2013

OECD Skills Outlook 2013 FirSt rESultS FrOm thE SurvEy OF ADult SkillS

OECD Skills Outlook 2013

First results From the survey oF Adult skills

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Please cite this publication as: oeCd (2013), OECD Skills Outlook 2013: First Results from the Survey of Adult Skills, oeCd Publishing.

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Foreword

OECD SkillS OutlOOk 2013: FirSt rESultS FrOm thE SurvEy OF ADult SkillS OECD 2013 3

It is no exaggeration to use the word revolution when talking about how our lives have changed over the past few decades. Today we rely on information and communication technologies and devices that hadnt even been imagined in 1980. The way we live and work has changed profoundly and so has the set of skills we need to participate fully in and benefit from our hyper-connected societies and increasingly knowledge-based economies.

Governments need a clear picture not only of how labour markets and economies are changing, but of the extent to which their citizens are equipping themselves with the skills demanded in the 21st century, since people with low skills proficiency face a much greater risk of economic disadvantage, a higher likelihood of unemployment, and poor health. Our new publication series, the OECD Skills Outlook, aims to provide that picture. It will offer an annual overview of how skills are being developed, activated and used across OECD and partner countries, and highlight the kinds of education, employment, tax and other social policies that encourage and allow people to make the most of their potential.

This inaugural edition of the OECD Skills Outlook is devoted to reporting the results of the first round of the Survey of Adult Skills, a product of the Programme for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC). The survey provides a rich source of data on adults proficiency in literacy, numeracy and problem solving in technology-rich environments the key information-processing skills that are invaluable in 21st-century economies and in various generic skills, such as co-operation, communication, and organising ones time.

If there is one central message emerging from this new survey, it is that what people know and what they do with what they know has a major impact on their life chances. The median hourly wage of workers who can make complex inferences and evaluate subtle truth claims or arguments in written texts is more than 60% higher than for workers who can, at best, read relatively short texts to locate a single piece of information. Those with low literacy skills are also more than twice as likely to be unemployed. The survey also shows that how literacy skills are distributed across a population has significant implications on how economic and social outcomes are distributed within the society. If large proportions of adults have low reading and numeracy skills, introducing and disseminating productivity-improving technologies and work-organisation practices can therefore be hampered. But the impact of skills goes far beyond earnings and employment. In all countries, individuals with lower proficiency in literacy are more likely than those with better literacy skills to report poor health, to believe that they have little impact on political processes, and not to participate in associative or volunteer activities. In most countries, they are also less likely to trust others.

These results, and results from future rounds of the survey, will inform much of the analysis contained in subsequent editions of the Outlook. The Outlook will build on the extensive body of OECD work in education and training, including findings from its Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) and its policy reviews of vocational education and training, and its work on skills, particularly the Skills Strategy the integrated, cross-government framework developed by experts across the Organisation to help countries understand more about how to invest in skills in ways that will transform lives and drive economies. The OECD Skills Outlook will show us where we are, where we need to be, and how to get there if we want to be fully engaged citizens in a global economy.

Angel GurraOECD Secretary-General

Acknowledgements

OECD SkillS OutlOOk 2013: FirSt rESultS FrOm thE SurvEy OF ADult SkillS OECD 2013 5

This Survey of Adult Skills is the outcome of a collaboration among the participating countries, the OECD Secretariat, the European Commission and an international Consortium led by Educational Testing Service (ETS). The report was prepared by Ji Eun Chung, Richard Desjardins, Viktoria Kis, Michele Pellizzari, Glenda Quintini, Andreas Schleicher and William Thorn, with the assistance of Veronica Borg, Vanessa Denis, Anne Fichen and Paulina Granados Zambrano. Marilyn Achiron, Clia Braga-Schich, Cassandra Davis, Elizabeth Del Bourgo, Marta Encinas-Martin, Lynda Hawe and Elisabeth Villoutreix provided valuable support in the editorial and production process. Administrative assistance was provided by Sabrina Leonarduzzi.

The international Consortium was responsible for developing the assessment instruments and preparing the underlying data under the direction of Irwin Kirsch. Iddo Gal, Stan Jones, Ken Mayhew, Jean-Franois Rouet and John P. Sabatini led the expert groups that oversaw the development of the background questionnaire and cognitive assessment instruments. Cees Glas chaired the projects Technical Advisory Group.

The development of the project was steered by the PIAAC Board of Participating Countries, chaired by Satya Brink (Canada) from 2008 to 2010, Dan McGrath (United States) from 2010 to 2013 and Paolo Sestito (Italy) from 2008 to 2013. A full list of the members of the Board together with the names of the National Project Managers, experts, members of the international Consortium and staff of the OECD Secretariat who have contributed to the project can be found in Annex C of The Survey of Adult Skills: Readers Companion.

