smelter in the city: using the history of an...

WorkingDraft,August,2012

WORKINGDRAFTAUGUST2012

SMELTERINTHECITY:USINGTHEHISTORYOFANINDUSTRYASACASESTUDY

TOEXAMINETHESITUATIONALCOMPLEXITIESINENVIRONMENTALEDUCATION

ASARCOINELPASO,TEXAS

PhotoprovidedbyJimWark,www.airphotona.com.

TheASARCOcasestudyandeducationalactivitiessupportingthestudyformacomponentof

theairqualitycurriculumwritingproject,BuenAmbiente,BuenaSalud:EducationalStrategiesforAddressingAirQualityontheBorder,ajointprojectoftheElPasoIndependentSchoolDistrictandTheUniversityofTexasatElPaso,CenterforEnvironmentalResource

Management,fundedbyEnvironmentalProtectionAgencyUS-MexicoBorderEnvironmentalEducation,OutreachandSupportProgram,66.037.2011–2014(Weneedtogetpermission

fromEPA…….


CONTENTS:EDUCATIONALACTIVITIES

I. UnderstandingtheContentintheCaseStudyII. GatheringtheLocalHistoriesIII. ExpandingtheLearningIV. AssessingtheLearning

THEASARCOHISTORY

1. History2. Pollution3. Dr.Landrigan’sFamousStudy4. ScienceCentersandBusinessGroupsOpposeLandrigan’sStudy5. TheFateofSmeltertown6. EnvironmentalAbusesDiscoveredinASARCO’sPlantsAcrosstheNation7. AsarcoinElPasoIllegallyBurnsHazardousWasteforaDecade8. ElPaso,NewMexico,andCiudadJuárezFightASARCO’sPermitRenewal9. SchoolsinSmeltertown

ThefollowingeducatorsfromtheElPasoIndependentSchoolscontributedtothecreationandpilotingofthecasestudy:ErnestoHerrera,JohnThomas,EricPichardo,FranciscoCasillas,JessicaFavela-Casillas,AdrianaHerrera,KatherineMullane-Erlick,LizetteGutierrez,LuisVasquez,DoloresContreras,TiffanyStringfield,MaribelChavez,SarahEscandon,SylviaMontoya,JoannEstrada,,NancyBarraza,TeresaPena,RitaFarina,JeanetteCubillos-Dominguez,LaceyBustamante,TheresaTurner,BlancheHerrera,IanHanna,RosettaBaquera,RonnieAllen,CynthiaOntiveros,MonicaMata,AmyCanales.CurriculumDirectors:ElaineHampton,Ph.D.andSusanBrown,Ph.D.,BoraSimmons,Ph.D.

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I.UnderstandingtheContentintheCaseStudyExamples of large industries affecting the environment of the communities where they arelocatedareabundantacross theworld.Educatorsmaydecide tocreatea similareducationalmodule that addresses specific issues in their own communities. The contentof this study isspecifictotheregionaroundElPaso,Texas,andCiudadJuárez,Chihuahua,Mexico.Thecasestudyisintendedasaneducationalresourceandlessonsetforhighschoolstudentsbutmaybemodifiedformiddleschoolandpossiblyelementaryschoolstudents.

Forindividualslivinginthecommunity,thestoryofASARCOisnotonlyfascinating,butoftenhighlyemotional.Afterreadingthematerial,scoresofyoungpeopleconsistentlycommentonthestoriestheirparentsandgrandparentstellaboutworkingatASARCO,livinginSmeltertown,orexperiencingthethickpollutedair–acommonexperiencefordecadesasthesmelteroperatedinthemiddleofurbanElPaso.ThestoryofASARCOremainsanimportantpartofthefabricofElPaso.Althoughwedon’toftenstartourinquiryeducationalactivitiesbyreadingaboutthetopic,inthisinstance,thestoryissocompellingthatwerecommendthatthestudentsreadtheinformation.HereareideasthattheteachersintheprojecthaveusedtointroducetheASARCOstoryinacomfortableandeffectivemanner.Thehistoryisdividedinto9sectionssotheteachercandecidehowtoorderthesectionsforreading.

