and illuftration of thefe differencesin the elegy.

The form of elegiac poems is defcriptiveand narrative, or in the form of dialogue..---A particular kind of verfe, inmoff languages, is affociated with the elegy.S-In Greek and Latin, an alternative ofhexameter and pentameter. The Englifhpoets have imitated this, by employing theheroic verfe with alternate lines. This fpe-cies of verfe is fo clofely affociated with theelegy, that it is cuftomary to call poems Ele.

-1 3 4

giac, if conpofed in that kind of flanza.-

Examples--Ovidls Fafti, Dr Louth's Poems.Remarks on the ancient and modern elegiac

poems.---rTThe application of the rules of cri*ticifm to them.

.Didalic Poetry.

Dida&ic poetry is allied to the Defcriptivei--- This fpecies of poetry made its appearpance early.-The firf precepts of moralitywivere delivered in verfe, if not in poetry,

The obje& of didaaic, is inffruction andconviction relative to pradical operations.,----.Some critics do not admit didadtic poems in.to the clafs of poetical compofitions, becaufethe materials are not fupplied by fidi1on, but

by truth and reafon.-But though notftrialy poetical in the matter--it is fo with re.fpedt to the form. -- It admits *of verfificab

tion and number--the flyle, and many of theornaments of poetical comnpofition.

The matter of didaetic poetry may be Lifto-

rical and philofophical, each of which kidare fubjeaed to particular. rules.°-llufrationof this fpecies of poetry, by referenes to theworks of the priincipal didatic poets, Virgil,Hlorace, Lucan, Pope, Boileau, Young, &c.

The objet of didadlic poetry, may not onlybe general infrulion.- It may inftrut

alfo, by inveighing againt certain vices.-Hence, that form of it called Satire.-Thename given to this fpecies of compofition,gives little aflifance in determining its natureor boundaries.-- l1ihe general objed of it, is

an invedive again ft vices and follies, obliquelyconveyed in a poetic form and with certainpoetical embellifhents.-The fpirit of thisfpecies of compofition muft be fludied in theprincipal writers of fatire.-.here are greatdifferences to be obferved in the fpirit and (tyleof the different fatyrifs.-The form' of Sa-

tire may be Epic, or Dramnatic.---Remarkson. the works of the principal fatirical poets.

2. arrati ve Poetry.

The E lpic is the principal fpecies of narra-.M 2

136

tive poetry.-.The epic poet is, in his owncharader, chiefly employed in narrations, butinterfperfed with defcription and imitation.--The name Epic is derived from the Greek

verb, which fignifies to tell, or narrate.

As the general end of poetry is to pleafe, orexcite agreeable emotions-the end of epicpoetry is to excite the pleafing emotions offur-prife, ,wonder, admiration, and elevation of mind.

The means by which it effeds that end, isby narration and defcription of fublime objeds

in the external world-of every thing grandand dignified in the chara1ters and ations ofmen. But thefe in real life being mixedwith many imperfeions-it employs fi6tion increating or forming higher or more perfe&chara~lers. --- Fi~ion pervades every part ofepic compofitions.--T'he nature and boundsof poetic fiiion, and the principles by whichit ought to be regulated.

Remarks on different definitions that havebeen given of epic poetry. No definitioncan properly include all the poems that havebeen called by that name. Every epic

137

poem is, in its nature, arbitrary; and its-confti-tution depends upon the genius, imagination,and tafle of the author.-The grand modelof epic compofitions depended upon the ima-gination and tafte of Homer. The com-mon definition is as good as any of them-" A" narrative in verfe, of ations and events," Probable, Heroic, Marvellous."-Illuftra,tion of this definition..,

In the propofed analyfis of-epic compofition,the important obje&s of it will be brought in-to view, in the order in which they arife inthe poet's, mind, in the formation and compc-fition of the poem.

