skadar lake - montenegro · hydrology 7 . 1.2. the abiotic factors in context – setting scene for...
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Analysis of synergies, gaps and complementarities on integrated environmental management at regional level
Skadar Lake - Montenegro
Study 2
Natural base Policy and legislative framework
Socio-economic situation in the region
Author
Marija Vugdelic
Introduction
The Analysis of Synergies, Gaps and Complementarities on Integrated Environmental Management at Regional Level - Studies 1 and 2 have been prepared on the basis of the Terms of Reference (ToR) provided by NGO “Green Home” within the scope of the project “Performing the Integrated Environmental Management Plan at Local Level in the Skadar/Shkodra Lake Ecosystem – EMA PLAN”.
The focus of Study 1 was the environmental management and the economic development in Skadar Lake region. This Study provides an overview and analysis of the existing stakeholder groups relevant for the management and protection of Skadar Lake, as well as the potentials for economic development of the region based on sustainable use of natural resources. Study 1 also provides an overview of projects implemented in Skadar Lake region by various organisations in the past decade. The focus of Study 2 was the natural and anthropocentric values of the region. The study provides overview of the environmental characteristics of Skadar Lake region placed in the contexts of their potential sustainable use. Apart from this, Study 2 provides the legislative framework, current management of Skadar Lake National Park, bilateral framework agreements between Montenegro and Albania, and concludes with the SWOT analysis.
The methodology used for production of these studies consisted of desk research into existing plans, reports and other documents and interviews with selected stakeholders, and most conclusions and recommendations are based on expert opinion. As almost all previous studies have already noted, there is a general problem with data availability, consistency and accuracy. This is because research into some aspects of the Lake is outdated, information scattered among institutions and individuals, and there is a general discrepancy in methodologies used, which makes comparisons and pooling of information often problematic. This study has encountered the same issue, so it advises caution in the interpretation of information.
Based on the insight into existing documentation and available data, the emphasis was given on summarising all the information and putting it into a practical context, in order to identify gaps of information and knowledge and provide recommendations for future activities. Readers who are interested in more detailed information on any aspect of Skadar Lake will be referred to one of many studies that cover natural, cultural and social aspects of Skadar Lake region in more details.
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Contents: List of abbreviation 5
1. Environmental characteristics of Skadar Lake region 6
1.1. Abiotic factors 6 1.1.1. Location of the study area 6 1.1.2. Geology and geomorphology 6 1.1.3. Soils 6 1.1.4. Climate 7 1.1.5. Hydrology 7
1.2. The abiotic factors in context – setting scene for biodiversity 9
1.2.1. International recognitions 11
1.3. Environment and biodiversity – setting scene for humans 12 1.3.1. Biodiversity values 12
1.3.1.1. Direct use values 12 1.3.1.2. Indirect use values – ecosystem services 14 1.3.1.3. Recreational and aesthetic values 16 1.3.1.4. Non-use values 16
1.3.2. Trends in ecosystems 17 1.3.2.1. Pollution 17 1.3.2.2. Habitat modification and destruction 19 1.3.2.3. Species exploitation 19 1.3.2.4. Introduction of species 20 1.3.2.5. Disturbance 21
1.4. Summary 22
2. Legislative and policy framework 23
2.1. Legislative framework 23
2.2. Issues with the enforcement 28
2.3. Relevant strategic documents 28
3. Management of Skadar Lake National Park 31
3.1. Public Enterprise for National Parks 31
3.2. Skadar Lake National Park 33
3.2.1. Management plan for Skadar Lake 34
3.3. Issues with management 35
4.Cross-border cooperation between Montenegro and Albania in the nature
protection context 36
5. Socio-economic situation in the region 38
5.1. Summary 43
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6. SWOT analysis 44
6.1. Institutional aspects 44
6.2. Economy 45
6.3. Environmental management plans 46
7. References 47
8. Annex 49
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List of abbreviations AL – Albania CBC – Cross Border Cooperation CBD - Convention on Biological Diversity CEED - Centre for Entrepreneurship and Economic Development CETR - Centre for Eco-Toxicological Research CITES - Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species EMA PLAN – project “Performing the Integrated Environmental Management Plan at Local Level in the Skadar/Shkodra Lake Ecosystem” EPA – Environment Protection Agency EU – European Union GEF – Global Environment Fund GMOs – Genetically Modified Organisms HMI - Hydro-Meteorological institute IBA - Important Bird Areas IPA - Important Plant Areas ISSP - Institute for Strategic Studies and Prognoses IUCN – International Union for Conservation of Nature KAP – Aluminium Plant LSIEMP – Lake Skadar Integrated Ecosystem Management Project MARD - Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development MONSTAT – Statistical Office of Montenegro MoU - Memorandum of Understanding MNE – Montenegro MSDT - the Ministry of Sustainable Development and Tourism NBSAP - National Biodiversity Strategy with Action Plan NGOs – Non-governmental organizations NP – National Park NPSL – National Park Skadar Lake PAS - Protected Area System PA – Protected area PENP – Public Enterprise “National Parks of Montenegro” PES - Payment for Ecosystem Services REC - Regional Environmental Centre for Central and Eastern Europe REReP – Regional Environmental Reconstruction Programme SLC - Skadar/Shkodra Lake Commission SEE – South Eastern Europe SPSPNPSL – Spatial Purpose Spatial Plan for National Park Skadar Lake SWOT – Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, Threats ToR – Terms of Reference TSLF – Trans-boundary Shkodra/ Skadar Lake Forum UNDP – United Nations Development Programme UNESCO – United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organizatio
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1. Environmental characteristics of Skadar Lake region
1.1. Abiotic factors
1.1.1. Location of the study area
Skadar Lake is located in South-East part of the Balkan Peninsula. It is situated
between 19˚03’ and 19˚30’ eastern longitude, and between 42˚03’ and 42˚21’ northern
latitude. With the length of over 40km and the maximum width of 13km, it is the
largest lake in the Balkan Peninsula. It is situated in the Zeta plain, at the foot of
Prokletije Mountains at the north and the chain of mountains running along the
Adriatic shore at the south (figure 1). The Lake is a remnant of a former marine bay
that has been separated from the Adriatic-Ionian Sea by chain of the coastal
mountains raised by the tectonic movements. Topography of the Lake region is
diverse, and there is a pronounced difference between the southern shores that run
along the slopes of coastal mountains (Rumija, Vrsuta, Sutorman), which are rocky,
steep, jagged with numerous bays, inlets and small islands, and the flat and marshy
northern shores that run along the Zeta valley. The length of the coast is 168km (of
which 110km are in Montenegro).
Figure 1 – Location of Skadar Lake in Europe, Balkans and Montenegro
1.1.2. Geology and geomorphology
The Lake is situated in a predominately limestone and dolomite rock beds. Limestone
and associated karst processes primarily determine the geomorphology, so the Lake
area has typical karst topography. The geological composition of the Lake area also
contains Quaternary alluvial and colluvial deposits as well as more recent fluvial
sediments that range in thickness from 10 to over 350m (Lasca et al. 1981). The
wider, watershed area of the Lake has a very complex geological and morphological
structure and consists of several zones with different characteristics.
1.1.3. Soils
Diverse geological base, together with dynamic topography and climatic influences
has created variety of soil types. Two main types of soils are those produced by the
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action of water (hydromorphic soils), which cover 17.000ha and include fertile soils in
Zeta plain utilised in agriculture, and terrestrial soils that have formed on elevated
terrains and are more fragmented and discontinuous. Also, the action of vegetation as
well as human activities, have also contributed to the soil diversity of this region.
Therefore, on this area, there are several soil types present, including alluvium,
diluvium, swamp, soil, brown soil, red soil, brown acid soil, black soil and rendzina
(Fuštić 1997, Special Purpose Spatial Plan for NP Skadar Lake 2001).
1.1.4. Climate
The region of Skadar Lake is characterised by Mediterranean climate, where summers
are long, with high temperatures and high evaporation. Winters are relatively mild,
with temperatures rarely dropping below freezing point. The average annual
temperature is 14°C - 15°C, with a maximum in July (average 25,7°C ) and minimum in
January (4°C). Water temperature, on the other hand, ranges from 4.8°C in the winter,
to 28°C in mid-summer, while being at a more stable value of 13°C throughout the
year in the locations of sublacustrine springs.
Annual precipitation on the Lake, almost exclusivelly in the form of rainfall, is
between 2000 and 2800 mm, though this is rather concentrated at certain parts of the
year (autumn to early spring, with summers being very dry). Maximum precipitation
is in January, and minimum in August. However, the large watershed area has
different climate types, where the range of precipitation varies between 1700 and
3000mm.
The number of sunny days in the region is high and there are on average 2500-2600
hours of sunshine per year.
Winds on the Lake are frequent, predominantly coming from the East, North and
down Rumija mountain slopes on the South. On average some 30-40 days in a year are
with very strong winds (all data from Special Purpose Spatial Plan for NP Skadar Lake
2001, Management Plan for National Park Skadar Lake 2011-2015).
1.1.5. Hydrology
The catchment area of Skadar Lake is about 5500 km2, and it covers mountains and
rivers North and South of the Lake (figure 2). The largest water input of about 2/3 is
provided by river Morača at an average rate of 200m3/s at its mouth (170m3/s of
Morača in Podgorica, together with 26m3/s of its tributary Cijevna few kilometers
upstream from the confluence and other minor inflows in the vicinity of the Lake).
However, it is important to note that the water inflow from Morača varies greatly
during the year, and that the ratio between minimum and maximum values can be as
high as 1:245. This information is important in the context of gravel and sand
exploitation that modify the river bed and can have severe impacts on flow regime
and thus the Lake water dynamics because of such extreme variations.
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The rest of the water volume comes from numerous smaller rivers and streams, as
well as from the atmospheric precipitation, groundwater aquifers in Zeta plan and a
large number of sublacustrine springs scattered mostly along the southern shores of
the Lake. The Lake has only one outlet – River Bojana that drains about 80% of its
waters into Adriatic Sea at the average rate of 320 m3/s. The rest is lost via
evaporation.
Figure 2 – Map of the Lake watershed area, showing the main tributaries, outflow and direction of
water movement.
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The water level shows annual fluctuation depending on the season, and it varies
between 4.6 m, when Lake surface is around 350 km2 and volume around 1.7 km3, and
9.8 m, when Lake covers around 500 km2 and has a volume of 4.0 km3.
The surface area of the Lake significantly changed about 150 years ago, when floods in
river Drin watershed (Albania) brought large quantities of sediments into Bojana
river, reducing its capacity to drain Lake waters. This event caused permanent
flooding of surrounding lowlands and gave Lake its present appearance, surface and
dynamics. Occasionally, as a result of severe weather conditions, River Drin flows into
Bojana River, reversing its flow back into the Lake and raising its water level.
Because of such dynamics, the Lake has a rapid water turnover of 2-3 times per year.
This turnover and the shallowness of the Lake has two main implications - it lacks
thermal stratification and the retention of sediments, as well as various pollutants and
nutrients resulting from anthropogenic activities, is low, so the water quality can
remain relatively high despite various inputs it receives (all data from Special Purpose
Spatial Plan for NP Skadar Lake 2001, Management Plan for National Park Skadar
Lake 2011-2015).
1.2. The abiotic factors in context – setting scene for biodiversity
Skadar Lake is located in the region that had a long and turbulent natural history,
which resulted in a very heterogeneous geological composition and topography and
thus a complex mosaic of microenvironmental conditions. Its position in the Balkan
Peninsula allowed the Lake region to escape the influences of last glaciation, which
means that it was able to provide colonisation area and a refugium for numerous
species that were retreating from the ice that covered most of Europe (Hewitt 1999).