• OnesuccessfuloptionisforteacherstodividetheirclassesintogroupsandeachgroupreadabouttwosectionsoftheASARCOstory.Then,eachofthesegroupscreatesaposterOFPICTURESONLY–NOWORDS.Usingthisposter,thestudentsinthegrouptelltherestoftheclasstheinformationthattheyhadlearnedastheyreadtheirsectionsoftheASARCOstory.

• AnotheroptionistohavestudentsreadsectionsofthestoryandparticipateinaCooperativeLearningJigsawactivitytosharetheirsectionexpertisewithagroupofstudents–onefromeachexpertgroup.

• Educatorsmightdecidetouseguidedreading.Inthis,theteacherasksakeyquestionabouteachsectionandthestudentsreadsilently.Afterreadingthesection,studentsdiscusstheguidingquestion.Forexample,theguidingquestionmightbe,“ReadthissectiontofindouthowASARCOwascreated.Whenyoufindthatanswer,raiseyourhand.”After5or6raisetheirhandsandyouhaveprovidedtimeformostofthestudentstofinishreading,selectoneormorestudentstotellwhattheyfoundoutinthereading.

• PurposefulReadingisalsoeffective.Createalargechartwithfourcolumns:Benefitstothearea,Coststothearea,OtherInterestingFacts,Questions.Studentsreadsilentlyandcometothecharttofillintheinformationastheyfinditinthearticle.

• Afterstudentshaveread(orlistenedto)theASARCOstory,teacherprovidesasetofsentencestartersforthemtousetoelaboratetheirunderstanding.


II.GatheringtheLocalHistoriesTheASARCOsmelterwasfunctioninginthisurbanareafromthelate1800sthroughthelate1990s.Manycitizenshavetheirownmemoriesofexperiencingthepollutedair,ortheyhaveheardstoriesfromtheirparentsandgrandparentswholivednearthesmelterorworkedinthesmelter.AsimplewaytogatherthosestoriesistocreateaFacebookpage,AsarcoStories.Throughthepostings,citizenssharetheirmemories,andteacherssharetheworkthattheirstudentscreate.III.ExpandingtheLearningFollowingaresomeoftheactivitiesthattheteachershavecreatedtoexploretheenvironmentaleducationconceptsrelatedtothestudyofASARCO.

• Studentstakesamplesofthesoilattheirhomesoratrelevantlocations.Theyposttheresultsonamap.Soiltestkitsareavailablethroughsciencesupplycompanies.Thehighschoolchemistryteachersinstructedthestudentstouseacidic,nitric,andsulfuricacidwashesandthenobservethesoilsamplesafterthewashestodeterminethepresenceorabsenceoflead.Onceyouhavetestedwitheachacidinorder,theprecipitantwillform.Milkywhiteliquidifithasasmallquantity.Whitesolidparticlesifthereisalargequantity.Moreinformationonthechemicalanalysisusedinthisactivityandsafetyproceduresisavailableat_____.

• Givestudentspiecesofcopperoreandrefinedcoppertoidentifyphysicalpropertiessuchasdensity,magneticqualities,weightincomparisontoiron,etc.Provideashortinformationpieceonthetransportationofcopperanditsuseinelectronicsindustry.

• HavestudentsmakeaYouTubeclipabouttheindustry.• OneteacherwroteasongaboutASARCO,sungtothetuneof“OutintheWestTexas

TownofElPaso”byMartyRobbins.• Studentsdresslikeandactouteventsrelevanttothekeyplayersinthehistoryof

ASARCOcreatingashortplayorcharactermonologues--alivinghistory.• Thesmelterisintheprocessofdemolitionandthesoilwillbecleanedtoindustry

standards.Then,theownersplantoallowlightindustrydevelopmentontheoldsite.Studentsexaminetheissuessurroundingthedevelopmentonthereclaimedsite.Theypresentargumentsthatrepresentvariouspointsofviewaboutthenewdevelopment.

• Studentscreateachildren’sbookaboutthesmelterandreadthebooktoyoungerchildren.