Table of Contents

OECD SkillS OutlOOk 2013: FirSt rESultS FrOm thE SurvEy OF ADult SkillS OECD 2013 7

ReadeRs guide ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................19

executive summaRy .....................................................................................................................................................................................................................23

OveRview ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................25

Chapter 1 the skills Needed FOR the 21st ceNtuRy ................................................................................................................................45

major trends influencing the development and use of skills ...................................................................................................................................46 Access to computers and ICTs is widespread and growing ............................................................................................................................46 ICTs are changing how services are provided and consumed ............................................................................................................................46 Employment in services and high-skilled occupations is growing ...................................................................................................................48 Imbalances between the supply of, and demand for, skills in labour markets are widespread .......................................................52

what the survey of adult skills can tell us ..........................................................................................................................................................................52 The level of skills proficiency among adults .............................................................................................................................................................52 Which groups in the population have low, medium and high levels of key information-processing skills ..............................52 The supply of, and demand for, key information-processing and generic skills in labour markets ...............................................52 How key information-processing skills are developed and maintained over a lifetime ......................................................................53 How key information-processing skills translate into better economic and social outcomes ..........................................................53

Chapter 2 PROFicieNcy iN key iNFORmatiON-PROcessiNg skills amONg wORkiNg-age adults ...............55

defining literacy, numeracy and problem solving in technology-rich environments ............................................................................59

Reporting the results .............................................................................................................................................................................................................................60

Proficiency in literacy .........................................................................................................................................................................................................................61

what adults can do at different levels of literacy proficiency ................................................................................................................................63 Proficiency at Level 5 (scores equal to or higher than 376 points) ............................................................................................................66 Proficiency at Level 4 (scores from 326 points to less than 376 points) ........................................................................................................66 Proficiency at Level 3 (scores from 276 points to less than 326 points) ........................................................................................................66 Proficiency at Level 2 (scores from 226 points to less than 276 points) ........................................................................................................66 Proficiency at Level 1 (scores from 176 points to less than 226 points) ........................................................................................................67 Proficiency below Level 1 (scores below 176 points) ..............................................................................................................................................67 Literacy-related non-response ................................................................................................................................................................................................69

how distributions of proficiency scores compare across countries...................................................................................................................69 Comparison of average proficiency scores in literacy ........................................................................................................................................69 Comparison of average proficiency scores for 16-24 year-olds in literacy ..................................................................................................71 Comparison of scores at the 5th, 25th, 75th and 95th percentiles ...................................................................................................................73

Proficiency in numeracy ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................75 What adults can do at different levels of numeracy proficiency .................................................................................................................75 Proficiency at Level 5 (scores equal to or higher than 376 points) ...................................................................................................................78 Proficiency at Level 4 (scores from 326 points to less than 376 points) ........................................................................................................78 Proficiency at Level 3 (scores from 276 points to less than 326 points) ........................................................................................................78

Table of conTenTs

8 OECD 2013 OECD SkillS OutlOOk 2013: FirSt rESultS FrOm thE SurvEy OF ADult SkillS

Proficiency at Level 2 (scores from 226 points to less than 276 points) ........................................................................................................79 Proficiency at Level 1 (scores from 176 points to less than 226 points) ........................................................................................................79 Proficiency below Level 1 (scores below 176 points) ..............................................................................................................................................79 Literacy-related non-response ................................................................................................................................................................................................79

how distributions of proficiency scores compare across countries...................................................................................................................79 Comparison of average proficiency scores in numeracy ..................................................................................................................................79 Comparison of average proficiency scores for 16-24 year-olds in numeracy ............................................................................................81 Comparison of scores at the 5th, 25th, 75th and 95th percentiles ...................................................................................................................83 Correlations between proficiency in literacy and numeracy ...............................................................................................................................85

Proficiency in problem solving in technology-rich environments .......................................................................................................................86

what adults can do at different levels of proficiency in problem solving in technology-rich environments .......................87 Proficiency at Level 3 (scores equal to or higher than 341 points) ............................................................................................................89 Proficiency at Level 2 (scores from 291 points to less than 341 points) ........................................................................................................90 Proficiency at Level 1 (scores from 241 points to less than 291 points) ........................................................................................................90 Proficiency below Level 1 (scores below 241 points) ..............................................................................................................................................90 The proportion of adults with basic ICT skills ..........................................................................................................................................................90

what young adults can do at different levels of proficiency in problem solving in technology-rich environments ........92 Proficiency at Level 3 (scores equal to or higher than 341 points) ............................................................................................................92 Proficiency at Level 2 (scores from 291 points to less than 341 points) ........................................................................................................92 Proficiency at Level 1 (scores from 241 points to less than 291 points) ........................................................................................................93 Proficiency below Level 1 (scores below 241 points) ..............................................................................................................................................93

the relationship between proficiency in literacy/numeracy and problem solving in technology-rich environments ..........94

comparison of the results from the survey of adult skills (Piaac) with those of previous skills surveys ..............................96

summarising performance across countries ..........................................................................................................................................................................96

summary.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................98

Chapter 3 the sOciO-demOgRaPhic distRibutiON OF key iNFORmatiON-PROcessiNg skills ...............101

an overview of socio-demographic differences in proficiency ..........................................................................................................................102

differences in skills proficiency related to age ..............................................................................................................................................................104 Proficiency in literacy and numeracy among older and younger age groups .................................................................................106 Proficiency in problem solving in technology-rich environments among older and younger age groups ..................108

differences in skills proficiency related to gender ......................................................................................................................................................108 Proficiency in literacy and numeracy among men and women ...............................................................................................................110 Proficiency in problem solving in technology-rich environments among men and women ................................................111

differences in skills proficiency related to socio-economic background ....................................................................................................111 Proficiency scores in literacy and numeracy among adults from socio-economically disadvantaged and

advantaged backgrounds ....................................................................................................................................................................................................112 Proficiency levels in problem solving in technology-rich environments among adults from socio-economically

disadvantaged and advantaged backgrounds ............................................................................................................................................................114 The relationship between socio-economic background and skills proficiency, by age .....................................................................117 Social mobility and literacy proficiency .......................................................................................................................................................................117

differences in skills proficiency related to educational qualifications .........................................................................................................118 Proficiency in literacy and numeracy among low- and high-educated adults................................................................................120 Proficiency in problem solving in technology-rich environments among low- and high-educated adults ........................120 Cumulative disadvantage in key information-processing skills for low-educated adults .................................................................120