Additionally, Lake is located on the meeting point of biogeographic zones of Europe,
Africa and Asia. Furthermore, it is the largest freshwater basin in Dinaric mountain
range, which is a rarity given the range’s predominantly karstic composition, which
does not retain water. Thus, given such a location, complex combination of factors and
dynamic interactions between them, conditions for colonisation and survival of a
diverse range of organisms were created here, resulting in very high biodiversity of
the region observed today.
In this area, there is a complexity of habitats with high diversity of organisms, much
higher than other sites of comparable size. Within the whole Lake region, there are
several types of habitats. Aquatic habitats are dominant, including lacustrine,
marshland, floodplains, riverine and littoral, but here, one can also find diverse
terrestrial ecosystems such are dry-forests and shrublands, rocky areas, grasslands.
There is about 22500ha of deeper lake waters, 7800ha of shallow, permanently
flooded areas, 5200ha of periodically flooded areas, and 12500ha of hills and rocky
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terrains in and immediately around the Lake (Management Plan for National Park
Skadar Lake 2011-2015). A study on habitat mapping based on Landsat data, satellite
images, historic and topographic maps and local literature, identified a large number
of habitats based on EUNIS and Natura 2000 classifications (Schwarz 2010). The most
abundant habitats include freshwaters as well as the marshalnds with extensive
floating carpets of macrophytes and reed-beds swamps. This study emphasized the
presence of aquatic forests, the extent of which equals the last remaining large
softwood stands at the middle and lower Danube, as well as the grasslands and
steppes along the North-East coast of the Lake, which are very important and yet
endangered habitats. The study provides a detailed map of habitats in the Skadar Lake
and Bojana River region.
All of those habitats are inhabited by a large number of species from various different
taxa. Some taxa are better studied than others – vertebrates and vascular plants in
general are well known and species lists are relatively complete. Better studied
species include birds that are of conservation interest (pelicans, cormorants, herons
and egrets), some mammals (otters, bats), reptiles, higher plants and fish, the latter
because they are commercially exploited. Substantial data exists for the presence of
some invertebrate taxa (certain Arthropod groups) and aquatic algae, but in general
most groups of organisms are poorly studied. Species composition is provided in the
Annex, and summarised in table 1. As it can be seen from those two tables, the
number of species, genera, families and other higher taxa present in the Lake region is
substantial. Apart from the species diversity, large number of different taxa and
presence of endemic species and subspecies indicates high levels of genetic diversity.
Thus, from the above, one can conclude that biodiversity of Skadar Lake region is high
on all levels – of genes, species and ecosystems. Indeed it has been estimated that the
region is considered to be a biogenetic reserve of European importance (Kaukelaar et
al., 2006).
Table 1- Species composition in higher taxa. For more detailed information, refer to the Annex. Information based on the Biodveristy Database of Shkodra/Skadar Lake 2001 and additional sources.
Phylum Species Note
Lower plants (algae, mosses, ferns...)
8 1105 Species list not yet complete
Higher (seed) plants 1 714
Invertebrates 12 302 Species list not yet complete
Vertebrates 389
Total 2510
However, although species list of the Lake is extensive, with the exception of few well-
known species (mainly birds), population data and other ecological information on
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species or higher taxa is lacking. This is particularly true for fish species, which
although commercially exploited, are not properly researched in terms of population
dynamics and parameters that would allow their sustainable use (please refer to the
section 2.1. on fisheries in Study 1). Also lacking is data on the interactions, food webs,
biomass production, nutrient cycling and other aspects of the Lake ecology, which is
all relevant in the context of anthropogenic influences, primarily pollution.
1.2.1. International recognitions
Because of the range of natural assets and high levels of biodiversity summarised
above, the Lake area received several international recognitions.
In 1996, it has been included in the Ramsar list of wetlands of international
importance based on the richness and diversity of ornithofauna. It fulfils Ramsar
criteria for holding more than 20.000 water birds, as well as for holding at least 1% of
a global population of any water bird species (which it does for several different
species – most notably pygmy cormorants of which it harbors 16% of the European
population – Stumberger and Schneider-Jacoby 2010).
Skadar Lake region is on the list of Important Plant Areas (IPA) because it is
populated by species that have national and international conservation importance
and due to the presence of representative habitats that are of European and global
importance (Petrović 2009).
It is on the list of Important Bird Areas (IBA) because it meets several criteria adopted
by the Birdlife International. The Lake has been recognised as an important site for
breeding, wintering and passage of waterbirds, holding more than 20000 individuals
throughout the year. It is a habitat for globally endangered species, and those of
European conservation interest for European Union, and a breeding site for six
species that are restricted to the Mediterranean biome (CZIP, internet source).
Based on the criteria of Bern Convention, 17 Emerald habitats with good
representation have been identified in the Lake region, mostly from Resolutions 4 and
6 (list provided in Mrdak et al. 2011).
Although the work on identification of Natura 2000 habitats based on the Habitat and
Bird directives of the EU has started for Montenegro, the list of those habitats is not
yet complete, though some of the habitats that meet relevant criteria to be considered
Special Areas of Conservation have been identified for Skadar Lake region. They
include: 3150 - natural eutrophic lakes with Magnopotamion or Hydrocharition-type
vegetation, 6210 - semi-natural grasslands – important orchid sites, 91E0 - alluvial
forests with Alnus, Fraxinus and Salix, 91F0 - riparian mixed forests of Quercus, Ulmus
and Fraxinus, among others (Schwarz 2010).
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1.3. Environment and biodiversity – setting scene for humans
The region of Skadar Lake is characterised by diversity of soils, mild climate with
sufficient and seasonally-adequate precipitation, availability of freshwater sources,
and richness of biodiversity. Furthermore, such a large freshwater body, nested
within the largest valley in Dinarids (Zeta-Skadar valley) that is regularly fertilised
owing to fluctuations of Lake waters, is a real rarity within the karst terrain of the
Balkans, so this whole suite of factors has provided favourable conditions for settling
of human populations since the early history.
Traces of early settlers in this region date to prehistory, and all major civilisations that
inhabited South Europe passed through this area and left their trace. Thus, there is a
long history of interactions between humans and ecosystems in this region. The
utilisation of biodiversity and ecosystem services was important for survival and
prosperity of local communities, and it continues to be important even in the present
day society of Montenegro. The values of Skadar Lake biodiversity are multifold, and a
recent study by UNDP Montenegro (2011) has for the first time provided a rough
estimate of the economic value of the ecosystem services for Montenegrin system of
protected areas, Skadar Lake included.
1.3.1. Biodiversity values
1.3.1.1. Direct use values
Certain biodiversity and other natural elements have been directly used for
subsistence and are providing economic benefits.
One of the main economic activities in the Lake region is fisheries. Most of about 50
species of fish inhabiting the Lake are exploited as wild-caught, with carp, eel, twaide
shad and bleak having the most economic significance. Fish is caught for direct
consumption by local population, or as a source of household income. In the case of
bleak, it is exploited primarily by the fish processing factory in Rijeka Crnojevića.
More details on fisheries and economic benefits from this activity are provided in the
section 2.1. on fisheries in Study 1.
Other wild species exploited directly from the nature by local population for their own
consumption or retail include:
- Medicinal plants, primarily sage – This plant is abundant along the South
rocky shores of the Lake, and has traditionally been collected by the local
population. There is a sage processing facility in the village of Ostros, but it
has not been operational for several years. Sage is used directly by people
for their own consumption, or sold on local green markets or to herb-
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processing facilities outside this region. Monitoring and economic data on
sage exploitation is lacking.
- Chestnuts – there are extensive chestnut forests along the south shores of
Skadar Lake, among the largest in South Europe. The nuts of this tree are
used by local population for their own consumption, or for sale on local
markets, where its price varies between 1-3€ per kilo. Chestnut tree and its
fruit are a part of local tradition, and local community organises a festival to
celebrate this plant (Koštanijada in Ostros, organised annually in
November), which gives it an additional, non-use, cultural value.
Monitoring and economic data on chestnut use is lacking.
- Wild fruits, primarily pomegranate, are used for direct consumption. Local
population makes cordial which is considered a healthy drink. Small
quantities are sold on the doorstep or to local restaurants and catering
facilities, at the price 3-5€ per litre. There are some initiatives to make this
a local brand and to organise its trade and export. Monitoring and economic
data on this is lacking.
- Water chestnut (calltrop) – an abundant floating water plant with a
characteristically shaped fruit that has been used by local population for
direct consumption. It was used raw, roasted or dried and grounded into
flour for bread making. Its use in local cuisine has diminished, although it is
still locally used mostly by the people in Vranjina village. There is no data
that this fruit is being sold for economic benefit.
- Birds – primarily water fowl has been traditionally hunted in Skadar Lake
area. Hunting on birds has been officially banned within the National Park
since 2002, however, illegal hunting still occurs, with primary targets being
migratory coots and ducks (several species). Hunting grounds where this
activity is allowed exist in the Lake vicinity, and the main bird species
hunted there is partridge. Birds are hunted for sport or individual
consumption, some are sold to restaurants or exported (illegally) to Italy. If
there is economic benefit from selling hunted birds, it is for a small number
of individuals.
- Mammals – boars and rabbits are hunted for sports and recreation in the
hunting grounds surrounding the Lake, where this activity is allowed and
regulated by the Law on hunting and managed by the hunting associations.
- Frogs – collection of frogs within Skadar Lake national park is not allowed.
However, it is known that a small number of individuals do collect frogs
and receive economic benefit from their sale at restaurants or export to
Italy. Data on this activity is lacking.
- Snakes have been caught by local individuals who have economic benefit
from the sales of collected venom. Data on this activity is lacking.
Forests that surround the Lake and consist mainly of oak and hornbeam trees are cut
for direct use as fuel-wood or as a construction material by local population. Willow
trees inhabiting shallow and seasonally flooded areas have also been exploited as fuel-
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wood, as well as for weaving baskets and other items and tools associated with
traditional fishery practices, though this activity has diminished in the past few
decades. Data on economic benefits of exploitation of those forests is lacking.
Reed has traditionally been used by local population for thatching roofs, crafts and
other household-related uses. The collection of reed although diminished, is still
taking place, and bundles of reed can be seen for sale at local markets or along the
roads. Data on its use and economic benefits are lacking.
Peat, as a product of decaying marshland vegetation, has also been utilised on a local
scale, as a nutrient-rich natural fertiliser. There are initiatives to exploit this resource
on a much larger scale, as it has been estimated that its deposits exceed 40 million m3.
Such quantities would allow its exploitation at the rate of 30t per year, which could
bring significant economic benefits (Special Purpose Spatial Plan for NP Skadar Lake
2001).
An exploitation of another natural resource - sand and gravel brought in by Morača
River (as well as other Lake tributaries), is an activity that brings significant economic
benefits. The extraction concession fees are a substantial proportion of the annual
National Park income (see section 3.1.), while it has been estimated that extraction
generates production with a direct sales price of 138.530€ and brings a full market
value of 346.326€ for the concession holders (ISSP 2011).
1.3.1.2. Indirect use values – ecosystem services
Presence of certain ecosystems provides some services that are indirectly utilised by
humans, or which indirectly contribute to human wellbeing and security. The extent
and the value of those services have only relatively recently come under the spotlight
globally, whereas in Montenegro not much work has been done in order to research
those services and how they contribute to the local and national welfare.