• Studentsmakeaslidepresentationandpresentittocitizensataseniorcenterorothercommunitygroup.

• Studentscreatequestionstheywouldliketoaskthesmelterengineers,alocalrespiratorydoctor,anairqualityspecialist,oralanddeveloper.Theyorganizethe


questionsintocategoriessuchasopen-endedandclosed-endedquestionsandconducttheinterviews.

• Studentsextendtheresearchtogloballookatcopper/leadminingandsmelting.Whereisithappeningnow?How?Why?

IV.AssessingtheLearningAgoodassessmentisagoodlearningexperience,andwebelievethatassessmentshouldidentifywhatthestudentknowsinsteadofwhats/hedoesnotknow.Therefore,theassessmentwillbemoreopenandinclusive.Werecommendthesekindsofactivitiesforassessment.

• WhatdoyouknowaboutASARCO?Studentsworktogetheringroupstowriteeverythingtheycanthinkofthattheylearnedaboutthesmelteronasheetofposterpaper.Theyhavetenminutestocreatethislist.Thenthegroupcountstheitemstheyhavelisted.Thegroupwiththemostitemswrittenonthepapergoesfirst.Theyreadallofthethingstheylearnedtotherestoftheclass.Astheyread,theothergroupswillcheckoffanyitemsthatareduplicatedontheirlists.Then,theremaininggroupsannouncetotheclassanyitemsthatwereontheirposterpapersthatwerenotcoveredbythefirstgroup’spresentation.

• Now,youcanaskeverystudenttolisttentotwentythingstheylearnedaboutASARCO.Thisisanindividualassessmentwithinanallottedtimeframe(10–20minutes).Theyaregradedoncontentratherthanspellingandgrammar.Latertheycanmakegrammarandspellingcorrections.

• StudentsandtheteacherdiscussaratingofWeak,Average,Strongforthefollowing:o Youcreatedaninformation-sharingprojectandpresenteditinapublicvenue.o YoulearnedfromandwithyourclassmatesaboutASARCO.o Theinformationyoupresentedwasaccurateandrelevant.o Youusedproperacademiclanguage(Englishand/orSpanish)inyourproject.o Youworkedhardontheproject.


ASARCOINELPASOCaseStudy

MostoftheinformationbelowisdirectquotationfromTheirMines,OurStories,www.theirminesourstories.org/?cat=18.Theauthors(AnneFischelandLinNelson)havegrantedpermissionforBuenAmbiente,BuenaSaludtousetheinformationintheAirQualityCurriculumProject.I.HISTORYFrom,ASARCOTimelineinElPasoacdrupal.evergreen.edu/envirohealth/.../ASARCO+Timeline+El+Paso,+TX.doc

1894:ASARCOoperatesasmallhospitalforemployeesandresidentsofSmeltertown…ThehospitalwasfoundedbyDr.MichaelP.SchusterofKansasCity….Thehospitaloperatedfor66years,closingin1960.

1911:ASARCOworkershadafrontrowseatintheMexicanRevolution.Onerevolutionaryleader,PascualOrozcosetupcampacrosstheRioGrandefromASARCO,justastone’sthrowfromthesmelter.ElPasoanscameupfromtownandshowedtheirsupportforthoseparticipatingintheinsurrectionbythrowingdollarsandcookiesacrosstherivertotheOrozcoarmy.

1920–1930:RefugeesfromtheMexicanRevolution–poorandwithoutmanyresources,areabletofindemploymentattheASARCOplant.Theyareabletojointheworking/middleclasswiththesejobs.

1933:Therev.LourdesCosta,aSpaniardandpastorofSanJoseCatholicchurchinSmeltertown,persuadesmembersofthecongregationtoerectahugecrossatthepeakofnearbyCerrodeMulerso.

1940:The42footmonumenttoChristtheKingiscompletedanddedicated.“AmonumenttothededicationandcommitmentoftheASARCOworkerswhobuiltit.”

1967:ASARCObuiltthe823footsmokestackwhichwas,atthetime,thelargestintheworld.