Table of conTenTs

OECD SkillS OutlOOk 2013: FirSt rESultS FrOm thE SurvEy OF ADult SkillS OECD 2013 9

differences in skills proficiency related to country of origin and language ..............................................................................................125 Proficiency in literacy among native- and foreign-born adults .................................................................................................................126 Proficiency in literacy among foreign-language immigrants .............................................................................................................................127 Proficiency in problem solving in technology-rich environments among foreign-language immigrants................................127 Cumulative disadvantage in key information-processing skills for foreign-language immigrants ...............................................128

differences in skills proficiency related to occupation ............................................................................................................................................132 Proficiency scores in literacy and numeracy among adults in low- and high-skilled occupations ..................................133 Proficiency in problem solving in technology-rich environments among adults in low- and high-skilled

occupations ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................134 Cumulative disadvantage in key information-processing skills for adults in low- and semi-skilled occupations ..............134

summary....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................137

Chapter 4 hOw skills aRe used iN the wORkPlace .................................................................................................................................141

using skills in the workplace.........................................................................................................................................................................................................142 Levels of skills use in the workplace ...........................................................................................................................................................................144 The distribution of skills use according to workers and jobs characteristics .................................................................................149

the level of education required for the job ......................................................................................................................................................................168

exploring mismatch between workers skills and job requirements ...............................................................................................................169 Constructing better indicators of mismatch using the Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC) ...............................................................169 How mismatch interacts with proficiency and other individual and job characteristics .........................................................174 The effect of mismatch on the use of skills and wages ....................................................................................................................................177

summary....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................181

Chapter 5 develOPiNg aNd maiNtaiNiNg key iNFORmatiON-PROcessiNg skills ................................................187

Overview of education and training and practice-oriented factors linked to developing and maintaining proficiency ........................................................................................................................................................................................................190

age, ageing and proficiency ........................................................................................................................................................................................................190 Observed age differences ...................................................................................................................................................................................................191 Explaining age differences: Cohort and ageing effects ...................................................................................................................................195 Delaying or avoiding age-related declines in information-processing skills ....................................................................................198

educational attainment and its relationship to proficiency ..................................................................................................................................199 Upper secondary education and skills proficiency ...........................................................................................................................................199 Tertiary education and skills proficiency.......................................................................................................................................................................202 A comparison of educational attainment levels within and across countries .........................................................................................204 Comparing the development of key skills among different age cohorts that participated in PISA ..............................................205

adult education and training and proficiency ...................................................................................................................................................................208 Readiness to learn and key information-processing skills ............................................................................................................................209 Participation rates in organised adult learning at the country level and average proficiency ..............................................212

work-related practices that optimise the use and development of skills ..........................................................................................................212 Skills proficiency and the use of skills at work .....................................................................................................................................................212 Occupational structure at the country level and average proficiency ..................................................................................................212

social, cultural and other daily practices that help to develop and maintain skills .............................................................................216

summary....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................220

Chapter 6 key skills aNd ecONOmic aNd sOcial well-beiNg ..................................................................................................223

skills proficiency, labour market status and wages .....................................................................................................................................................224 Proficiency and labour market status ..........................................................................................................................................................................224 Proficiency, employment and wages ..............................................................................................................................................................................227

Table of conTenTs

10 OECD 2013 OECD SkillS OutlOOk 2013: FirSt rESultS FrOm thE SurvEy OF ADult SkillS

How these relationships are affected by other individual and job characteristics ................................................................................227 Literacy proficiency, education and labour force participation .......................................................................................................................227 Literacy proficiency, education and employment ...................................................................................................................................................231 Wage returns to proficiency and schooling ................................................................................................................................................................232

social outcomes of literacy, numeracy and problem solving in technology-rich environments .................................................234 Trust ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................237 Volunteering .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................239 Political efficacy ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................240 Health...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................241 The role of education in developing skills and fostering positive outcomes ....................................................................................242 Country-level socio-economic outcomes and key information-processing skills ........................................................................244

summary....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................246

annex a OECD SkillS OutlOOk tables OF Results ................................................................................................................................249

annex B OECD SkillS OutlOOk additiONal tables ............................................................................................................................407

Table of conTenTs

OECD SkillS OutlOOk 2013: FirSt rESultS FrOm thE SurvEy OF ADult SkillS OECD 2013 11

BoxesBox 2.1 A context for cross-national comparisons of proficiency .............................................................................................................................56

Box 2.2 Relationship between difficulty of assessment items and proficiency of adults on the literacy, numeracy and problem solving in technology-rich environments scales ..............................................................................................................................................60

Box 2.3 Reading on a screen or on paper: Does it affect proficiency in literacy? ................................................................................................61

Box 2.4 Examples of literacy items ......................................................................................................................................................................................65

Box 2.5 Reading components ...............................................................................................................................................................................................67

Box 2.6 Comparing results among countries and population subgroups ................................................................................................................69

Box 2.7 Examples of numeracy items .................................................................................................................................................................................77

Box 2.8 Problem solving in technology-rich environments: Beyond using ICT tools to manage information.............................................86

Box 2.9 Examples of problem solving in technology-rich environments ................................................................................................................89

Box 2.10 Adults who opted out of taking the computer-based assessment...........................................................................................................91