Nevertheless, it is important to highlight the need for more research into ecosystem
services, of Skadar Lake region in particular, as a large fraction of Montenegrin
population depends on them. This issue is also important within the context of
introducing concepts of Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES) and designing markets
for them, which can ultimately contribute to the financial sustainability of protected
areas system, including NP Skadar Lake.
Wetlands, in general, act to prevent floods, owing to the wetland vegetation and a
network of their roots in the soils that absorb incoming water, slowing it down and
distributing it slowly over the area. It has been estimated that an acre (0,4ha) of
wetland can retain about a million gallons (3.7x106 litres) of water (EPA U.S. internet
source). Inundation of the North shores of Skadar Lake is a regular seasonal event,
however in the recent years we have witnessed extreme precipitation and floods that
caused much damage to material goods and agricultural crops in the Lake vicinity.
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Although no data exists on flood prevention potential of Skadar Lake wetland habitats,
if one takes the above estimate and the presence of 5.200ha of periodically flooded
areas, it is reasonable to believe that the retention capacity of incoming water of this
area can be substantial and that it can contribute significantly to the mitigation of
flood events. According to the climate change scenario for our country (Government of
Montenegro 2010), it is to be expected that extreme weather conditions, floods
including, will become more frequent events. In this context, research, protection and
management of Skadar Lake wetlands become emphasized.
Regular seasonal floods bring nutrients to seasonally flooded areas, making them
fertile, and which are used as agricultural lands during the periods of low water level.
They are used both as arable land (where small-scale farms are sown with vegetables)
or as pastures (for cattle grazing) that are also hayed. In such a way, floodplains
provide conditions for certain forms of agriculture (for more, please refer to the
section 2.3. on farming in Study 1).
Further, wetland vegetation acts as a natural filter for pollution, as the plants take up
nutrients and store them in their tissues, in such a way removing them from the
water. North shores of the Lake are agricultural lands that are intensively farmed. The
use of artificial fertilisers and pesticides has increased, and they inevitably leek into
the soils and groundwater. Marshlands of the northern Lake shores most likely
present a filter for those substances, preventing eutrophication of Lake waters. Some
indication that this is the case comes from the analysis of water quality and the
observed spread of the marshland vegetation and flooded forests in this area,
however research on those links is lacking.
As mentioned above, fisheries are among the most important economies of local
population surrounding the Lake. Marshlands of the Lake, on the other hand, provide
spawning sites and nurseries for fish species, especially carp that is commercially the
most important species. In such a way, they provide a service that makes this
important economic activity possible (refer to the section 2.1. on fisheries in Study 1).
Because of its size and hydrologic characteristics, the Lake and related springs and
aquifers present an important freshwater source for local population (which most
commonly drills wells), but also for the wider region. Namely, a Regional water supply
system has been constructed draining freshwater from one of the sublacustrine
springs, and is transporting it to the coastal region. It has been estimated that this
benefits resident population of 170.000 people (ITSC 2006) as well as tourists, who
spend up to 7.6 million nights (MONSTAT internet database).
Skadar Lake presents one of the largest peatlands in south-east Europe, and layers of
this organic material present an important carbon sink that needs long-term
preservation (Schneider-Jacoby et al., 2010), primarily in the context of climate-
change.
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1.3.1.3. Recreational and aesthetic values
The landscape of the Lake consists of three very different elements – the marshlands
of the northern shores, with lush aquatic vegetation inhabited by a great diversity of
animals, including numerous bird species; the open waters of the Lake, on which large
flocks of migratory birds can be observed during the winter and where traditional
fishing boats as well as tourist and recreational vessels pass; and the mountainous
karst landscape of the southern and western shores, with many islands and bays,
which also has elements of anthropogenic cultural landscape in the form of
picturesque villages that are the result of a long history of human-nature interactions
and traditional land-use practices. Such diversity of landscapes provides a unique
aesthetic experience and gives the whole Lake region special aesthetic values that are
valorised through tourism.
Boat excursions are the most common form of tourism offer on the Lake. Visitors are
primarily attracted by the landscape that can best be experienced by cruising on the
Lake waters. Additionally, the aquatorial of the Lake is used for windsurfing, more
recently kayaking, while surrounding terrestrial area is popular for hiking which
increasingly attracts more and more visitors. There is a network of hiking paths
mostly along the southern shores of the Lake.
Birdwatching presents another special form of tourism that directly depends on the
aesthetic and recreational values of biodiversity, in this case the birds. Owing to the
rich ornithofauna, development of this form of touristic and recreational activity is
made possible, and it has started to act as a source of income for the National Park
and local population (refer to the section 2.2. on tourism in Study 1).
Apart from tourism, such landscape provides an attractive set-up for film-making,
which can be a source of economic benefit. Several movies were made in the region.
For instance, about a decade ago, an international film was made on the Lake,
providing short-term employment for the local population. In 2010, this activity
provided National Park authorites with an income of 4.274€ from filming licences
(ISSP 2011).
1.3.1.4. Non-use values
As discussed above, Lake with its environmental conditions and natural resources and
landscape values has provided conditions for early settlers. Dynamic history of the
state of Montenegro has been tightly linked to this region, as inferred from numerous
archaeological and historical remains as well as from the ethnographic heritage found
here. So the whole region features strongly in the cultural heritage and the creation of
national identity, which gives it an additional non-use value. In relation to that,
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Montenegrins have ethical obligations for future generations to maintain the existing
conditions and values of the region.
Apart from that, there are ethical obligations towards the European and global
community linked with particular species found here – including endangered and
flagship species (Dalmatian pelicans), red listed and migratory species that are part of
global ecosystems.
The above values cannot be directly economically quantified, but should be
considered as they certainly have their place in all the discussions and plans regarding
protection and development in this region.
1.3.2. Trends in ecosystems
Ecosystems, those of the Lake including, are dynamic natural systems, where
population dynamics and species composition change depending on the combination
of environmental factors. However, in recent times, anthropogenic influences are
becoming increasingly more important in affecting ecosystem dynamics, so rapid
changes with numerous consequences are becoming a trend.
Several anthropogenic effects are important when considering Skadar Lake
ecosystems. They include various forms of pollution, overexploitation of species,
destruction of habitat (abandonment of traditional land uses, land conversion,
deforestation, fires, river channel modifications through the extraction of mineral
resources and peat), introduction of species and small-scale disturbance. They will be
discussed in turn.
1.3.2.1. Pollution
Water pollution is often considered as one of the main environmental problems of the
Lake. This includes pollution from point sources (organic – from untreated sewage
discharges in the watershed area, or inorganic from industrial complexes) and
nonpoint sources (agricultural runoff). Increased levels of pollutants can cause
eutrophication and can accumulate in plant and animal tissues, in such a way
disrupting natural ecosystem dynamics, and can also act as toxins, mutagens,
carcinogens, affecting the health of humans utilising those ecosystems.
Various parameters of organic and inorganic pollution have been monitored for the
past few decades. Institutions responsible for monitoring are CETI,
Hydrometeorological institute (within the annual environmental monitoring
programme) and University of Montenegro (School of Natural Sciences and
Mathematics), which has conducted research within several projects. Although the
18
body of data on monitoring is substantial, it has certain defficinencies, owing to which
it is hard to draw definitive conclusions regarding the trends in pollution. This is
because the collected data are inconsistent between the institutions, between years,
and are not in accordance with international monitoring standards and
recommendations (such as those from the EU Water Directive, for example).
Additionally, there are seasonal variations depending on the hydrological regime,
which can cloud the underlying effects of pollution (ERICo 2011).
Nevertheless, some general trends have emerged from the data gathered by those
monitoring programmes. The concentration of organic pollutants (ammonia and
nitrites) is the highest along the northern shores and Morača River mouth, which
drains most of the watershed area. In this region, along the North shores of the Lake,
the spread of marshland vegetation has been observed in the recent past, as well as
the occurence of algal blooms. All of this indicates that the main sources of organic
pollution are considered to be runoff from the agricultural lands of Zeta plan that
fringes the northern shores of the Lake and inputs of nutrients from the untreated
urban wastewaters that arrive via tributaries (mainly Morača River). The expansion of
the marshlands is linked to the effects of organic pollution, as the aquatic
macrophytes take up nutrients dissolved in the water, which increases their biomass
production, however no direct research has been done to determine whether there is
a direct cause and effect link between the two.
Apart from nutrient inputs, the Lake waters has been receiving a load of persistent
organic pollutants, including PCB and PAH, mainly coming from Aluminium plant in
Podgorica (KAP). Such substances are resistant to degradation and persist in the
environment, where they can bioaccumulate in plant and animal tissues, causing
negative effects especially on the end consumers in trophic chains, humans included.
Monitoring programs done during the ‘90s, showed that concentrations of those
pollutants measured in water, soil and fish tissues were high and above the allowed
concentrations. However, more recent measurements (in the past few years), show a
marked drop in their concentrations. Apart from natural contributions to this
decrease (such is the high turnover rate of Lake waters, high precipitation,
permeability of soils…), a major contribution came from the removal of the source
pollution from the KAP (ERICo 2011).
Concentrations of other, trace, elements that act as pollutants are generally low. In
general, the water quality of the Lake, according to the national official environmental
report, is satisfactory, despite some local and seasonal variations. Nevertheless, as
stated above, there is no research to link the observed trends in quality of waters and
sediments with the population and community dynamics of Lake ecosystems or
human health of populations utilising those ecosystems.
Solid waste disposal is another issue in the Lake region. Numerous illegal dumps,
especially along the tributaries and in the vicinity of villages, contribute large amounts
of solid waste (most often plastic) into the Lake. Research on the impact on human
19
health, flora, fauna and habitats has not been done, but it certainly creates aesthetic
pollution, which is the most common complaint of visitors of the Lake, and as such can
have adverse effect on tourism development.
1.3.2.2. Habitat modification and destruction
Abandonement of traditional forms of land use (like small scale farming, cattle
grazing, grass cutting) and conversion of agricultural land or natural habitats into
construction land for tourist and other infrastructure, has been taking place around
Skadar Lake in the past few decades. The regions most affected include southern
shores of the Lake (Virpazar and Crmnica region, villages in Krajina and Riječka
nahija). Such practices have caused losses of natural or anthropogenic habitats with
high biodiversity, and have also created pollution of the landscape which
compromises its aesthetic values. Abandonment of certain habitats, like the
floodplains along the North shores traditionally used for grazing and haying, left way
for natural succession by trees (poplars, willows), leading to the loss of species that
require open and seasonally disturbed grassland habitats.
Exploitation of gravel and sand (and to a lesser degree peat) is an ongoing activity
within the Lake system. Large quantities are being extracted at the downstream areas
of Morača River, including its mouth at the Lake, as well as from smaller rivers and
tributaries. Some of those activities are carried out as concessions controlled by the
National Park, though the small-scale ones on the rivers are illegal. All of them have
caused observable modifications of river channels. This is particularly obvious in the
parts of Morača River few kilometres upstream from the National Park, where its
natural channel has been significantly modified (Special Purpose Spatial Plan for
National Park Skadar Lake 2001 and present observations). During the periods of low
water levels, the river at parts becomes cut off, and large schools of fish become
stranded in pools that rapidly become deoxygenated. Reports on those events are
sporadic and anecdotal, and no proper research has been done to estimate the extent
of modification of natural river flow dynamics or the effects this has on the Lake
hydrological regime and ecosystems.