TherailroadstransformedmininginMexico.Before1880copperwasprocessedthroughacenturies-oldsmall-scalepatiomethodforderivingpreciousmetalsfromore.WiththedevelopmentofASARCO’srailsystem,small-scaleminingoperationsbecamehugelaborandtechnology-intensiveindustrieswhoseownershipwasconcentratedinU.S.corporatehandsandwhoseprofitsflowedtotheUnitedStates.By1912thevalueofminingoperationsinMexicowasestimatedat$323,600,000.Ofthiswealth,Mexicansownedapproximately$15,000,000,orlessthan5%.U.S.companies,withASARCOprominentamongthem,heldover


60%.Understoodinthisway,ASARCOwasoneofthefirsttransnationalcorporations,anditsextraordinarygrowthdependedonthecomplexrelationshipsthatboundMexicototheUnitedStates.

In1910theElPasosmelterwasexpandedtoprocesscopperaswellaslead.TheoresproducedatASARCO’sMexicanminesweretransportedtoElPasotobesmelted.Mexicanworkersalsocrossedthebordertoworkatthesmelter,swellingthepopulationofthedevelopingcity.In1890thepopulationofElPasowasapproximately10,000;by1910ithadreached39,279;by1925itsnumbershadvirtuallydoubledto77,560.Thepopulationwas,andcontinuestobe,primarilyHispanic.

TheASARCOsmelterwascentraltoElPaso’seconomy.By1927TheElPasoHeraldreportedthatthesmelteremployed800workersandcommandeda“milliondollarpayroll”.In1929theElPasoEveningPostdescribedthesmelteras“thelargestandpracticallytheonlycustomssmelterofitstypeintheworld.”“Duringanaverageyear,”thePostwrote,“theElPasosmelter…receivesmorethan310,000tonsofcopper,30,000tonsoflead,61,000ouncesofgoldand5,000,000ouncesofsilver.”Thewealthproducedfromthisvastquantityofmetalwasestimatedat$22,000,000fortheprecedingyear.In1948theplantwasagainexpandedtoincorporateazincsmeltingfacility.

EvenasotherbusinessessettledinElPaso,thesmeltercontinuedtodominatethecity’sindustriallandscape.In1952BenRoberts,thesmelter’smanager,addressingtheRotaryClubatHotelPasodelNorte,discussedthestrategicimportanceoftherailroads,claimingthat25%ofindustrialshipmentsarrivinginElPasoweredestinedforASARCO.

2.POLLUTIONBECOMESEVIDENTJoePiñon,anElPasopharmacist,remembersthatinthe1950’sASARCO’semissionshadaseriouseffectonthecity’sairquality.HeaskedthecitytoseekfundsfortestinginordertodeterminethetypesandquantitiesoftoxicsfromASARCO’semissions.

Asapharmacist,Piñonwaswellawareofthedangersoflead,arsenic,cadmiumandotherbyproductsofsmelting.PiñonhadobservedphysicalproblemsinElPasoneighborhoodsandamongASARCOworkers.Hethoughttheproblemshehadobservedcouldberelatedtosmelteremissions.ItwascommonknowledgethatASARCO’semissionstraveledacrosstheborderintoMexico,aswellasintoneighboringNewMexico,andthatASARCOoftenwaiteduntilthewindsblewtowardsMexicotoincreaseitsproduction.PiñonwasespeciallyconcernedaboutthepeoplewholivedsouthoftheRioGrandeRiver,inJuarez.FormanyyearsPiñonwasvirtuallythelonevoicecallingforinvestigationofASARCO’semissions.Piñonstated,


ThemediawasprettytakeninbyagroupofpeoplewhocalledthemselvestheIndustrialBettermentCouncil.Thiscouncilwascomposedofleaders…withinthevariouspollutingindustriesofElPaso…itsjobwastoreportonthevariousimprovementsthattheindustriesofElPasowerebringingabouttochangethepollutionproblems.

[Onenewswriter]becamethespokespersonforthepollutingindustriesinElPaso…actuallylaudingtheindustrybecauseofallthemoneythatwasbeingspentatthetimeonbehalfofthecityofElPaso.Buttome,itwasjusta…fabrication.