Box 3.1 Korea: Age-related differences in skills proficiency ..................................................................................................................................... 105

Box 3.2 Gender differences in skills proficiency between younger and older adults ....................................................................................... 109

Box 3.3 Gender differences in computer use ................................................................................................................................................................ 109

Box 3.4 Using odds ratios .................................................................................................................................................................................................... 121

Box 4.1 How to interpret skills-use variables ................................................................................................................................................................ 143

Box 5.1 Vocational education and training (VET) for adults in Finland ................................................................................................................ 201

Box 5.2 Adult education for adults with low skills ...................................................................................................................................................... 210

Box 6.1 The STEP Skills Measurement Study: A skills survey in low- and middle-income countries .......................................................... 235

Box 6.2 Alternative mechanisms linking skills and well-being ................................................................................................................................ 242

FiguresFigure 0.1 Likelihood of positive social and economic outcomes among highly literate adults ..........................................................................27

Figure 0.2 Literacy proficiency among 16-65 year-olds ....................................................................................................................................................29

Figure 0.3 Literacy skills gap between older and younger generations ........................................................................................................................31

Figure 0.4 Distribution of literacy proficiency scores and education in Italy and Japan .........................................................................................33

Figure 0.5 Correlation between labour productivity and the use of reading skills at work ....................................................................................36

Figure 0.6 Correlation between gender gap in wages and in the use of problem-solving skills at work ...........................................................41

Figure 1.1 Access to computers and the Internet at home ................................................................................................................................................47

Figure 1.2 The growth of e-government ..................................................................................................................................................................................47

Figure 1.3 Change in the share of employment, by industrial sectors ..........................................................................................................................48

Figure 1.4 Evolution of employment in occupational groups defined by level of education ................................................................................49

Figure 1.5 Change in the demand for skills ...........................................................................................................................................................................50

Figure 1.6 Evolution of employment in occupational groups defined by level of skills proficiency ...................................................................50

Figure 1.7 Organisational change and new technologies .................................................................................................................................................51

Figure a (Box 2.1) GDP per capita, USD ..............................................................................................................................................................................................57

Figure b (Box 2.1) Population with tertiary education ......................................................................................................................................................................57

Figure c (Box 2.1) Population without upper secondary education .............................................................................................................................................58

Figure d (Box 2.1) Foreign-born population as a percentage of total population .....................................................................................................................58

Figure a (Box 2.3) Percentage of respondents taking different pathways in the Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC) ..............................................................62

Figure 2.1 Literacy proficiency among adults .......................................................................................................................................................................63

Figure a (Box 2.5) Relationship between literacy proficiency and performance in reading components ........................................................................68

Figure 2.2a Comparison of average literacy proficiency among adults ..........................................................................................................................70

Figure 2.2b Comparison of average literacy proficiency among adults (adjusted) ......................................................................................................71

Table of conTenTs

12 OECD 2013 OECD SkillS OutlOOk 2013: FirSt rESultS FrOm thE SurvEy OF ADult SkillS

Figure 2.3a Comparison of average literacy proficiency among young adults .............................................................................................................72

Figure 2.3b Comparison of average literacy proficiency of young adults (adjusted) ...................................................................................................73

Figure 2.4 Distribution of literacy proficiency scores .........................................................................................................................................................74

Figure 2.5 Numeracy proficiency among adults ..................................................................................................................................................................75

Figure 2.6a Comparison of average numeracy proficiency among adults .....................................................................................................................80

Figure 2.6b Comparison of average numeracy proficiency among adults (adjusted) .................................................................................................81

Figure 2.7a Comparison of average numeracy proficiency among young adults ........................................................................................................82

Figure 2.7b Comparison of average numeracy proficiency among young adults (adjusted) ....................................................................................83

Figure 2.8 Distribution of numeracy proficiency scores ....................................................................................................................................................84

Figure 2.9 Correlation among key information-processing skills ...................................................................................................................................85

Figure 2.10a Proficiency in problem solving in technology-rich environments among adults ..................................................................................87

Figure a (Box 2.10) Adults range of experience with computers and the computer-based assessment, by socio-demographic profile ..................91

Figure 2.10b Proficiency in problem solving in technology-rich environments among young adults .....................................................................93

Figure 2.11 Relationship between literacy and problem solving in technology-rich environments ......................................................................94

Figure 2.12 Relationship between numeracy and problem solving in technology-rich environments .................................................................95

Figure 2.13 Summary of proficiency in key information-processing skills .....................................................................................................................97

Figure 3.1 (L) Synthesis of socio-demographic differences in literacy proficiency....................................................................................................... 103

Figure 3.2 (L) Age differences in literacy proficiency ............................................................................................................................................................ 107

Figure 3.3 (P) Problem-solving proficiency among younger and older adults ............................................................................................................... 108

Figure 3.4 (N) Gender differences in numeracy proficiency ................................................................................................................................................ 110

Figure 3.5 (P) Problem-solving proficiency among women and men .............................................................................................................................. 111

Figure 3.6 (L) Differences in literacy proficiency, by socio-economic background ..................................................................................................... 113

Figure 3.7 (P) Problem-solving proficiency among adults with low- and high-educated parents ........................................................................... 114

Figure 3.8a (L) Relationship between literacy proficiency and socio-economic background among young adults ............................................ 115

Figure 3.8b (L) Relationship between literacy proficiency and socio-economic background among adults ......................................................... 116

Figure 3.8c (L) Relationship between literacy proficiency and impact of socio-economic background on proficiency .................................... 117