Deforestation in the region, caused primarily by gathering of fuelwood and conversion
of natural habitats into agricultural or construction lands, has been taking place for a
long time. The effect is that forests in the immediate surrounding of the Lake are
generally degraded and fragmented. This is the trend in the wider watershed area of
the Lake, as well, and in that respect not only does it cause direct loss of biodiversity,
but can cause erosion, especially of the shallow soils on sloping terrains, such are the
ones along the South shores of the Lake.
1.3.2.3. Species exploitation
20
One of the primary economic activities in the Lake region is fishing, so fish species
exploitation is among the main environmental issues. Most of the Lake fish species
have been exploited, and various changes in fishery-practices (including the increase
in illegal fishing) and ecosystems have caused declines or losses of some species. For
instance, sharp decline in sturgeons, as well as decline in carp abundance is apparent
to those who have been fishing on the Lake for a long time. Among one of the biggest
fishery-related issues on the Lake is blocking of migratory routes on Bojana River by
dams designed to catch fish, primarily eel, sturgeons and twaite shad, the species that
migrate between the Lake and the Adriatic Sea. More information regarding fishing
and related issues is provided in section 2.1 on fisheries of Study 1.
Hunting waterbirds has been officially banned from the National Park area since
2002. However, instances of poaching are frequent, and this form of illegal activity is
poorly regulated, so exploitation of bird species continues. The most affected species
are various ducks (common pochard, ferruginous duck) and coot. Apart from direct
removal of individual from the populations, hunting also acts to disturb bird
populations. This occurs particularly during the winter, when large flocks of migratory
birds use Lake’s surface for resting and feeding, and disturbance caused in this way
makes large flocks fly away, which can affect bird vigour and ability to continue
migrations. Although precise estimates on how this affects abundance and population
sizes are lacking, data from monitoring programs suggest that the observed declines
in some species’ populations can, at least partially, be attributed to hunting.
As stated above, there is evidence of uncontrolled collection of medicinal plants, frogs
(mainly Rana ridibunda) and snakes (Viperidae), but estimates on the population
dynamics of those species are lacking. However, if such a trend continues, population
declines of those species, as a consequence of direct exploitation, are to be expected.
Cutting of trees has reduced the spread of forests, and has directly affected the
abundance of certain species, most notably the endemic subspecies of oak – Quercus
robur scuteriensis, which presently occurs only as small patches or isolated trees
scattered around the region (Special Purpose Spatial Plan for NP Skadar Lake 2001).
1.3.2.4. Introduction of species.
There are frequent occurences of fish species introductions that are not done in a
controlled way. In the ‘70s, Prussian carp was introduced in order to increase the
fisheries success. The opulation of this species has increased, so that presently it
comprises a significant proportion of the total fish catch on the Lake, which at some
point exceeded the catch of the native carp (Mrdak 2009). Perch was also introduced
into the Lake ecosystem, where it succesfully filled an empty niche of a top predator in
the littoral zone, also becoming a significant part of the total catch (Mrdak 2009).
21
There are three potentially harmful species of fish that have been accidentally
introduced into the Lake - Amurian minnow, Mosquito-fish and Brown bullhead
(Nikčević and Hagediš 2012). Recently, a single case of a piranha was reported in
Skadar Lake, probably resulting from a deliberate release from aquaria. No similar
cases have been reported since, but similar events are expected to occur in the
absence of the awareness of potential consequences. Currently, those species do not
have a significant impact on the overall fish fauna in the Lake, but should be
monitored nevertheless.
Although the cases of introduced fish species and known and changes in their
population dynamics observed, there is no research into the ecological effects of those
introduced species on the populations of native fish or on the ecosystem in general.
1.3.2.5. Disturbance
Although there is a general trend of population decrease in rural areas around the
Lake, alteration of land uses and increase in visitation have resulted in the increased
presence of humans in remote and sensitive areas of the Lake ecosystem.
Tourist and fishermen boats enter marshlands and destroy floating vegetation, create
noise and in such a way disturb fauna especially birds. It has been estimated that a
boat leaves a disturbance corridor up to 1km wide (Schneider-Jacoby 2010). For
instance, Dalmatian pelicans used to nest on the isle of Grmožur, but due to frequent
visitation by tourists, they abandoned this nesting site. Similarly, in the sensitive
period of nesting, they are easily disturbed by fishermen boats in the marshlands.
When disturbed, they leave nests, so the eggs get exposed to insolation, which can
have an impact on the clutch survival. Considering that there is at least 200 fishermen
boats on the Lake (judging from the number of sold fishing licences), as well as a
number of tourist and recreational vessels, ranger and police patrol speedboats, this
form of disturbance can be considerable. There are initiatives to solve this problem
through Zonation of the Lake and creation of water corridors where traffic and
passage of vessels is controlled, but such a regime is still not enforced.
Increased traffic surrounding Lake creates high level of roadkill, especially reptiles
(snakes and lizards), as well as mammals such as otters. For instance, one witness
reported around 160 dead reptiles on the 5km stretch of road between Virpazar and
Vranjina, and some time later, an otter was found along the same road. Data on how
this affects species’ populations is lacking.
Use of boats and fishing causes collateral damage to many non-target species. Boat
propellers damage water macrophytes, which provide structural complexity and
habitat for other species (including nesting sites for whiskered terns). Birds such as
coot and cormorants, as well as otters frequently get caught in fishermen nets. The
use of electricity for illegal fishing also stuns and kills all the fauna that gets within the
22
current, including invertebrates and roe of all the fish species. There are reports that
birds’ nests and eggs, especially those of pelicans, have been collected for purposes of
selling them to collectors.
The evidence for the above effects is anecdotal, and often encountered in the field or
heard from local users, but no critical and systematic assessment on their extent and
influence on population and ecosystem dynamics has been carried out.
1.4. Summary
Skadar Lake presents a rather unique ecosystem in the wider region of the South-East
Europe. Dynamic natural history has created a complex environmental setting which
provided conditions for persistence of rich biodiversity.
History of human-nature interactions in this area is long, and even present day society
of Montenegro depends on direct and indirect services provided by the Lake
ecosystem. The changes in the modes of utilisation and increased pressures on natural
assets have created new trends in ecosystem and population dynamics, which are
predominantly negative. Lack of research into natural dynamics and effects of
anthropogenic influences makes it hard to determine causal relationships. Despite
conservation measures, negative trends persist, and if present-day Montenegrin
society is to continue to derive benefits from the biodiversity and other ecosystem
services of the Lake, more information and management actions are needed.
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2. Legislative and policy framework
Skadar Lake is a transboundary Lake – the border between Montenegro and Albania
splits the Lake, so that those countries contain 2/3 and 1/3 of its surface respectively.
This means that the Lake region is non-administrative, as its sides comply with
different sets of laws, regulations and plans, which has implications for conservation
and management arrangements.
On Montenegrin side, 40.000ha of Lake surface, marshlands and surrounding
terrestrial habitats have a status of a national park. The utilisation regime within the
national park is mainly determined by the Law on National Parks of Montenegro, as
well as by the by-laws and regulations adopted and enforced by the managing
authority – Public Enterprise for National Parks - NP Skadar Lake. The other two Laws
most relevant for Skadar Lake are Law on Freshwater Fisheries and Law on Nature
Protection.
2.1. Legislative framework
The Law on National Parks
Year of coming into force: 2009 (revision of this Law is ongoing. The new
Law is expected to be endorsed in 2013)
Reference: Official Gazette 56/09
Responsible ministry: Ministry of Sustainable Development and Tourism
Short description:
This is a Lex specialis, so its provisions are above provisions of all other Laws.
According to this Law, national parks are areas under the special protection
regime, and fall under the nature protection regulations, unless otherwise
stated.
This Law defines the following:
- descriptive borders of national parks
- management body (Public Enterprise for National Parks) founded by the
Parliament – it’s mandate, management structure and mode of
establishment
- procedures for preparation and adoption of NP spatial plans and programs
for protection, promotion and use
- management plan contents
- prohibited activities in the parks
- conditions of use of resources within parks, with particular emphasis on
forests and land (in terms of construction)
- sources of financing for national parks
- penalties and fees for noncompliance with the Law
24
The Law on Freshwater Fisheries
Year of coming into force: 2007
Reference: Official Gazette 11/2007
Responsible ministry: Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development
Short description:
This Law defines the following:
- fishing waters and areas (which includes Skadar Lake)
- conditions of use of fish stock (by companies, fishing associations etc, on
the basis of the public competition process)
- contents of the Fishery Basis document (stock assessment, allowed yields,
protection measures etc)
- types of fishing (recreational, commercial, for scientific purposes) and how
they are regulated
- aquaculture and its rules
- various protection measures (defines illegal modes of fishing, setting up of
protection services etc)
- inspection and how it is carried out
- penalties and fees for noncompliance with the Law
The Law on Nature Protection
Year of coming into force: 2008 (revision of this Law is ongoing. The new
Law expected to be endorsed in 2013)
Responsible ministry: Ministry of Sustainable Development and Tourism
Reference: Official Gazette 51/08
Short description:
This Law defines the following:
- basic principles of nature protection (integrated protection, prevention
principle, polluter/user pays principle...)
- modes of nature protection (through establishment of protected areas,
defining measures and conditions for protection within plans and other
strategic documents, fostering of scientific research...)