The mind of the poet muff be firff occupied

with the fbjed of the poem.- To it, his

imagination and tafte muffhave made frequent

excurfions.- A fubjea proper for an epic

poem, muff be in itfelf interefing.-A

fufficient ground-work for important events,muff admit of the embellifhments of poetry.

- It will affift the introduation of. the mar-vellous, if it be taken from remote or fabu-lous periods.

M3

138

Upon the nature and qualities of the fubje&,.depend the defign or fcheme of the poet.---The deign muff fuppofe a remote or difiantend to be accomplifhed. It muff compre-hend fuch difficulties and obftacles, as giveroom for great adivity, refolution, ad addrefiin the removal of them..- ---- A mean, or nar-row defign, vili cramp and contraa the ta-lents of the poet.

The defign of the poet muff be accomplil--

ed by a courfe or tenor of alion fuited to it.--- The nature and qualities of an epic ac-

tion.-It muff be one-that is, in its tenor

and tendency, and relation to a general end.I--Jt may confiff of many feparate aaions,'and thefe performed by muany different pe-r-

fons-The epic a6LUon muff alfo be great,and poffefs in itfeif various fources of intereft,private and public.- -The duration or timewhich the action requires, muff be as long asthe natural. courfe of fuchzs anai~ion requires.

The unity of epic a~tion is not inconfuflentxvith certain digreffions, or inferifor as-ions,called Epifodes.-Epifodes muff be fubfer@.

'39vient to the principal a~ion, and illftratei--- Occafions of introducing them, and rulesfor the condua of them.

Great and heroic adlons muff be performedby charaters fuited to- the.-The confti-

tution and predominate qualities of epic charac-ters.------Each of the principal charaaersmuff be marked by prominent features, and bediflinguifhed by words and ations which na-

turally proceed from them.-Virtues and

vices, talents and defe~ts, muff be blendedand varied. There muff be a preponderanceon the fide of virtue.- -The epic aaion

muff be diffributed with judgment and tafe a-mong the charaaers.--Trhe charaElers iuf

ben inroduced on fuch occafions, and in fuch

circumftances, as tend to fupport each other.

Epic Poets have generally made =choice of

one principal Aator or Hero, to whom they

give the charge of the enterprize---Thereare forme advantages in doing it-but no goodreafon for a very ftri~t adherence to this rule.

According~ to the ancient moldls, there

muff be parts of the antion which require theinterpofition of divine perfonages.-Thoughfichon muff pervade every part of epic poetry,there are fome parts of it in which it is predominant. S--Such parts are called the Machi-nrly of the poem. R Mules which the criticshave effablilhed for the introduaion and con-duQt of divine interpofition in the epic poem..

Some critics have confidered fuch parts ofthe epic poem as blemifhes.---.They are con-fiflent with ancient mythology, and furnifhoccafions of grand and fublime defcriptions,...- It may be doubted whether they are ef-fential to epic poetry.----The bef refutationwould be, an epic poem perfeet without them.

-Modern epic poets cannot have the fameadvantages from the introduction' of machi-,nery.

Epic Charaaters, muff be diftinguifhed bytheir manners and fcntiients.-The Mannersare the -modifications of the original di fpofi-tions, by various caufes, -in the-various in-ter-

cour fes of fociety, and in the cuffomary formsof- behaviour. The Sentiments are the.

14 1

judgments expreff'ed in language. The.proper qualities of epic manners.-Brutaland profligate manners could not pleafe by anydef'cription.-.There muff be a natural andftri& correfpondence betwixt the charaaers

and manners.

Epic Compofitions differ from others. alo intheir form.--- They are not conduaed in theregular method of hiflory.-To excite inte-reft-the poet, having invoked his divinity,may begin in the middle of the acion, andtake a proper opportunity of explaining whatis neceffary to be underflood. -- He may de-part from narrative, and introduce the charac-ters as delivering their own fentiments.

In epic compofitions, much depends uponthe ftyle.-The epic poet has the commandof language, proper and figurative ; and muffbe qualified to vary his ityle, according to thevariety, of matter.---His flyle, as occafionsmay require, muff be, fimple,, energetic, fub-lime, elegant, harmonious--and muft be al-ways accommodated to the fubje.--The

verfification of epic compofitions is hexameter,or blank verfe.