Figure 3.9 (L) Differences in literacy proficiency, by educational attainment ............................................................................................................... 119

Figure 3.10 (P) Problem-solving proficiency, by educational attainment .......................................................................................................................... 121

Figure 3.11 (L) Likelihood of lower literacy proficiency among young adults ................................................................................................................. 122

Figure 3.12 (L) Likelihood of lower literacy proficiency among low-educated adults .................................................................................................. 123

Figure 3.13 (L) Likelihood of lower literacy proficiency among older women and men .............................................................................................. 124

Figure 3.14 (L) Differences in literacy proficiency scores between native- and foreign-born adults ........................................................................ 126

Figure 3.15 (L) Differences in literacy proficiency scores, by immigrant and language background ....................................................................... 128

Figure 3.16 (P) Problem-solving proficiency among foreign-language immigrants and non-immigrants ................................................................ 129

Figure 3.17a (L) Likelihood of lower literacy proficiency among foreign-born and foreign-language adults ........................................................... 130

Figure 3.18a (P) Likelihood of lower problem-solving proficiency among foreign-born and foreign-language women ...................................... 131

Figure 3.19 (L) Occupation differences in literacy proficiency ............................................................................................................................................. 133

Figure 3.20 (P) Problem-solving proficiency among workers in skilled and elementary occupations ..................................................................... 135

Figure 3.21 (L) Likelihood of lower literacy proficiency among adults in low-/semi-skilled occupations .............................................................. 136

Figure 3.22 (P) Likelihood of lower problem-solving proficiency among older adults in low-/semi-skilled occupations ................................. 137

Figure 4.1 Average use of information-processing skills at work ................................................................................................................................. 144

Figure 4.2 Average use of generic skills at work ............................................................................................................................................................... 145

Figure 4.3 High use of skills at work .................................................................................................................................................................................... 146

Figure 4.4 Labour productivity and the use of reading skills at work ......................................................................................................................... 149

Figure 4.5 Use of information-processing skills at work, by gender ........................................................................................................................... 150

Figure 4.6 Use of generic skills at work, by gender ......................................................................................................................................................... 151

Figure 4.7 Gender gap in wages and in the use of problem-solving skills at work ................................................................................................ 152

Figure 4.8 Use of information-processing skills at work, by age group ..................................................................................................................... 153

Figure 4.9 Use of generic skills at work, by age group ................................................................................................................................................... 154

Figure 4.10 Mean ICT use at work and at home, by age group ...................................................................................................................................... 155

Table of conTenTs

OECD SkillS OutlOOk 2013: FirSt rESultS FrOm thE SurvEy OF ADult SkillS OECD 2013 13

Figure 4.11 Use of information-processing skills at work, by educational attainment ............................................................................................ 156

Figure 4.12 Use of generic skills at work, by educational attainment .......................................................................................................................... 157

Figure 4.13 The tertiary premium and the use of reading skills and task discretion at work ................................................................................ 158

Figure 4.14 Use of information-processing skills at work, by type of contract .......................................................................................................... 159

Figure 4.15 Use of generic skills at work, by type of contract ........................................................................................................................................ 160

Figure 4.16 The wage penalty for temporary contracts and the use of problem-solving skills and task discretion at work ........................ 161

Figure 4.17 Use of information-processing skills at work, by occupation .................................................................................................................. 162

Figure 4.18 Use of generic skills at work, by occupation ................................................................................................................................................. 163

Figure 4.19 Use of information-processing skills at work, by industry ......................................................................................................................... 164

Figure 4.20 Use of generic skills at work, by industry ....................................................................................................................................................... 165

Figure 4.21 Use of information-processing skills at work, by establishment size ..................................................................................................... 166

Figure 4.22 Use of generic skills at work, by establishment size ................................................................................................................................... 167

Figure 4.23 Skills use at work, by proficiency level ........................................................................................................................................................... 167

Figure 4.24 Workers in high-skilled and unskilled jobs .................................................................................................................................................... 168

Figure 4.25a Incidence of over-qualification .......................................................................................................................................................................... 171

Figure 4.25b Incidence of under-qualification ....................................................................................................................................................................... 171

Figure 4.25c OECD measure of skills mismatch in literacy ............................................................................................................................................... 172

Figure 4.26 Overlap between qualification- and skills-mismatch measures .............................................................................................................. 173

Figure 4.27 (L) Literacy proficiency scores among over- and under-qualified workers ................................................................................................. 174

Figure 4.28a Over-qualification, by socio-demographic characteristics ........................................................................................................................ 175

Figure 4.28b Over-qualification, by job characteristics ....................................................................................................................................................... 176

Figure 4.29 Under-qualification and over-skilling, by age ............................................................................................................................................... 177

Figure 4.30 Skills use and qualification mismatch.............................................................................................................................................................. 178

Figure 4.31 Skills use and skills mismatch ............................................................................................................................................................................ 179

Figure 4.32a Effect of over-qualification and over-skilling on wages .............................................................................................................................. 180

Figure 4.32b Effect of under-qualification and under-skilling on wages ........................................................................................................................ 181

Figure 5.1 (L) Synthesis of practice-oriented differences in literacy proficiency ........................................................................................................... 189

Figure 5.2a Relationship between skills proficiency and age ......................................................................................................................................... 191

Figure 5.2b (L) Relationship between literacy proficiency and age ..................................................................................................................................... 192

Figure 5.2c (L) Relationship between literacy proficiency and age (adjusted) ................................................................................................................. 193

