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Cognition and LearningCognition and Learning

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Phobias and ConditioningPhobias and Conditioning

Phobias are irrational fears of specific objects, animals, or situations

People acquire phobias through conditioning

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Classical ConditioningClassical Conditioning A learning procedure in

which subjects make associations between a natural stimulus and a neutral stimulus

Ivan Pavlov Tuning fork/salivation

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The ExperimentThe Experiment A neutral stimulus can

replace a natural stimulus if it’s presented just before that stimulus

Food = unconditioned stimulus (US)

Salivation = unconditioned response (UR)

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Other TermsOther Terms Conditioned stimulus

(CS) = tuning fork Salivation = conditioned

response (CR) Conditioned responses

are learned, not natural or reflexive

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Classical ConditioningClassical Conditioning

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Principles of Principles of Classical ConditioningClassical ConditioningAcquisition of a conditioned response

occurs graduallyTiming is very importantThe intensity of the US

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GeneralizationGeneralization Occurs when a subject

responds to a second stimulus similar to the original (CS) without any conditioning

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DiscriminationDiscriminationThe ability to respond differently to

different stimuliGeneralization and discrimination are each

a part of everyday life

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ExtinctionExtinctionThe gradual weakening and eventual

disappearance of a conditioned responseThe response disappears but is not forgotten

(spontaneous recovery)Reconditioning

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Extinction and Extinction and Spontaneous RecoverySpontaneous Recovery

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John B. WatsonJohn B. Watson The case of

“Little Albert” Fear response Ethics

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An ApplicationAn Application

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Classical Conditioning Classical Conditioning and Pleasant Responseand Pleasant Response

Advertising campaigns use classical conditioning

Pairing a healthy, young, pretty model with a product

John Watson

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Classical Conditioning and Classical Conditioning and Products that Pose Health RisksProducts that Pose Health Risks

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Positive EmotionsPositive Emotions

A song on the radio Scent, fragrance, or

perfume Passing a bakery

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Applications: Drug AddictionApplications: Drug Addiction

Withdrawal/“cold turkey”

Cues or triggers in the environment

Avoidance of cues

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Taste AversionsTaste Aversions John Garcia explained

the role of classical conditioning in creating taste aversions

Timing/single instance

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Taste Aversion: An ApplicationTaste Aversion: An Application

Aversions can have survival benefits

How to protect sheep from coyotes without killing the coyotes

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Operant ConditioningOperant Conditioning

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Groundwork for Groundwork for Operant ConditioningOperant Conditioning

Edward Thorndike Thinking and reasoning

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The Puzzle BoxThe Puzzle Box Thorndike used a hungry

cat who needed to learn a particular response (stepping on a pedal) which would unlock a door with food behind it

The law of effect/instrumental learning

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ReinforcementReinforcement

B.F. Skinner believed that behavior is influenced by rewards and punishments

The Skinner box Food = reinforcement

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Superstitious BehaviorSuperstitious Behavior

Can be acquired through association of a response or reinforcement

Baseball players Commonly held

superstitions

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Terms Related to Terms Related to Operant ConditioningOperant ConditioningDiscriminative stimuliPositive reinforcementNegative reinforcement

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Discriminative StimuliDiscriminative Stimuli

A cue that signals some type of reinforcement is possible if the subject makes a particular response

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Positive ReinforcementPositive Reinforcement Increases the chance

that an individual will continue to behave in a certain way

Examples

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Negative ReinforcementNegative Reinforcement Involves removing

an unpleasant stimulus in order to increase the chance that an individual will continue to behave in a certain way

A two-way street Examples

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Schedules of ReinforcementSchedules of ReinforcementFixed-ratio scheduleVariable-ratio scheduleFixed-interval scheduleVariable-interval schedule

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Fixed-Ratio Fixed-Ratio

A set number of correct responses is needed before the reward can be obtained

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Variable-RatioVariable-Ratio Rewards come

after an unpredictable number of responses

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Fixed-IntervalFixed-Interval A specific amount of

time must pass before a response can produce a reward

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Variable-IntervalVariable-Interval Changing amounts of

time elapse before a response will produce reinforcement

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Response ChainResponse Chain

Learned reactions that follow one another in sequence

Each reaction produces the signal for the next

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ShapingShapingA technique in which a desired behavior is

molded first by rewarding any act similar to that behavior, then requiring closer and closer approximations to the desired behavior before giving the reward

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Social LearningSocial Learning A form of learning in

which an animal or person observes and imitates the behavior of others

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Bandura’s ExperimentBandura’s Experiment Bobo doll,

the “model” 2 types of social

learning: cognitive, modeling

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Cognitive LearningCognitive LearningA form of altering behavior that involves