- conditions for use of natural assets/areas
- Natura 2000 ecological network
- categories of protected areas
- criteria for species protection
- procedures for proclamation of protected areas
- conditions for management and use of protected areas
- special nature protection measures
- contents of the Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan, as the main nature
protection document
- modes of financing nature protection
25
- competences of nature protection wardens
- inspection and how it is carried out
- penalties and fees for noncompliance with the Law
Based on those Laws, the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development and the
Public Enterprise for National Parks of Montenegro bring several regulations, of
which the most relevant for Skadar Lake include:
Rules of Conduct within National Parks Biogradska Gora, Lovćen, Durmitor and
Skadar Lake
Reference: Official Gazzette 32/05
Based on: Law on National Parks and the Statute of the PENP
Endorsed by: Management board of PENP
Defines the following:
- activities that are forbidden within the borders of national parks (illegal
killing of animals and collection of plants, destruction of habitats etc)
- activities that can be conducted within the park with a special permit
(cutting timber, collection of plants, fungi and forest products)
- mode of use of national park assets (scientific research, visitation,
recreational activities, commercial activities including fishing and
agriculture)
Decree on fishing bans, limitations and measures for the protection of fish
stocks
Reference: Official Gazzete 21/12
Based on: Law on Freshwater Fisheries
Endorsed by: Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development
Defines the following:
- periods of fishing bans for certain fish species on Skadar Lake (as well as on
all other freshwater bodies in Montenegro)
- illegal modes of fishing (various illegal tools, minimal dimeter for gill nets,
number of fishing rods, limits in quantities for certain species)
- measures for protection of fish stock from diseases
Decision on the modes and conditions for commercial fishing on Skadar Lake
Based on: Law on National Parks and the Statute of the PENP
Endorsed by: Management board of PENP
Defines the following:
- parts of the Lake where permanent fishing ban is enforced
- allowed tools for commercial fishing
- conditions for fishing (licence)
26
Decision on the fees and modes of payment for using the goods of National
Parks, carrying out activities and offering services
Based on: Law on National Parks and the Statute of the PENP
Endorsed by: Management board of PENP
Defines the following:
- types and values of fees for visitation and services offered within the Park
(entry fees, premises rental, guide fees, fees for organised visits)
- types and values of fees for using premises and facilities (fees for camping,
fees for jeep tours)
- fees for collection of forest fruits, fungi and medicinal plants
- fees for catering, tourist, merchandise and infrastructural facilities (space
rental for catering facilities, hotels, small shops, using of beaches)
- fees for construction of temporary facilities within the Park (such are
kiosks, stalls etc)
- fees for filming within parks
- fees for fishing within parks
- fees for using the name and logo of parks
Other laws and regulations that are of relevance to Skadar Lake area and its
protection and management include:
National laws:
- The Law on the Environment – Ministry of Sustainabile Development and
Tourism (Official Gazette 55/00)
- The Law on Waters – Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development
(Official Gazette 27/2007)
- The Law on Forests – Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development
(Official Gazette 74/10 and 40/11)
- The Law on Agricultural Land - Ministry of Agriculture and Rural
Development (Official Gazette 15/92, 59/92, 32/11)
- The Law on Tourism – Ministry for Sustainable Development and Tourism
(Official Gazette 61/2010)
- The Law on Waste Management – Ministry for Sustainable Development
and Tourism (Official Gazette 64/11)
- The Law on Environmental Impact Assessment – Ministry for Sustainable
Development and Tourism (Official Gazette 80/05)
- The Law on Strategic Environmental Assessment – Ministry for Sustainable
Development and Tourism (Official Gazette 80/05)
- The Law on Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control – Ministry for
Sustainable Development and Tourism (Official Gazette 80/05)
- The Law on Spatial Planning and Development – Ministry for Sustainable
Development and Tourism (Official Gazette 51/08, 40/10 and 34/11)
- The Law on Game and Hunting (Official Gazette 052/08-1)
27
Other regulations on the national level:
- Rules on modes and conditions for collection, use and trade of unprotected
wild species of animals, plans and fungi used for commercial purposes
(Official Gazette 62/10)
- Rules on the protection measures and modes of maintenance of road
crossings for wild animals (Official Gazette 80/10)
- Rules on the monitoring of abundance and conditions of populations of
protected wild birds (Official Gazette 62/10)
- Rules on contens and management of the registry of protected natural
assets (Official Gazette 79/09)
- Rules on the risk assessment for introduction of alien wild species of plants,
animals and fungi (Official Gazette 46/10)
- The List of Protected Species (which can’t be killed, collected in adult
and/or juvenile stages, nor their habitats, nesting and spawning sites
disturbed)
Other relevant regulations endorsed by PENP based on the Law on National
Parks and the Statute of PENP:
- Decision on the modes and conditions for sport fishing on Skadar Lake
- Decision on the modes and conditions for tourist transportation on Skadar
Lake waters
- Decision on modes and conditions for conducting birdwatching in NP Skadar
Lake
International legal acts
- Convention on Wetlands of International Importance (Ramsar Convention),
- Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
- Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES)
- Convention on Access to Information, Public Participation in Decision-
making and Access to Justice in Environmental Matters (Aarhus
Convention)
- UNESCO World Heritage Convention
- Convention on Environmental Impact Assessment in a Transboundary
Context (Espoo Convention)
- Bern Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural
Habitats
- Bonn Convention on Migratory Species
- EU bird directive
- EU habitat directive
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2.2. Issues with the enforcement
The legislative framework for protection and management of Skadar Lake region and
its natural resources in Montenegro is in place. A number of legal instruments has
been endorsed in the past and more recently, within the context of EU integrations,
where national legislation has to be harmonised with the EU acquis.
Based on those regulations, the PENP is given the mandate to enforce them through
its Legal department and the Rangers service of NP Skadar Lake, together with
support from other relevant national institutions (various inspectorates, police etc).
However, although the legal framework is extensive, the enforcement is rather
defficient. Some of the main issues that exist in this respect include:
- Insufficient number of rangers and technical equipment for adequatelly
monitoring the Park area
- Insufficient capacities of rangers in terms of being acquainted with the legal
framework, technical skills for preparing proper charges, conducts during
law enforcement etc.
- The judiciary system is very slow and nature protection-related charges are
not given priority
- The judiciary personel does not have sufficient understanding of ecological
processes for efficient nature protection
2.3. Relevant strategic documents
Apart from the above Laws and regulations, there are several strategic documents
that are relevant for Skadar Lake protection, use and management.
Special Purpose Spatial Plan for National Park Skadar Lake
It is the main planning document for the Skadar Lake region. This plan was adopted
by Montenegrin Parliament in September 2001. The Plan provides a detailed
description of various components of the NP environment (geology, hydrography,
paedology, biological diversity), as well as resources, modes of their use, settlements
and infrastructure, socio-economic aspects of the region. At the same time, the Plan
defines Park’s borders and zoning, and various land uses (e.g. tourist and recreational
zones, building sites etc.) within the NP, as well as gives directions for the
development of economic activities and the protection in the region.
29
National Biodiversity Strategy with Action Plan 2010-2015
National Biodiversity Strategy with Action Plan (NBSAP) has been adopted in July
2010 for the period of five years with the aim to determine long term objectives and
guidelines for preservation of biological and landscape diversity in Montenegro. In
line with the requirements of the Convention on Biodiversity (CBD) and the Law on
Nature Protection (Official Gazette 51/08), the Strategy provides: overview of the
biological diversity (ecosystems, species, centres of biodiversity, agro-biodiversity),
biodiversity protection (in situ - species, ecosystems, habitats and ex situ), sustainable
use of biodiversity and natural resources (ecosystem services, economic sectors:
agriculture, forestry, hunting, fishery, medical and aromatic plans, GMOs, nature-
based tourism, eco-tax, non-economic values of biodiversity), issues of particular
interest for biodiversity protection and its sustainable use (tourism, spatial planning,
infrastructure, legal and institutional framework), threats to biodiversity (major
threats, causes of biodiversity loss, obstacles to efficient protection) and action plan
for biodiversity protection (challenges, measures, activities).
The activities of the Action Plan of the Strategy include: improvement of the
knowledge base on biodiversity through research, improvement of the biodiversity
monitoring programs, work on identification and mapping of Natura 2000 sites,
capacity building of institutions and researchers, decrease of the pressures on natural
habitats and mitigation of anthropogenic influences, integration of biodiversity issues
in other sectors’ policies. Their implementation is to a great extent related to national
institutions due to the complexity of obligations for biodiversity protection. With the
aim to ensure as wide as possible participation of all the relevant parties, measures
and activities are in most of the cases defined as joint obligation of several
stakeholders: competent government institutions, local self-government bodies,
professional organizations, associations and civil society bodies. The funds for
implementation of the Strategy should be secured by the national and local
governments (depending on the responsible implementation party), as well as
donations, international projects and similar.
Skadar Lake is within the Strategy described as the largest freshwater ecosystem with
the richest biodiversity that makes it a valuable wetland habitat. It also recognises the
Lake as a site for fisheries and nature-based tourism. Some of the priority measures
that are relevant to Skadar Lake include the preparation of the fish stock assessment
and environmental impact assessments on exploitation of gravel and modification of
watercourses.
National Strategy for Sustainable Development
30
This Strategy gives directions for overall development of Montenegro based on
sustainability principles. It identifies five general objectives: accelerate economic
growth and development and decrease regional differences; decrease poverty and
ensure equal access to services and resources; ensure efficient control and reduce
pollution; sustainably manage natural resources; improve public participation;
maintain cultural diversity and identities. The Strategy does not deal specifically with
the Skadar Lake region, but those objectives and measures listed within the action
plan give guidance for future activities in this region.
Tourism Development Strategy until 2020.
This Strategy gives a general overview and directions for the development of
Montenegrin tourism, and it does so through identifying several operational
objectives with sets of priority measures for achieving them, as well as by identifying
six tourism clusters, each with its own specificities (based on the location,
accessibility, natural and cultural assets, infrastructure etc). Skadar Lake in this
Strategy is treated as a part of one tourism cluster, together with Cetinje Municipality,
regarded as a “heart of the country” - a region with scenic beauty, rich in biodiversity
and cultural heritage. The tourism development for this cluster envisages activities
that are sustainable and strictly respect environmental considerations (for instance:
main activities include hiking, biking, cruises on boats powered with solar energy,
construction of facilities that respect traditional architecture).
Strategy for Fishery Development of Montenego and Strenghtening of the
Capacities for the Implementation of the Common Fishery Policy of EU
The main focus of this Strategy is redefining Montenegrin fishery policy in accordance
with the EU integration requirements, with the ultimate aim of protection and
sustainable use of marine and freshwater fish stocks. Thus, the Strategy provides
overview of the existing situation in the fishery sector in Montenegro and the set of
actions/recommendations for building sustainable and efficient fisheries that are
competitive at the wider market. The topics covered within the Strategy include:
harmonization of the legislation with the relevant EU acquis, proposals for
improvement of the monitoring system and data collection in line with the EU
standards and requirements, strengthening of the administrative capacities in order
to answer EU requirements, improvement of the quality of products, strengthening
laboratories for conducting relevant chemical and micro-biological analysis, creation
of favourable institutional framework for recovery of the national fishing fleet,
improvement of research and assessment of fish stocks etc.
Skadar Lake is in this Strategy described as the main area for freshwater fisheries. The
Strategy recognises lack of data on fish resources and fish catch as the main obstacle
31
for sustainable fishery development at the Lake, while the demand for Skadar Lake
fish at the domestic market has been recognised as the main advantage.
3. Management of Skadar Lake National Park
Skadar Lake region is primarily managed as a protected area (national park), though
other institutions have a role in the management of the wider region and resources
(for a review, please refer to the section 1. on stakeholder analysis in Study 1).
3.1. Public Enterprise for National Parks
A managing authority for the park is Public Enterprise for National Parks of
Montenegro (PENP). It is an umbrella organisation for managing all Montenegrin
national parks, and the management of the Lake is made operational through its
organisational unit National Park Skadar Lake (NPSL).
Management structure of PENP is provided in figure 3. It can be seen that it is
governed by the Director and the General Management Board advised by the Advisory
board (consisting of technical experts from various fields), and that it contains several
departments common for all parks (Financial, Legal Department, Department for
Education, Promotion and Marketing, Department for Protection and Development).
NP Skadar Lake (and other individual parks), as an organisational unit of PENP, has its
director, and departments for Technical and Administrative Affairs, General
Maintenance and a Ranger Service.
32
Figure 3 – Organisational scheme of the Public Enterprise for National Parks of Montenegro
PENP is responsible for preparation and implementation of periodic programmes for
protection, promotion and the use of national parks, i.e. management plans. These
programmes need to be approved by the Management Board and the Government.
The main PENP responsibilities include:
- carrying out measures and activities for implementation of adopted policies
regarding management, use, protection and development of national parks
- implementation of management plans
- determining and enforcing internal rules of conduct in national parks
- development and promotion of national parks
- monitoring of environmental conditions and processes within the parks and
reporting to the relevant authority (MSDT)
- issues the rights to use natural resources to other parties, in accordance with
laws and regulations (e.g. concessions)
- performing other activities of public interest, as stipulated by the laws and
other acts
The Public Enterprise is partly self-financing and partly supported by the state
budget, from the funds designated for nature protection. Besides budgetary transfers,
PENP receives revenues from the fees for the use of park’s natural resources and
recreational areas. The Enterprise is authorised to collect a large number of fees and
charges (including fishing charges, wood-cutting charges, entrance fees, fees for the
economic activities performed within park boundaries, compensations for filming,
33
camping etc). The level of these charges is determined by the Decisions brought by the
PENP Management Board (refer to the section 2.1. on legal framework). Other sources
of income include own commercial activities of the PENP, compensations for damages
done to the NP resources, collected fines, as well as from project grants and donations.