Figure 5.3 (L) Educational attainment, by average literacy proficiency ........................................................................................................................... 194

Figure 5.4a (L) Effect of belonging to a certain age group on literacy proficiency ......................................................................................................... 196

Figure 5.4b (L) Effect of ageing on literacy proficiency ........................................................................................................................................................... 197

Figure 5.5a (L) Literacy proficiency among young adults with and without upper secondary education ............................................................... 200

Figure 5.5b (L) Literacy proficiency among adults with and without upper secondary education ............................................................................ 201

Figure 5.5c (L) Literacy proficiency among young adults, by orientation of education ................................................................................................ 202

Figure 5.5d (L) Literacy proficiency among young adults with tertiary education .......................................................................................................... 203

Figure 5.5e (L) Literacy proficiency among young adults in selected countries, by educational attainment ......................................................... 204

Figure 5.6a (L) Mean literacy proficiency in PISA (2000 and 2003) and in the Survey of Adult Skills .................................................................... 206

Figure 5.6b (L) Mean literacy proficiency in PISA (2006 and 2009) and in the Survey of Adult Skills .................................................................... 207

Figure 5.7 (L) Participation rate in adult education, by literacy proficiency levels ....................................................................................................... 208

Figure 5.8 (L) Likelihood of participating in adult education and training, by level of literacy proficiency ....................................................... 209

Figure 5.9 (L) Participation in adult education and training, by average literacy proficiency ................................................................................... 211

Figure 5.10 Reading at work and literacy proficiency ....................................................................................................................................................... 213

Figure 5.11 Numeracy practice at work and numeracy proficiency ............................................................................................................................. 214

Figure 5.12 ICT use at work and literacy proficiency ........................................................................................................................................................ 215

Figure 5.13 (L) Occupational structure at the country level, by average literacy proficiency ..................................................................................... 216

Figure 5.14 Reading outside work and literacy proficiency............................................................................................................................................. 217

Figure 5.15 Numeracy practice outside work and numeracy proficiency................................................................................................................... 218

Figure 5.16 ICT use outside work and literacy proficiency .............................................................................................................................................. 219

Table of conTenTs

14 OECD 2013 OECD SkillS OutlOOk 2013: FirSt rESultS FrOm thE SurvEy OF ADult SkillS

Figure 6.1 Workers proficiency levels ..............................................................................................................................................225

Figure 6.2 (L) Mean literacy score, by labour force status.................................................................................................................................................... 226

Figure 6.3 (L) Employment status, by literacy proficiency level ......................................................................................................................................... 228

Figure 6.4 (L) Distribution of wages, by literacy proficiency level .................................................................................................................................... 229

Figure 6.5 (L) Effect of education and literacy proficiency on labour market participation ...................................................................................... 230

Figure 6.6 (L) Effect of education and literacy proficiency on the likelihood of being employed ........................................................................... 231

Figure 6.7 (L) Effect of education and literacy proficiency on wages ............................................................................................................................... 232

Figure 6.8 (L) Effect of literacy proficiency on wages, by educational attainment ....................................................................................................... 234

Figure 6.9 (L) Low literacy proficiency and negative social outcomes ............................................................................................................................ 237

Figure 6.10 (L) Trust and literacy proficiency ............................................................................................................................................................................. 238

Figure 6.11 (L) Volunteering and literacy proficiency .............................................................................................................................................................. 239

Figure 6.12 (L) Political efficacy and literacy proficiency ....................................................................................................................................................... 240

Figure 6.13 (L) Reported health and literacy proficiency ........................................................................................................................................................ 241

Figure 6.14a (L) Educational attainment, literacy proficiency and positive social outcomes ........................................................................................ 243

Figure 6.15 (N) GDP per capita and numeracy .......................................................................................................................................................................... 244

Figure 6.16 (L) Inequality in the distribution of income and literacy skills ....................................................................................................................... 245

TaBlesTable 2.1 Summary of assessment domains in the Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC) ..................................................................................................59

Table 2.2 Description of proficiency levels in literacy .....................................................................................................................................................64

Table 2.3 Description of proficiency levels in numeracy ................................................................................................................................................76

Table 2.4 Description of proficiency levels in problem solving in technology-rich environments ....................................................................88

Table 4.1 Indicators of skills use at work ........................................................................................................................................................................... 143

Table 4.2 Skills used jointly at work .................................................................................................................................................................................... 148

Table 4.3 Glossary of key terms ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 170

Table A1.1 Percentage of households with access to computers and the Internet at home, 2010 or latest available year ........................ 251

Table A1.2 Percentage of individuals and businesses using the Internet to interact with public authorities, 2005 and 2010 .................. 252

Table A1.3 Trends in employment in selected industrial sectors relative to total employment, 1980-2007 ................................................... 253

Table A1.4 Share of employment in occupational groups, 1998-2009, and change in share since 1998 ...................................................... 253

Table A1.5 Trends in routine and non-routine tasks in occupations, United States, 1960 to 2009 ................................................................... 254

Table A1.6 Share of employment in occupational groups, 1998-2009, and change in share since 1998 ...................................................... 254

Table A1.7a Percentage of workers who reported structural changes in their workplace ....................................................................................... 255

Table A1.7b Percentage of workers who reported new ways of working in their workplace ................................................................................. 256

Table A2.1 Percentage of adults scoring at each proficiency level in literacy .......................................................................................................... 257

Table A2.2a Mean literacy proficiency .................................................................................................................................................................................... 258