14 2

Origin of Epic Poetry-- Circumances

favourable to poetic genius, in early and un-cultivated periods of fociety Analyfis ofthe principal epic poets, ancient and modern.--. Comparifon of them, in thofe points inwhich they can be direly or indiredly compared.-T--The rules of criticifin applied infettling their refpec'live inerits.-A particuolar analyfis of The Paradi Left.

3. Repreetative Poetry.

The different manner of acquiring know-ledge by the fenfes of fight and hearing, laysa foundation for one of the chief diffindions

in poetry.-The one Epic, where we nei-

thler fee the obj eds, nor hear any thing di-rely of ourfelves.---The other Dramnatic,where we fee the actions performed, and hearthe converfations of the adtors.

The Drama, in fome fhiape or other, feemsto have taken place in every period of _fociety..*.~=---Jn every condition, imitation is natural tomans--human paflions and adions are al-ways the mroft interefting objedts of imitation.

X43

Origin of' Dramatic Poetry in Greece.

Succeffive improvements of the drama.------Dramatic poetry was cultivated with more fuc=cefs than the epic.-----It was early feparatedinto two kinds, Tragedy and Comedy.

Trgedy.

Tragedy has many things in common withepic poetry. The end which the poet has in

view in Tragedy, is to fubdue or moderate theexceffes of irregular and impetuous paflions,by exciting -Pity and Compafion.

This end is effeaed, by the proper choice ofa fubje& which will afford a fucceffion of firik.ing circumifances, and interefting events.-By the imitation of an action that is in itfelf

,complete, and capable of a perfe& reprefenta-tion, and which terminates in danger or death.

-T his adion is fubje~ted to the unities m an -p ce lh a io *m ff b fof

condudted as to form a plot, and the unfoldingof it.-The diftribution of the aaion intoActs, Scenes, &C.

144The ation' muff be carried on by charaders

taken generally from the higher ranks.-'Their manners and fentiments muft he fuited tothe charaters; and, they muffpeak the Ian

guage of paflion, and not defcribe it.--Dif-ference betwixt the ancient and modern tra-gedies.- Inquiry into the caufes of the plea.fure received from tragical reprefentation.

Comedy.

The difference betwixt tragedy and comedy.---The fame rules apply to both.-Theend of comedy is to correl vices and foibles)by the dread of ridicule or laughter.

This end is effeded, by imitation of -characpters and adions taken. from common 'lifeand of manners and ~fentinients fuited to them.

-The plot of comedy turns chiefly on mar&riage., though this is not effential.

Comedy is divided according to. the fubjed,

and is high or dignified, or lowr and familiar.VYerfif ication is not effential to comnedy.

-The pr oper ftyle of, comedy--=-Rez-

145

marks on the ancient and modern comedies,and inferiority of the former, illuftrated by exa-amples.

Inquiry into the effe~ts of Dramatic repre-.fentation on charader "and manners, aid the.purpofes ferved by it.

Conclufion.-On the advantages to be de.rived from the fludy of the Belles Lettresb

P A R T 11

On #hc Poers of ComncainI

N i o P w -f. A NALYSIS of the Pow ers of C omm uni- y

cation by -Speech or Writing.

II. TH Art of improving them-or the Art

of Rhetoric.

T'hefe heads form the fubjedsi of the LC_

tures of a Separate Courfe.-.--[Ssc Sy nopsisof Rhetoric.]j.

F I N I se

This book is a preservation facsimile produced forthe University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign.

It is made in compliance with copyright lawand produced on acid-free archival

60# book weight paperwhich meets the requirements of

ANSI/NISO Z39.48-1992 (permanence of paper).

Preservation facsimile printing and bindingby

Northern MicrographicsBrookhaven BinderyLa Crosse, Wisconsin

2009