“mental processes” It may result from imitation or observationCognitive map/latent learning

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Learned HelplessnessLearned Helplessness A condition in which

repeated attempts to control a situation fail

A major cause of depression

Latent learning and learned helplessness are both forms of cognitive learning

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Elements of Elements of Learned HelplessnessLearned HelplessnessStabilityGlobalityInternality

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ModelingModeling Learning by imitating

others Observational learning Disinhibition

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Applications of Applications of Observational LearningObservational Learning

Children see television as a “model”

Violence on television/violence in society

Television and ADD

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1996 Mediascope National 1996 Mediascope National Television Violence StudyTelevision Violence Study

Viewers learn to behave violently

They become more desensitized to violence

They become more fearful of being attacked

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Study (cont.)Study (cont.) Perpetrators go unpunished in 73% of all violent crimes

depicted on television About half of the time, television depicts victims of

violence as unharmed and/or showing no pain 25% of violent scenes involve handguns Only 4% of violent programs incorporate nonviolent

themes as well Less than 3% of violent scenes feature close-ups, and 15%

show no blood

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Behavior ModificationBehavior Modification Systematic application

of learning principles used to change actions and feelings

Helpful in overcoming fears

Behavioral contracts

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Human MemoryHuman Memory

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Three Memory ProcessesThree Memory Processes Memory = the storage and retrieval of

what one has either learned or experienced

1. Encoding

2. Storage

3. Retrieval

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EncodingEncoding Transformation of

information so the nervous system can process it

Types of codes:

1. Acoustic

2. Visual

3. Semantic

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StorageStorage The process by which

we remember material acquired over a period of time

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RetrievalRetrieval The process of

obtaining information from storage

Memory championships

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What is Memory Retrieval?What is Memory Retrieval? The process of

accessing stored information and making it available to our consciousness

Some memories are retrieved easily

Context-dependent memory effect

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Memory StagesMemory Stages Sensory memory Short-term memory Long-term memory

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Sensory MemorySensory Memory

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Sensory Memory (cont.)Sensory Memory (cont.)The storage system that holds memory of

sensory impressions is short-livedSensory registerIconic memory, eidetic imagery, echoic

memory

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Short-Term Memory (STM)Short-Term Memory (STM) Allows for the brief

retention of newly acquired information, usually for a maximum of 30 seconds

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George Miller’s StudyGeorge Miller’s StudyMagic 7Examples of magic 7

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ChunkingChunkingThe process of breaking down a large

amount of information into smaller chunksChunking makes recall easier

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A Simple TestA Simple TestRow 1 2937Row 2 78541Row 3 821374Row 4 3820961Row 5 18294624Row 6 9284619384Row 7 1992199319941995

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Maintenance RehearsalMaintenance Rehearsal A system for

remembering which involves repeating information to oneself without looking for any underlying meaning

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The Primacy-Recency EffectThe Primacy-Recency Effect Cheese Milk Eggs Shampoo Bread Catsup Jam Flour

We can best remember or recall information at the beginning and the end of a list

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Long-Term MemoryLong-Term Memory

The storage of information over an extended time

Information in long-term memory is organized by categories or features

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Types of Long-Term MemoryTypes of Long-Term Memory

Semantic memory Episodic memory Declarative memory Procedural memory

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Semantic MemorySemantic Memory Knowledge of

language, including its rules, words, and meanings

Retaining facts Semantic memory is

not imprinted on our brains

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Episodic MemoryEpisodic Memory Memories of one’s

own life (also includes the time experiences occurred)

Like a personal diary

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Declarative MemoryDeclarative MemoryHolds knowledge that can be called forth

consciously as needed“What” and “that”

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Procedural MemoryProcedural Memory Memory of learned

skills that do not require conscious recollection

We gradually lose the ability to describe what we are doing when we perform these skills

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Retrospective vs. Retrospective vs. Prospective MemoryProspective MemoryRetrospective memory: past experience or

events and previously acquired informationProspective memory: things you need to do

in the future

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Muscle MemoryMuscle Memory Relying on muscles to

perform complex motor skills such as riding a bike, dancing, typing, hitting a baseball

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Flashbulb MemoriesFlashbulb Memories

What were you doing when…?

Usually involves stressful or emotionally arousing personal or historical events

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Flashbulb Memories (cont.)Flashbulb Memories (cont.)