Table A2.2b Mean proficiency in literacy among 16-65 year-olds (adjusted) ............................................................................................................. 259

Table A2.3 Mean proficiency in literacy among 16-24 year-olds (adjusted) ............................................................................................................. 260

Table A2.4 Mean literacy proficiency and distribution of literacy scores, by percentile ....................................................................................... 261

Table A2.5 Percentage of adults scoring at each proficiency level in numeracy ..................................................................................................... 262

Table A2.6a Mean numeracy proficiency ............................................................................................................................................................................... 263

Table A2.6b Mean proficiency in numeracy among 16-65 year-olds (adjusted) ........................................................................................................ 264

Table A2.7 Mean proficiency in numeracy among 16-24 year-olds (adjusted) ........................................................................................................ 265

Table A2.8 Mean numeracy proficiency and distribution of numeracy scores, by percentile ............................................................................. 266

Table A2.9 Correlation between literacy and numeracy proficiency ........................................................................................................................... 266

Table A2.10a Percentage of adults scoring at each proficiency level in problem solving in technology-rich environments ......................... 267

Table A2.10b Percentage of 16-24 year-olds scoring at each proficiency level in problem solving in technology-rich environments ....... 268

Table A2.11 Mean literacy proficiency, by level of proficiency in problem solving in technology-rich environments ................................. 269

Table A2.12 Mean numeracy proficiency, by level of proficiency in problem solving in technology-rich environments ............................ 270

Table of conTenTs

OECD SkillS OutlOOk 2013: FirSt rESultS FrOm thE SurvEy OF ADult SkillS OECD 2013 15

Table A3.1 (L) Difference in literacy scores between contrast categories, by socio-demographic characteristics (adjusted) .......................... 271

Table A3.2 (L) Mean literacy proficiency, by 10-year age groups, and score difference between youngest and oldest adults ....................... 272

Table A3.2 (N) Mean numeracy proficiency, by 10-year age groups, and score difference between youngest and oldest adults .................. 272

Table A3.3 (P) Percentage of adults at each proficiency level in problem solving in technology-rich environments, by 10-year age groups .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 273

Table A3.4 (N) Mean numeracy proficiency, by gender, and score difference between men and women ............................................................. 276

Table A3.5 (P) Percentage of adults at each proficiency level in problem solving in technology-rich environments, by gender and labour force status ..................................................................................................................................................................... 277

Table A3.6 (L) Mean literacy proficiency and score difference, by parents educational attainment ...................................................................... 280

Table A3.7 (P) Percentage of adults at each proficiency level in problem solving in technology-rich environments, by parents educational attainment .................................................................................................................................................................. 281

Table A3.8 (L) Mean literacy proficiency, by parents educational attainment, and impact of parents education onproficiency, adults aged 16-24, 25-44 and 45-65 ............................................................................................................................................................... 283

Table A3.9 (L) Mean literacy proficiency, by level of educational attainment, and score difference between high- and low-educated adults .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 285

Table A3.10 (P) Percentage of adults at each proficiency level in problem solving in technology-rich environments, bylevel of educational attainment ................................................................................................................................................................... 286

Table A3.11 (L) Likelihood of 16-24 year-olds scoring at or below Level 2 in literacy, by education and work status (adjusted) .................... 288

Table A3.12 (L) Likelihood of scoring at or below Level 2 in literacy, by respondents and parents level of education (adjusted) ................. 289

Table A3.13 (L) Likelihood of 45-65 year-olds scoring at or below Level 2 in literacy, by gender and by respondents and parents educational attainment (adjusted) ............................................................................................................................................ 290

Table A3.14 (L) Mean literacy proficiency, by immigrant background, and score difference between native- and foreign-born adults ........ 291

Table A3.15 (L) Mean literacy proficiency, by immigrant and language background, and score difference between native-born/native-language and foreign-born/foreign-language ........................................................................................................... 292

Table A3.16 (P) Percentage of adults at each proficiency level in problem solving in technology-rich environments, by immigrant and language background ........................................................................................................................................................ 293

Table A3.17 (L) Likelihood of scoring at or below Level 2 in literacy, by immigrant, language and socio-economic background (adjusted) .......................................................................................................................................................... 295

Table A3.18 (P) Likelihood of scoring at or below Level 1, or receiving no score, in problem solving in technology-rich environments, by immigrant and language background, and gender (adjusted) ............................................................................................................ 296

Table A3.19 (L) Mean literacy proficiency, by type of occupation, and score difference between workers in skilled and elementary occupations .............................................................................................................................................................................. 297

Table A3.20 (P) Percentage of adults who worked during previous five years at each proficiency level in problem solving in technology-rich environments, by type of occupation .......................................................................................................................... 298

Table A3.21 (L) Likelihood of scoring at or below Level 2 in literacy, by educational attainment and type of occupation (adjusted) ........... 300

Table A3.22 (P) Likelihood of scoring at or below Level 1, or receiving no score, in problem solving in technology-rich environments, by age, gender and type of occupation (adjusted) ....................................................................................................................................... 301

Table A4.1 Mean use of information-processing skills at work ..................................................................................................................................... 302

Table A4.2 Mean use of generic skills at work.................................................................................................................................................................... 302

Table A4.3 Percentage of workers who use their skills frequently ................................................................................................................................ 303

Table A4.4 Labour productivity and average reading at work ....................................................................................................................................... 304

Table A4.5a Mean use of information-processing skills at work, by gender ................................................................................................................ 305