In1970,followingpassageoftheCleanAirAct,theCityofElPasosuedASARCOoveritssulfurdioxideemissions.DuringtheprocessofdiscoveryASARCOsubmitteddocumentationofitsemissionstothecityforthefirsttime,Between1969and1971ASARCO’sreportsshowedthatithademitted1012metrictonsoflead,508metrictonsofzinc,11metrictonsofcadmiumandonemetrictonofarsenic(Landrigan,etal).OnthebasisofthesedocumentedemissionsBernardRosenblum,DirectoroftheElPasoCity-CountyHealthDepartment,estimatedthat2700personsbetweentheagesofoneand19wouldhavebloodleadlevelsatorabove40microgramsper100milliliters—thesafetystandardforleadinbloodatthetime—andthatresidentswithinafour-mileradiusofthesmelterwerelikelytobeaffected.Alarmed,Dr.RosenblumcontactedtheCommunicableDiseaseCenter(nowtheCentersforDiseaseControl)inAtlanta,Georgia,whichsentDr.PhilipLandriganandateamofresearcherstoinvestigate.

FromNPRReport,AToxicCentury:MiningGiantASARCOMustCleanUpMessMayorJohnCookandotherlongtimeElPasoansrememberwhenthewindwouldshifttothesouth,thesmelterwouldcrankupproduction,andthesmokestackwouldgushdirtyyellowsmokedirectlyintoJuárez.“Theycouldbasicallypolluteasmuchastheywanted,becauseitwasgoingintoanothercountrythathadnoabilitytostopus,”Cooksaid.Asaresult,sulfurdioxideandheavymetalsfellonthecoloniasandschoolsandplaygroundsofElPaso’ssistercity,wherefederalandstateregulatorshadnojurisdiction.“Itisveryclearthatamajorityofwhatcameoutofthatflueandwasdepositedover100yearslandedinMexico,“saysTexasstateSen.ElliotShapleigh,oneofthosewholedthefighttoclosedownASARCO.Thetallsmokestackemittedtonsoflead,cadmium,andarsenic.HighconcentrationsofthesemetalswerefoundinthesoilinElPaso,CiudadJuárezandAnapra,NewMexico.TheASARCOElPasoSmelter:ASourceofLocalContaminationofSoilsbyMichaelE.Ketter,2006.Availableatwww.sierraclub.org/ed/downloads/ASARCO_study_13106.pdf


3.DR.LANDRIGAN’SFAMOUSSTUDY

Itwaswell-knownthatcertainsmeltersemittedlead,thatitmightbeaproblemforlivestocklivingnearsmelters,butthatpeopledidn’thavetoworry,thatleadfromsmeltershadneverbeenshowntobeahealthhazard.SothatwasthecontextthatsurroundedourinitialtriptoElPaso.QuotedfromDr.Landrigan.

TheElPasoCity/CountyHealthDepartmenthadsampledair,soilanddustinavarietyoflocations.Dr.Landrigan’steamplottedtheresultsingeographicalrelationshiptothesmelter.

Thatfirststudyestablishedthatthesmelterwasresponsibleforleadcontaminationinair,soilanddust.Basedontheseinitialresults,theCDCresearchteamconductedapilotstudyofbloodleadlevelsinchildrenattendinganurseryschoolinKernPlace,aprosperousneighborhoodlocatedapproximatelyamilefromASARCO’ssmokestacks.

Thebloodleadstandardatthattimewas40microgramsperdeciliter.Inotherwords,alevelbelow40wasthoughtbeOK.Alevelabove40wascauseforconcern.Whatwefoundinourpilottestofthesechildrenfromthepreschoolnurserywasthatabout3/4ofthemhadbloodleadlevelsabove40microgramsperdeciliter.Thatimmediatelysetoffalarms,becauseevenintheworstinnercityneighborhoods…wehadneverseen3/4ofthechildrenwithbloodleadlevelsabove40.