The total budget of the PENP (for all five national parks) in 2011 amounted to
2.032.967€. Of this amount, 1.132.967€, or 55,7%, was own income. About 36% of
this amount came from the entrance fees, 9,7% from fishery-related activities on
Skadar Lake (fishing licenses and concessions for bleak), 21,8% from various tourism-
related activities (rafting charges in NP Durmitor, sale of souvenirs, accommodation,
parking etc), 22,3% from various other economic activities (gravel extraction, space
rental, use of resources etc) and 10% from donations (source PENP annual report for
2011). This indicates relative importance of various economic activities as sources of
income to PENP.
In terms of expenditures, in 2011 they amounted to 2.030.470€, the majority of which
was spent on salaries (59,2%), while the rest went on various operational costs (fuel,
office running costs, maintenance, telecommunications etc; source PENP annual
report for 2011).
3.2. Skadar Lake National Park
This is an organisational unit within PENP that is directly responsible for the
management of Skadar Lake region.
The seat of NP Skadar Lake is in Vranjina, where all the offices and services are
located. The current structure is as follows:
- Department for Technical and Administrative affairs – has 7 employees,
who are responsible for administration of the Park, as well as for planning
and implementation of annual activities regarding biodiversity protection,
stakeholder cooperation, tourism development etc. (together with the
technical experts from the Department for Protection and Development on
the central level in PENP)
- General Maintenance Department – has 19 employees, who are responsible
for maintaining the Park’s infrastructure, ambiental hygiene in the Park,
clearing of hiking trails etc.
- Ranger Service – has 17 employees, whose responsibility is 24-hour
surveillance of the Park territory, enforcement of laws and regulations,
prevention and hindering of various illegal activities, provision of
information and other services to visitors and other users. They are
authorised to control the vessel movements within the National Park, and
to apply penalty provisions of relevant laws and collect charges and fines.
34
In terms of financing, NP Skadar Lake does not have financial independence. In other
words, the income from own activities, project grants and donations is transferred to
the PENP’s budget, from which allocations are made to individual parks in accordance
with the planned activities. This means that NP Skadar Lake cannot independently
make investment decisions and budget allocations for protection and development
activities it deems fit in the Lake region.
According to the PENP Annual report, total revenue for NP Skadar Lake for 2011 was
527.291€, of which 30,2% was derived from entrance fees, 18,4 % from fishery
activities (licenses and concessions for bleak), 10,5% from gravel extraction, 3,5%
from charges for tourist boats, 13,3% from various rental services, 13,3% as
amortisations from donations. This indicates that the main sources of income is from
tourism/visitation (entrance fees and boat charges), followed by the economic
activities related to fisheries and other resource use within the Park.
In terms of expenditures in NP Skadar Lake, in 2011 they were 605.060€, which
exceeds income from the Park alone. Of this, 54,8% was spent on salaries, and the rest
on various running and operational costs. The amount of 17,3% of the expenditure is
on fuel, registration, maintenance and amortization for vehicles and vessels, which
indicates high costs of patrolling and enforcement by the ranger service in the field.
3.2.1. Management plan for Skadar Lake
The main management document of PENP-NP Skadar Lake is a 5-year management
plan. The current plan has been brought for the period 2011-2015, and it is made
operational through annual action plans.
The current management plan has been prepared and endorsed with the support of
GIZ, through their project “Cross-boundary spatial planning Lake Shkoder/Skadar
Region, Albania and Montenegro” (refer to the section 3.2. on projects in Study 1).
This was the first time that the preparation of a management plan for a protected area
in Montenegro had an element of public participation. It was done through a series of
interviews with a large number of stakeholders (more than 200), where they had a
chance to fill in a questionnaire and provide personal views and inputs regarding
future activities on the Lake. Those ideas were incorporated into the document
together with visions and plans of the management planning team of PENP, resulting
in the 5-year plan that is currently valid.
Apart from the general information on the Lake region, its natural and cultural assets
and socio-economic aspects, this plan contains zonation concept of the Park, as well as
several strategic directions, each with own set of activities. Those directions include:
- Protection of natural values
- Protection of cultural heritage
35
- Development of informative and educational contents
- Improvement of cooperation with users of the Park area
- Improvement of cooperation with international and national organisations
and donors
- Improvement of cross-border cooperation
- Other special objectives (including demarcation of park area and zones,
infrastructure development, waste management and tourism destination
management)
The plan is operationalised through annual work plans. Every year, the Park
authorities prepare an implementation report evaluated by the Ministry of
Sustainable Development and Tourism.
3.3. Issues with management
The National Park Skadar Lake has an established managemend body, a management
plan and sources of financing. However, despite that, the conflict between the
ecosystem protection and conservation on one, and the use of natural resources on
the other side still persist. This can be attributed mainly to the gaps at two levels. At
the level of planning, the main issues are that it is not done as a participatory process,
so that other stakeholders do not have an opportnity to contribute with their ideas
and knowledge. Similarly, there is a general lack of coordination with other relevant
institutions, so that the plans and other strategic documents are not harmonised.
Finally, plans and activities are, at least partially, made on the basis of personal
(expert) opinion or on the concensus of few individuals, rather than on the systematic
research and objective data from monitoring of the situation in the field.
The other level is that of the actual management, i.e. the implementation of planned
activities. Here, the problem is partially in the lack of institutional capacities,
including the insufficient number of personell, especially for the enforcement;
insufficient technical equipment and and often financial resources. Further, conflicts
with users, especially those who do not respect rules and regulations, often occur,
hampering conservation activities and drawing attention and resources away from
the priority conservation activities. Finally, there are defficiencies in the enforcement
because the relevant personell (i.e. the rangers) do not have all the relevant
capacities; the complexity of the environment makes certain habitats hard to reach
and control; the social environment is such that everyone knows everyone, which
makes it hard to process legal charges due to personal relations.
36
4. Cross-border cooperation between Montenegro and
Albania in the nature protection context
Cross-border cooperation between Montenegro and Albania in the area of Lake
Skadar has been significantly improved since 2000, when the first international
project, “Promotion of Networks and Exchanges in SEE countries”, started its
implementation. The main aim of the project was to enhance cooperation between
neighbouring countries over shared natural resources. Cooperation established
between Montenegro and Albania over Skadar Lake at that time on many different
levels – protected area management, NGOs, schools, universities, media, local
communities etc - has been formalized through the Memorandum of Understanding
(MoU) signed by two relevant Ministries from two involved countries over
environmental protection and implementation of the principle of sustainable
development. The agreement was designed with the support of the project
implementing agency - REC and signed in 2003. By doing so, the two countries
committed to conservation of the natural resources of the Lake in a coordinated and
integrated manner and to improvement of the relevant national-level regulatory and
institutional capacities. Furthermore, the MoU was an expression of willingness of the
two governments to work together on improving the protection and management of
the Lake and its resources. Thus, not only that the legal and political framework for
bilateral cooperation between Montenegro and Albania over improvement of Skadar
Lake management has been established, but the mandate was given to other relevant
stakeholders to strengthen bilateral cooperation on many different levels.
Taking that opportunity, the cross-border Forum for Skadar Lake has been
established, gathering representatives of different institutions from two countries
relevant for the management and protection of Skadar Lake (National Park, local
authorities, ministries, NGOs, nature protection institutes, educational institutions).
They further enhanced cooperation between two countries through many different
activities implemented jointly during the period 2000 - 2009. The Forums developed
and signed Declaration on Skadar Lake, which among other thing, defined the Day of
the Lake (third weekend of June) to be celebrated in both countries every year.
Further development of bilateral co-operation between Montenegro and Albania over
management and protection of Skadar Lake on the governmental level was enhanced
through the international workshop “Lake Skadar International Designations for
Territorial Development”, held in October 2005, when two Prime-ministers expressed
the necessity and willingness to work further on joint protection of Skadar Lake. The
workshop was conducted by international organizations: UNDP, UNESCO and IUCN.
Cooperation between the two countries was continued through activities of Skadar
Lake Integrated Ecosystem Management Project (LSIEMP), the largest international
project regarding management of Skadar Lake resources so far. Through this project,
37
the Agreement between the Ministry of Tourism and Environment of Montenegro and
Ministry of Environment, Forestry and Water Administration of the Republic of
Albania for the protection and sustainable development of the Skadar-Shkoder Lake
has been signed, thus establishing Skadar-Shkoder Lake Commission. The
Commission meets twice a year, once in Montenegro, once in Albania, in order to
discuss all major issues regarding management and protection of Skadar Lake.
Commission also established four technical bilateral working groups on specific
issues: water management, monitoring and research, communication and tourism
promotion and management and legal harmonization (for more information on the
above-mentioned projects, refer to the section 3.2. on projects in Study 1).
All the above mentioned high level documents created political framework for the
bilateral cooperation between Montenegro and Albania over the shared natural
resources. They created platform for the improvement of Skadar Lake management
and actually gave mandate to other institutions from both countries to join forces and
work together on bilateral protection and promotion of Skadar Lake values.
38
5. Socio-economic situation in the region
Montenegrin part of Skadar Lake belongs to three municipalities: Podgorica - capital
of Montenegro, Cetinje – old royal capital and Bar – the biggest port in Montenegro.
The basic information about those municipalities are presented in table 2:
Table 2- Basic information on municipalities to which Skadar Lake belongs (MONSTAT internet
database)
Municipality Surface (km2) Number of
inhabitants
Number of
settlements
Average age of
population
Podgorica 1.441 185.937 140 35,7
Bar 598 42.048 76 37,9
Cetinje 910 16.657 84 40,3
Table 2 shows number of inhabitants in each of those municipalities. Comparison of
the data for the last 40 years clearly shows trends of depopulation in the Municipality
of Cetinje and villages within the National Park borders, while the number of
inhabitants slightly increased in municipalities Podgorica and Bar. Because of this, the
proportion of the total population of Montenegro that inhabits this region has
increased some 10% in the past four decades, which together with various changes in
economic activity and land-use practices has implications for the pressures on the
Lake and its resources.
In relation to the average age structure, it can be concluded that those municipalities
can be considered as old societies. In villages within the NP boundaries this trend is
even more pronounced, where more than 50% of inhabitants are over 50 years of age.
This is especially true for villages within Cetinje Municipality, where couple of villages
do not have any inhabitants who are under 50 years of age.
Table 3 - Population by municipalities (MONSTAT internet database)
Municipality 1971 1981 1991 2003 2011
Podgorica 98.796 132.290 152.025 169.132 185.937
Bar 27.580 32.535 37.321 40.037 42.048
Cetinje 22.024 20.213 20.307 18.482 16.657
Total in 3
municipalities 148.400 185.038 209.653 227.651 244.642
Montenegro 529.604 584.310 615.035 620.145 620.029
As a % of
Montenegrin pop. 28,02% 31,66% 34,08% 36,7% 39,45%
39
According to the Special Purpose Spatial Plan for the National Park, there are 17
settlements within the territory of the Park, where the number of inhabitants varies
between 1 (Kruševice) to 253 (Podhum – table 4).