Table A4.5b Gender differences in the use of information-processing skills at work (adjusted) ........................................................................... 306

Table A4.6a Mean use of generic skills at work, by gender .............................................................................................................................................. 307

Table A4.6b Gender differences in the use of generic skills at work (adjusted).......................................................................................................... 308

Table A4.7 Gender gap in wages and in the use of problem-solving skills at work ................................................................................................ 309

Table A4.8a Mean use of information-processing skills at work, by age group .......................................................................................................... 310

Table A4.8b Differences in the use of information-processing skills at work, by age group (adjusted) .............................................................. 312

Table A4.9a Mean use of generic skills at work, by age group ........................................................................................................................................ 313

Table A4.9b Differences in the use of generic skills at work, by age group (adjusted) ............................................................................................. 315

Table A4.10 Mean ICT use at home and at work, by age group ...................................................................................................................................... 316

Table A4.11a Mean use of information-processing skills at work, by educational attainment ................................................................................ 317

Table A4.11b Differences in the use of information-processing skills at work, by educational attainment (adjusted) ..................................... 319

Table of conTenTs

16 OECD 2013 OECD SkillS OutlOOk 2013: FirSt rESultS FrOm thE SurvEy OF ADult SkillS

Table A4.12a Mean use of generic skills at work, by educational attainment ............................................................................................................... 320

Table A4.12b Differences in the use of generic skills at work, by educational attainment (adjusted) .................................................................. 322

Table A4.13 Tertiary gap in wages and in the use of skills at work................................................................................................................................. 323

Table A4.14a Mean use of information-processing skills at work, by contract type .................................................................................................... 324

Table A4.14b Differences in the use of information-processing skills at work, by contract type (adjusted) ........................................................ 325

Table A4.15a Mean use of generic skills at work, by contract type .................................................................................................................................. 326

Table A4.15b Differences in the use of generic skills at work, by contract type (adjusted) ....................................................................................... 327

Table A4.16 Gap in wages and in the use of skills at work between types of contract ............................................................................................ 328

Table A4.17 Mean use of information-processing skills at work, by occupation ....................................................................................................... 329

Table A4.18 Mean use of generic skills at work, by occupation ..................................................................................................................................... 334

Table A4.19 Mean use of information-processing skills at work, by industry ............................................................................................................. 339

Table A4.20 Mean use of generic skills at work, by industry ............................................................................................................................................ 344

Table A4.21 Mean use of information-processing skills at work, by establishment size .......................................................................................... 349

Table A4.22 Mean use of generic skills at work, by establishment size ........................................................................................................................ 352

Table A4.23 Distribution of skills use, by proficiency level .............................................................................................................................................. 355

Table A4.24 Workers in jobs requiring low or high levels of education ....................................................................................................................... 357

Table A4.25 Percentage of workers in each category of qualification and skills mismatch .................................................................................... 358

Table A4.26 Percentage of workers in each category of skills mismatch, by qualification-mismatch status ..................................................... 359

Table A4.27 (L) Mean literacy score, adjusted for years of education, gender, age and foreign-born status, by qualification-mismatch status ....................................................................................................................................................................... 361

Table A4.28 Likelihood of over-qualification, by socio-demographic and job characteristics .............................................................................. 362

Table A4.29 Likelihood of under-qualification and over-skilling, by age group ......................................................................................................... 364

Table A4.30 Mean use of information-processing skills, adjusted for literacy and numeracy proficiency, by qualification-mismatch status ....................................................................................................................................................................... 365

Table A4.31 Mean use of information-processing skills, adjusted for literacy and numeracy proficiency, by skills-mismatch status ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 366

Table A4.32a Effect of qualification and numeracy mismatch on wages ........................................................................................................................ 367

Table A4.32b Effect of numeracy mismatch on wages .......................................................................................................................................................... 368

Table A4.32c Effect of qualification mismatch on wages ..................................................................................................................................................... 369

Table A5.1 (L) Difference in literacy scores between contrast categories, by socio-demographic characteristics and practice-oriented factors (adjusted) .......................................................................................................................................................... 370

Table A5.2 (L) Relationship between age and literacy proficiency ..................................................................................................................................... 372

Table A5.3 (L) Distribution of literacy proficiency scores, and percentage of adults with at least upper secondary education ..................... 373

Table A5.4 (L) Relationship between age and literacy proficiency, 1994-1998 (International Adult Literacy Survey IALS) ......................... 374

Table A5.5a (L) Distribution of literacy proficiency scores, by educational attainment ................................................................................................. 375

Table A5.5b (L) Distribution of literacy proficiency scores, by orientation of education ............................................................................................... 378

Table A5.6 (L) Mean literacy scores in PISA (2000-09) and in the Survey of Adult Skills (2012) for corresponding cohorts ........................... 379

Table A5.7 (L) Percentage of adults who participated in adult education and training during year prior to the survey, by level of literacy proficiency ........................................................................................................................................................................... 380

Table A5.8 (L) Likelihood of participating in adult education and training during year prior to the survey, by level of proficiency in literacy (adjusted) .................................................................................................................................................. 382

Table A5.9 (L) Distribution of literacy proficiency scores, and percentage of adults participating in adult education and training during year prior to the survey .................................................................................................................................................. 383

Table A5.10 Relationship between reading at work and literacy proficiency ............................................................................................................. 384

Table A5.11 Relationship between numeracy-related practices at work and numeracy proficiency................................................................... 385

Table A5.12 Relationship between ICT-related practices at work and literacy proficiency ...............................................................