Dr.Landriganandhisassociatessetupaplantosamplebloodleadlevelsinchildrenwithinapproximatelyfourmilesofthesmelter.Theydrewconcentriccirclesaroundthesmelteranddividedthemintozones:ZoneOnewassetataradiusofapproximatelyonemilefromthesmelter,andincludedthesmallMexican-AmericancommunityofSmeltertown,locatedimmediatelynexttoASARCOandalmostdirectlyunderthesmokestacks.ZoneTwowassetataradiusofabout2.5miles,andZoneThreewassetatapproximatelyfourmiles.Dr.LandriganrecallsthatinZoneOnetheteam“knockedoneverydoor…ZoneTwowaseveryseconddoor,andZoneThree…waseverythirdorfourthdoor.”Ateachhouseholdbloodsamplesweretaken;soil,dustandpaintsampleswerealsotaken;andifpotterywasusedincooking,thepotterywastestedforleadcontent.

WhentheresultswerereleasedASARCOarguedthattheleaddidnotcomefromthesmelter,butfromgasolineemissionsalongInterstate10.Buttestsdisprovedthisargument;thestudiesdonebyDr.Landrigan’steamdemonstratedthatASARCOwasresponsiblefortheleadpollutionfoundinZonesOne,TwoandThree.However,theresearchersconfrontedanotherproblem—thelackofstudiesdemonstratingthattheleadlevelstheyhadfoundcouldcauseharmtochildren.TheNationalAcademyofSciencesstudyhadassertedthatleadfromsmelterswasnotharmfultohumanhealth.


Inthosedaysnottoomuchwasknownaboutthetoxicityofleadinchildren.Pediatricleadpoisoningofcoursehadbeenknownsincetheearlyyearsofthe20thcentury…Butleadpoisoningwasunderstoodasanallornonedisease.Eitherachildgotterriblysickfromahigh-doseingestion,oritwasn’tanissue.Peopletreateditalmostasifitwasacommoncold;eitheryou’resickoryou’renotsick,andtherewasnothinginbetween.

4.SCIENCECENTERSANDBUSINESSGROUPSOPPOSELANDRIGAN’SSTUDY

TheCDCteamwasaskedbyDr.RosenblumtodesignfurtherteststodeterminewhetherchildreninElPasoweredamagedbytheirexposuretoASARCO’sleademissions.Meanwhile,otherinterestswereconvergingontheElPasoleadcontroversy.TheElPasoPediatricSocietyissuedabulletinstating,“thereisnoevidencethatthereisaleadintoxicationproblemoutsideofSmeltertown”(quotedinShapleigh19).ThatsameyeartheLeadSurveillanceCommitteeoftheElPasoCountyMedicalSocietyannounced,“anyfurthermassivebloodleadsamplingoutsidetheSmeltertown-OldFortBlissareaisatthistimeunjustified”(Shapleigh19).

ASARCOalsocommissioneditsownstudywhichwascarriedoutbyDr.JamesMcNeil,anElPasopediatrician,andDr.Potasnick,apsychologistfromtheElPasoSchoolDistrict.McNeil’sstudy,fundedbytheInternationalLeadZincResearchAssociation,agroupconnectedtothemetalindustry,concludedthatbloodleadlevelsof40to80microgramsperdeciliterweresafe,providedachildreceivedgoodnutrition.McNeilalsosupportedASARCO’sclaimsthatthechildren’selevatedleadlevelswerebasedonexposuretolead-basedpaint,ratherthancompanyemissions.

In1972aLeadSurveillanceCommitteeoftheElPasoCountyMedicalSocietywasformed.ItincludedDr.JamesMcNeil,Dr.BernardRosenblumandDr.JorgeMagaña,whowouldlaterbecomeheadoftheCity/CountyHealthDepartment.TheLeadSurveillanceCommitteetookthepositionthatfurthertestingwasunnecessary.Theyrejecteda$50,000grantfromtheCDCforDr.Landrigantocontinuehisresearch.In1973theywrotethefollowinglettertoDr.Landrigan:IregrettoinformyouthatourBoardofHealthunanimouslyvotedtocanceltheremainingportionofyourstudyandinitsplaceacceptDr.McNeil’sstudyfromtheInternationalLeadZincResearchOrganization.