Table 4: Number of inhabitants in 17 settlements within the National Park (Special Purpose Spatial
Plan 2001 and MONSTAT internet database)
Settlement “Nahija” 1971 1981 1991 2003 2011
Bobovište Krajina 470 490 553 230 180
Bes Krajina 235 246 272 67 41
Donji Murići Krajina 260 312 367 125 101
Total Krajina 965 1048 1192 422 322
Krnjice Crmnica 216 108 57 26 18
Godinje Crmnica 225 79 41 60 49
Virpazar Crmnica 383 412 409 337 277
Kruševice Crmnica 23 18 6 1 1
Komarno Crmnica 108 62 56/37 26 15
Total Crmnica 955 679 550 450 360
Donje Selo Riječka
nahija
95 53 47 23 10
Rijeka Crnojevića Riječka
nahija
587 484 340 216 175
Prevlaka Riječka
nahija
102 53 30 24 22
Šindjon Riječka
nahija
68 44 34 25 15
Dodoši Riječka
nahija
241 112 69/72 53 43
Žabljak Riječka
nahija
96 56 49 40 26
Vranjina Riječka
nahija
315 244 180/177 218 209
Total Riječka Nahija 1504 1046 749 599 500
Begova Glavica Lješanska
nahija
78 73 32 53 24
Podhum Zeta and
Malesija
216 268 279 240 253
Total NP Skadar Lake 3718 3114 2811 1764 1459
Analyses of demographic trends of the settlements, which administratively belong to
the Park, as well as the settlements which are directly linked to the Park, indicated a
40
decrease in the number of inhabitants in the long-term period (CEED 2010). In the
last ten years, decrease is slower, which is more due to the demographic exhaustion
than to active measures for consolidation and improvement of Lake and its
surrounding.
The 17 settlements that are within the National Park area can be divided among five
strongly distinct geographical areas, called “nahije”. Those are: Krajina, Crmnica,
Riječka nahija, Lješanska nahija, Zeta and Malesija, and they are all very distinct in
terms of both population and predominant activities. They all vary in the number of
households/inhabitants, as well as socio-economic, cultural and religious features.
The three biggest settlements on the Lake, which also have some urban
characteristics, are: Virpazar (Bar Municipality, Crmnica region), Rijeka Crnojevića
(Cetinje Municipality, Riječka nahija) and Vranjina (Podgorica Municipality, Riječka
nahija, Figure 4).
Krajina – spreads along the southern Lake’s shore. Administratively it belongs to the
municipality of Bar, although settlements are remote and isolated from the municipal
center due to transport infrastructure. According to the Special Purpose Spatial Plan
for NP Skadar Lake (2001), it consists of 22 rural settlements (8 in Ostros and 14 in
Šestani) out of which 3 are within the protected area: Bobovište, Besa and Donji
Murići. Comparative analysis of the number of inhabitants shows negative
demographic trend in Krajina, especially in the last twenty years. Comparing census
from 1991 and 2003, and two different methodologies used, it is evident that
significant number of inhabitants from this region went to work abroad, especially
from settlement Besa.
The main activities of people living in this region are fishing and small-scale
agriculture (mainly fruits and olives). This is an area with low economic base, but
exceptional natural and cultural values. Therefore, it offers extraordinary
opportunities for: hiking, biking, ‘sun and beach’ (owing to a number of beaches and
islands) etc.
Crmnica is situated at the southern and south-western shore of the Lake and
represents a spatial continuity with Krajina. According to the Spatial Plan for NP
Skadar Lake (2001), Crmnica consists of 24 small settlements, five of which belong to
the National Park: Krnjice, Godinje, Kruševice, Komarno and Virpazar. Virpazar acts as
an administrative centre of Crmnica. Comparing the number of inhabitants through
the past few decades, negative demographic trend is evident in all settlements (e.g.
Kruševica presently has only 1 inhabitant). On the other hand, settlements in Crmnica
have unique features that bring significant value to the National Park – the village of
Godinje, for instance, has very distinct rural characteristics, i.e. preserved village
architecture, and is famous for wine production. People living in Crmnica nowadays
are mainly involved in wine production and nature-based tourism, which are
increasingly becoming important income-generating activities. Therefore, this is an
41
area with significant tourist potential, especially hiking, boat cruising, gastronomic
tourism, religious tourism etc.
Figure 4 – Map of the main settlements within the NP Skadar Lake and main activities of the local
population
42
Riječka nahija occupies western part of the Lake, with several distinct sub-regions:
Ceklin, Ljubotnj, Građani, Kosijeri and Dobrsko selo. Out of its 37 villages, 7 are within
the National Park, with 500 inhabitants in total. The main settlement, Rijeka
Crnojevića, used to be an important port and trading and market place, and as such an
important economic centre in the whole Lake region in the past. After the road Cetinje
– Podgorica has been constructed following the Second World War, Rijeka Crnojevića
rapidly lost its importance and consequently a significant number of inhabitants (the
population more than halved in the last thirty years). Today, Rijeka Crnojevića, with
its distinct appearance of a fishing village, acts more as a tourist attraction, i.e. place
where tourist can take one of the hiking trails (passing by famous historic
monuments, or rich biodiversity), taste traditional food (fish, wine) in some of the
houses adapted as restaurants, or visit Park’s information center.
In terms of economic activities, the population of Rijeka Crnojevića is mainly engaged
in providing tourist services (several restaurants, boat tours), or is employed in
Cetinje, Podgorica or the fish processing factory located here. The rest of the
population in Riječka nahija is engaged in some small-scale agriculture, and is mainly
employed in Cetinje and Podgorica.
Lješanska nahija is a bit detached from the Lake itself being situated in the
continental part, Northwest form the Lake, with only one settlement within the
National Park boundaries - Begova glavica. Negative demographic trend is evident in
this region as well (population more than halved between 2003 and 2011 census).
The inhabitants are mostly engaged in agriculture, livestock breeding and the
production of wine and tobacco. Due to its closeness to the capital, population is very
much oriented towards generating income in Podgorica.
Zeta and Malesija are situated in the northern part of the Lake and have one
settlement within the National Park boundaries, but with 15 settlements in the buffer
zone. However, in total, Zeta has 28 settlements with more than 20.000 inhabitants
and a stable demographic trend. The dominant economic activity in Zeta is extensive
agriculture which has a considerable impact on Skadar Lake. Solid waste dump sites
(scattered along the local roads or the Lake shore) and a significant proportion of
illegal fishermen represent yet another impact of this region’s population on the Lake
resources.
43
5.1. Summary
Skadar Lake is located in the central region of Montenegro, where about a third of the
country’s population lives. The social and economic trends in the past few decades
were towards a decrease of population in rural areas, increase in the average age of
the population, changes in land-use practices and main economic activities shifting
from traditional agriculture, towards tourism and service sector. Loss of employment
opportunities in the region primarily related to the collapse of industry, also has
implications for a number of illegal activities, most notably illegal fisheries and
construction of tourism-related facilities, through which people try to generate
income.
44
6. SWOT analysis
6.1. Institutional aspects
Strengths
- Existing and recognised management
structure
- A number of national instutitions whose
work is related to the Lake
- A commitment towards Lake
conservation by institutions, national
policies, strategies and plans
- Existence of cross-border cooperation
between institutions on different levels
- Increased experts capacities in NPs of
MNE in couple of last years
- Communication with local population
about specific issues (although on an ad
hoc basis)
- Well equipped premises of the NPSL
Weaknesses
- Poor administrative capacities within
relevant institutions (regarding
management planning, project
management, financial management,
sustainable development, environmental
impact assessment, monitoring)
-Lack of coordination and communication
between institutions
- Unclear and sometimes overlapping
responsibilities and competences of
different institutions
- Lack of trans-boundary coordination of
development plans and projects
- Communication with local population
not institutionalized
- Lack of personnel and equipment in
Protection Unit within the NP SL
Opportunities
- National plans and programs regarding
environmental protection and
sustainable development
- Interest of many international
programmes, initiatives, organisations,
donors for this region
- A suite of mechanisms and tools for
protection and management provided by
international conventions, initiatives and
organisations (like Ramsar, UNESCO and
others)
Threats
- Lack of and deficiency in control and
enforcement mechanisms among
institutions (within country and on a
cross-border level)
45
6.2. Economy
Strengths
- A number of traditional economic
activities (fisheries, agriculture,
especially wine-production), together
with a more recent development of
tourism
- Unique natural and cultural values of
the region
- Lake as cross-border area (MNE-AL)
belonging to the two still “undiscovered”
countries
Weaknesses
- No clear vision or concensus on what
developmental directions to take and in
which way
- Decrease in population size and its
ageing
- Abandonment of traditional practices
and forms of land and resource use
- Lack of/or insufficient accommodation
capacities
- Inadequate road infrastructure, i.e. local
roads in some areas, which enabled
development of biking and hiking
Opportunities
- Stable and growing economy on the
national level
- Increase in nature- and culture-oriented
tourism
- Increased awareness and development
regarding organic farming and
sustainable resource uses
- Vicinity of the Lake to important tourist
markets
- Trend in tourism - nature based
tourism in combination with traditional
agriculture products, crafts etc
Threats
- Global economic crisis
- Dump sites and illegal buildings on the
lake shores or in the NP vicinity
- Pollution, mainly from sewage waters
and industries (Shkodra city, Podgorica,
Niksic, KAP, pesticides ...)
- Depopulation in the western and
southern parts which threatens existence
of traditional villages
- Population increase in northern buffer
zone, with intensive agriculture
- Possible construction of highway Bar-
Boljari through Skadar Lake region
46
6.3. Environmental management plans
Strengths
- Existence of environmental
management plans for Montenegrin side
of the Lake
- Trainings and study visits of the NP staff
to other protected areas much advanced
development of management plans
Weaknesses
- Management plans not linked to
research
- Lack of information about specific
species, e.g. fish population, mammals
- Insufficient or non-existent involvement
of local population and other
stakeholders in development of
management plans
Opportunities
- International protection status, with
international organisations/conventions/
programs providing guidelines, best
practices etc.
- Interest of international community for
trans-boundary protected areas might
open doors for new funding
opportunities and institutional support
- Existing cooperation platforms with
Albania
- Initiative for including Skadar Lake at
the UNESCO’s MAB programme
Threats
- Idea about possible decrease of the level
of the Lake not based on
scientific/monitoring data and analysis
- Incomparable or no management plans
on the Albanian side of the Lake
47
7. References:
Biodiversity Database of the Shkodra/Skadar Lake (2001) – Checklist of species
prepared within the project Promotion of Networks and Exchanges in the Countries of
South East Europe
CEED (2010) – Socio-economic analysis Social and Economic Assessment, Study
within the Lake Shkodra/Skadar Integrated Ecosystem Management Project (LSIEMP)
CZIP – http://www.birdwatchingmn.org/
EPA U.S. Environmental Protection Agency - water.epa.gov/type/wetlands/index.cfm
ERICo 2011 - Lake Skadar/Shkoder Monitoring Programme Development,
Fishery Management Plan – Montenegro (2012); within the Lake Shkodra/Skadar
Integrated Ecosystem Management Project (LSIEMP)
Fuštić B. (1997) - Zemljišta sliva Skadarskog jezera, In: Mijušković, M. (ed): Prirodne
vrijednosti i zaštita Skadarskog jezera. Crnogorska Akademija Nauka i Umjetnosti,
Naučni skupovi, Book 44, pp. 187 – 195
Gligorović B., Pešić V. (2007) - Contribution to the knowledge of the dragonflies
(Odonata) from Lake Skadar's drainage basin (Montenegro). Acta entomologica
Serbica, 12 (2), pp. 11–16.