Anderson & Conway (1997) coined the term “flashbulb memory”

Permanently seared into the brain

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Eyewitness TestimonyEyewitness Testimony Memory does not

always work like a camera that records and retrieves snapshots of events

Eyewitness testimony can be flawed

Misinformation effect

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SchemasSchemas Conceptual

frameworks that a person uses to make sense of the world

Sets of expectations

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Schema ViolationSchema Violation

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Memory and the BrainMemory and the Brain How and where are

memories stored in the brain?

The striatum (deep in the frontal cortex)

The hippocampus and the amygdala

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The Biological Basis for MemoryThe Biological Basis for Memory

The human brain has billions of neurons and trillions of synapses

How to track down specific networks of cells where memories are stored

Aplysia

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Erik KandelErik Kandel A molecular

biologist/Nobel Prize winner

Experiments with sea snails Neurotransmitter released

into synapse

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Retrieval and Recognition Retrieval and Recognition Exercise Exercise

Look at the picture and name this dwarf from Walt Disney’s “Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs”

Write down or make a list of as many of the seven dwarfs that you can remember

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Seven DwarfsSeven DwarfsThe following list includes the names of all

seven dwarfs. Which ones are correct? Tubby, Grouchy, Gabby, Fearful, Sleepy,

Smiley, Jumpy, Hopeful, Shy, Droopy, Dopey, Sniffy, Wishful, Puffy, Dumpy, Sneezy, Lazy, Pop, Grumpy, Bashful, Cheerful, Shorty, Nifty, Happy, Doc, Wheezy

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ForgettingForgetting Decay Memory loss Interference

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AmnesiaAmnesia Often caused by a

traumatic injury to the brain, such as a concussion

Retrograde amnesia Anterograde amnesia

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Retrograde AmnesiaRetrograde Amnesia

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Childhood AmnesiaChildhood Amnesia A normal phase of

development that accounts for the lack of memory before the ages of 3 or 4

Dissociative amnesia

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Thinking and Problem SolvingThinking and Problem Solving

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ThinkingThinking Changing and

reorganizing information stored in memory

Creates new information

Thinking = a mental representation and manipulation of material

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Mental ImagesMental Images Image: a mental visualization

of an object or experience Symbol: something that stands

for or represents a specific object or event

Abstraction: an idea unrelated to a specific object or event

Concept: a mental category for classifying people, things, or events

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Conceptual ThinkingConceptual Thinking Prototype: a

representation of a concept

Rule: a statement about relationships between concepts

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Mental RotationMental Rotation The ability to hold and

manipulate mental images helps us with many cognitive tasks

Mental imaging can spark creativity

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Kinds of ThinkingKinds of Thinking Direct/convergent

thinking Non-directed/

divergent thinking Insight

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Strategies for Problem SolvingStrategies for Problem Solving Algorithm: a step-by-

step technique used to solve a problem

Heuristic: a “rule of thumb” problem-solving technique

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A Heuristic ApplicationA Heuristic Application

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Obstacles in Problem SolvingObstacles in Problem Solving

Mental set Functional fixedness

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Rigidity Can Be OvercomeRigidity Can Be Overcome

Rigidity is less likely to occur with unusual problems

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CreativityCreativity The ability to use

information in new and original ways

All problem solving requires creativity

Creativity includes flexibility

Recombination and insight

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LanguageLanguage

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How We Acquire and Use How We Acquire and Use LanguageLanguage

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Early Language AcquisitionEarly Language Acquisition

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The Structure of LanguageThe Structure of LanguageFour rules

1. Phonemes

2. Morphemes

3. Syntax

4. Semantics

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PhonemesPhonemes Individual sounds that

are basic structural elements of language

100 different and recognizable sounds

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MorphemesMorphemesThe smallest unit of meaning in a given

languageMade up of one or more phonemesPhonemes are units of sound, morphemes

are units of meaning

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SyntaxSyntax Language rules that

govern how words can be combined to form meaningful phrases and sentences

Syntax varies from language to language

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SemanticsSemanticsThe study of meaning in languageThe same word can have different meanings

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How Do Children Learn How Do Children Learn Language?Language?

B.F. Skinner and operant conditioning

Behavior is reinforced with smiles and attention

Children understand before they speak

Children learn language through observation

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Noam ChomskyNoam Chomsky A mental program LAD Infants possess an innate

capacity for language Transformational grammar

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Stages of Stages of Language DevelopmentLanguage Development

Birth/infancy: cries, distress

2 months: cooing 4 months: babble 9 months: babbling is

refined

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Stages (continued)Stages (continued) By 1 year: single

words are uttered By 2 years: two words

together (50–100 words)

By 4 years: complete sentences