Government of Montenegro (2010) - The Initial National Communication on Climate
Change of Montenegro to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change (UNFCCC), Podgorica.
Hewitt G. 1999 - Post-glacial re-colonization of European biota, Biological Journal of
the Linnean Society, Vol. 68, Issues 1-2, pp. 87-112
ISSP (2011) – Economic valuation of Montenegro’s protected area system, Study
within the project: Catalysing financial sustainability of protected areas in
Montenegro, UNDP
ITSC (2006) - Environmental Impact Assessment Study on Regional Water Supply
System of Montenegrin Coast from Water Source Bolje Sestre, Podgorica.
Keukelaar F. et al. (2006) - Lake Shkoder Transboundary Diagnostics Analysis, Final
report, World Bank (IBRD)
Lasca N., Radulović V., Ristić R., Cherkauer D. (1981) - Geology, hydrology, climate and
bathymetry of Lake Skadar, In Karaman G. (eds): The biota and limnology of Lake
Skadar. Univerzitet Veljko Vlahović, Titograd; Smithsonian Institution, Washington;
Center for great lakes studies, University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, pp. 17-38
Management plan 2011-2015 for National Park Skadar Lake -
http://www.nparkovi.me/sajt/o-nama/dokumenti
MONSTAT internet database - www.monstat.org
48
Mrdak D. (2009) - Environmental risk assessment of the Morača dams: fish fauna of
Morača River canyon and Skadar Lake, Report committed by WWF MedPO and Green
Home under the framework of Sharing Water Project - Skadar Lake component
Mrdak D., Petrović D., Katnić A., Erceg M. (2011) – Integrated study to support the
designation of the trans-boundary Lake Skadar/Shkodra as Biosphere Reserve in the
frame of the project “Supporting the proposed trans-boundary Biosphere Reserve of
Lake Skadar/Shkodra Area through a participatory approach”
Petrović D. (2009) - Important Plant Area country reports – Montenegro. In: Radford
E., Odé B. (eds.), Conserving Important plant Areas: Investing in the green gold of
South East Europe, Plantlife International, UK, pp. 55-62
PENP Annual Report 2011 - http://www.nparkovi.me/sajt/o-nama/dokumenti
RMSI (2008) - Risk Assessment for South Eastern Europe: Desk Study Review. South
Eastern Europe Disaster Risk Mitigation and Adaptation Initiative; Global Facility for
Disaster Reduction and Recovery (GFDRR), UN International Strategy for Disaster
Risk Reduction (UN/ISDR), Geneva.
Schneider-Jacoby M., Stumberger B., Schwarz U. (2010) – Zonation concept for Lake
Skadar-Shkoder and the Bojana-Buna Delta, In: Denac D., Schneider-Jacoby M.,
Stumberger B. (eds.) Adriatic Flyway – Closing the gap in bird conservation;
Euronatur, Radolfzell, pp.103-115
Schwarz U. (2010) – Habitat mapping of the Livanjsko Polje (BA), the Neretva Delta
(HR, BA) and Lake Skadar-Shkoder (ME,AL), In: Denac D., Schneider-Jacoby M.,
Stumberger B. (eds.) Adriatic Flyway – Closing the gap in bird conservation;
Euronatur, Radolfzell, pp. 79-88
Special Purpose Spatial Plan for NP Skadar Lake 2001 – Official Gazzette 46/01
Stumberger B., Schneider-Jacoby M. (2010) – International importance of three
Adriatic Flyway priority sites: Livanjsko Polje, the Neretva Delta and Lake Skadar-
Shkoder with the Bojana-Buna Delta, In: Denac D., Schneider-Jacoby M., Stumberger B.
(eds.) Adriatic Flyway – Closing the gap in bird conservation; Euronatur, Radolfzell,
pp.53-58
UNDP (2011) – The Economic Value of Protected Areas in Montenegro, Study within
the project: Catalysing financial sustainability of protected areas in Montenegro
8. Annex Table A1 – The list of plant taxa with the number of species. Source: Biodiversity Database for Shkodra/Skadar Lake 2001
Phylum Class Family Species number
Comment
Cyanophyta Cyanophyceae 97
Chromophyta Chrysophyceae 20
Xanthophyceae 13
Bacilliariophyceae 352
Dinophyta Dinophyceae 16
Cryptophyceae 4
Chlorophyta Chlorophyceae 231
Conjugatophyceae 236
Charophyceae 18
Euglenophyta Euglenophyceae 100 More recent studies in both Montenegro and Albania have identified additional numbers of species and genera of various phytoplanktonic algae, and it is possible that their list is still not complete
Rodophyta 5
Bryophyta 1
Pteridiophyta Selaginellaceae 1
Equisetaceae 4
Thelypteridaceae 1
Adiantaceae 1
Aspleniaceae 2
Dryopteridaceae 1
2
Hypolepidaceae 1
Marseileaceae 1
Spermatophyta Cupressaceae 3
Betulaceae 1
Corylaceae 4
Fagaceae 9 Includes:
- Skadar Lake endemic subspecies Quercus robur scuteriensis that has significantly decreased in abundance and distrubution and needs special conservation attention
- Chestnut (Castanea sativa) that makes large some of the largest forests of this type in South Europe along the South shores of the Lake and is used by local population
Salicaceae 11
Moraceae 3
Canabaceae 1
Urticaceae 3
Ulmaceae 3
Portulacaceae 1
Aristolochiaceae 3
Polygonaceae 11
Euphorbiaceae 9
Caryophyllaceae 20
Nymphaeaceae 4 White and yellow water lillies are among the most common and dominant aquatic macrophytes
Ceratophyllaceae 2
3
Lauraceae 1 Laurel tree - the last fragments of laurel forests are found on the islands along the South shores
Ranunculaceae 31
Papaveraceae 7
Brassicaceae 27
Cistaceae 4
Tamaricaceae 3
Violaceae 4
Hypericaceae 3
Tiliaceae 1
Malvaceae 5
Linaceae 2
Geraniaceae 10
Zygophyllaceae 1
Rutaceae 1
Polygalaceae 2
Anacardiaceae 2
Aceraceae 2
Celastraceae 1
Rhamnaceae 4
Vitaceae 1 Autochthonous sorts of grape (Vranac, Kratošija) are grown in the Skadar Lake region
Crassulaceae 7
Saxifragaceae 2
4
Rosaceae 19
Fabaceae 50
Lythraceae 4
Punicaceae 1
Oenotheraceae 3
Trapaceae 1 Includes water chestunut (calltrop) Trapa natans, one of the most common aquatic macrophytes, which is also used by local population and is of conservation interest
Haloragaceae 2
Cornaceae 1
Araliaceae 1
Apiaceae 24
Plumbaginaceae 1
Primulaceae 6
Convolvulaceae 7
Boraginaceae 17
Solanaceae 3
Scrophulariaceae 23
Acanthaceae 2
Verbenaceae 4
Lamiaceae 37
Plantaginaceae 7
Gentianaceae 3
Manyanthaceae 1
Apocynaceae 4
5
Oleaceae 7
Rubiaceae 9
Caprofoliaceae 6
Valerianaceae 4
Dipsacaceae 7
Campanulaceae 7
Asteraceae 64
Poaceae 68 Includes one of the most dominant aquatic species – reed Phragmites communis
Cyperaceae 31 Includes one of the most common aquatic species - Scirpus lacustris
Scheuchzeriaceae 1
Lemnaceae 3
Juncaceae 8
Liliaceae 12
Amarylidaceae 1
Iridaceae 5
Orchidaceae 9 All orchids are of conservation interest
Araceae 1
Typhaceae 2
Sparganiaceae 3
Potamogetonaceae 12
Zannicheliaceae 1
Najadaceae 3
Alismataceae 3
Butomaceae 1
6
Hydrocharitaceae 2
Lentibulariaceae 2
Amaranthaceae 3
Chenopodiaceae 4
Cucurbitaceae 1
Junglandaceae 1
Myrtaceae 1
Oxalidaceae 1
Gesneriaceae 1 Includes Balkan endemic Ramonda serbica, which is of conservation interest
Table A2 – The list of animal taxa with the number of species. Source: Biodiversity Database for Shkodra/Skadar Lake 2001 ankd other sources
7
Phylum Class Order Family #Species
Spongia 1
Cnidaria 2
Plathelminthes Trematodes 25
Cestodes 7
Nematoda 11
Rotatoria Monogonata 51
Gastrotricha 1
Acantocephala 7
Mollusca 34 Some species of molluscs (certain bivalves and snails) are rich in biomass and as such present a significant proportion of fish (carp) diet.
More recently, five new snail species that are endemic to the Lake have been described. Also includes bivalve species Pseudoanadonta comlanata that is of conservation interest (Mrdak et al. 2011)
Annelida Oligochaeta 4
Hirudinea 5
Arthropoda Arachnida 18
Crustacea (sph) Cladocera 41
Copepoda 16
Ostracoda 13
Malacostraca Isopoda 1
Amphipoda 5
Decapoda 3
Mysidacea 1
8
Insecta Diptera Chironomidae 7 Species of other aquatic insects are present on the Lake, but the Biodiversity checklist from 2001 does not list them. This includes stoneflies (Plecoptera), caddisflies (Trichoptera) etc.
Chaoboridae 1
Ephemeroptera 1
Odonata 45 Although of conservation interest, dragonflies have only recently been researched and a checklist provided (Gligorović, Pešić, 2007)
Bryozoa 2
Vertebrata (subphylum)
Petromyzonidae 3 Fish species list based on Mrdak 2009.
Acienseridae 2 Includes two sturgeon species, both on the Red List
Anguillidae 1 Eel is commercially exploited
Clupeidae 1
Salmonidae 6 Includes endemic subspecies
Thymallidae 1
Cyprinidae 21 Includes commercialy exploited species – bleak, carp, as well as some Skadar Lake endemics
Cobitidae 2
Ictaluridae 1
Gasterosteidae 1
Poecilidae 1
Mugilidae 2
Percidae 1
Moronidae 1
9
Blennnidae 1
Gobiidae 3 Includes recently described Skadar Lake endemics
Pleuronectidae 1
Cithatidae 1
Reptilia Testudinidae 1
Emydidae 1
Geoemydidae 1
Gekkonidae 2
Lacertidae 9
Anguidae 2
Typhlopidae 1
Colubridae 10
Viperidae 3
Amphibia Caudata Salamandridae 4
Anura Bombinatoridae 1
Bufonidae 2
Hylidae 1
Ranidae 7 Includes endemic and endangered Skadar frog (Rana shqiperica)
Aves Gaviformes 3 Based on the Checklist of bird species of the National Park
Podicipediformes 5
Pelecanoformes 4 Includes Dalmatian pelican and one of the world’s largest colonies of pygmy cormorant
Ciconiiformes 14
Anseriformes 24
10
Accipitiformes 21
Galliformes 10
Gruiformes 2
Charadriformes 43
Cuculiformes 3
Strigiformes 5
CCaprimulgiformes 1
Apodiformes 2
Coraciformes 5
Piciformes 5
Passeriformes 90
Mammalia Rodentia Cricetidae 4
Muridae 7
Gliridae 4
Sciuridae 1
Erinaceomorpha Erinaceidae 1
Lagomorpha Leporidae 1
Carnivora Mustelidae 6 Includes the otter, the only water mammal
Canidae 2
Felidae 1
Soricomorpha Soricidae 6
Talpidae 3
Artiodactyla Suidae 1
11
Chiroptera Vespertilionidae 16
Rhinolophidae 4