TheTexasStateGovernmentintervenedandinsistedthatLandrigancompletehisstudies.Dr.LandriganrecallsthattheteamhadpreparedastudydesignandreturnedtoElPasointhesummerof1973.

TheCDCteamadministeredWexlerIQtestsandafinger-tappingtestofphysicalreflexestochildren.Agroupofchildrenwithbloodleadlevelsbelow40wasalsotested,butexaminersdidnotknowwhichgroupeachchildbelongedto.Wefoundasignificantdifferencebetweenthetwogroupsofchildren.Thechildrenwhohadbloodleadlevelsover40hadanaverageIQontheperformancescaleoftheWexlerTestthatwasabout7pointslowerthanthechildrenwhohad


thelowerbloodleadlevels.Thiswasaverystatisticallysignificantdetrimentinthekids’IQ.Wealsofoundtheyhadamuchslowerreactiontime.Wehadafingertappingtestwehaddesignedthatcountedhowmanytapsachildcoulddoin10seconds.AndwefoundthatthechildrenwiththeelevatedbloodlevelsweredistinctlyslowerthaNtheirpeersonthistest.

Dr.Landrigan’sresearch,andtheresultsproducedbytheCDCteam,contributedsignificantlytoscientificknowledgeaboutlead.Itisnowwidelyacceptedthatleadistoxicatlevelsaslowas5microgramsperdeciliter.Itisparticularlydamagingtothedevelopingbrainsofchildren.Dr.Landriganreferstothisas“subclinicaltoxicity.”

5.THEFATEOFSMELTERTOWN

SmeltertownfellentirelywithinZoneOneofDr.Landrigan’sstudy.ManyofSmeltertown’smaleresidentsworkedatASARCO;somefamilieshadlivedthereforgenerations,sincecrossingtheU.S.-Mexicoborder.InherstudyofSmeltertown,MonicaPeralesarguesthatASARCO,throughitsMexicansubsidiariesandtrans-nationalshippingroutes,helpedtocreatea“largerindustrialzone”thattransformedMexicansintoindustrialworkersandencouragedMexico-to-U.S.migration(Perales,5-6).Someworkersandtheirfamiliesfollowedtheshippingroutesacrosstheborder,settledinSmeltertown,andfoundworkatASARCOorinnearbyindustries.TheresidentsofSmeltertownbuiltandownedtheirhomes,butdidnotownthelandonwhichtheirhomeswerelocated.Sewageandwatersystemswerebuiltbyresidents.Originallyoutsidecitylimits,by1972SmeltertownhadbecomepartofthegrowingcityofElPaso;itwasanembarrassmenttocityofficialsandthecompany.AccordingtoDanielSolis,aformerresident,“SmeltertownessentiallywasaneyesoreforElPaso.”

Smeltertownwasaclose-knit,vibrantcommunity.MonicaPeralesmaintainsthatdespitetheirmarginalstatus,Smeltertownresidentsexperiencedastrongsenseofidentitythat“resultedfromalegacyofhabitation…andwasrootedincommonlanguage,immigration,workexperience,socioeconomicconditions,religioustraditionsandculturalactivities.Theseelementsboundthemtogetherasafamily,andcontributedtowhatwasasenseof‘emotionalownership’thatEsmeltianosfeltforSmeltertown”(Perales,5).

TheresidentsofSmeltertownexperiencedthediscomfortsoflivingwithASARCO’semissionsonadailybasis.Sulfurdioxide,amajorbyproductofsmelting,createsfoulodorsandcancausebreathingproblemsandirritationoftheeyes,throatandlungs.DanielSolis,aformerresidentofSmeltertown,recalls:

InJulyandAugust…ourfolkswouldbringusintothehouse,becausethesmoke,thepollution,thesulfur,wouldsettleintoourcommunityforabout2or3hourseverydayinthemid-daywhentherewasnobreezetotakethataway.Whenwewouldbreathethat,wecouldnotbe


outsidebecausewewereconstantlycoughing.SonobodycantellmethattherewasnoilleffectonthemajorityofthefolksthatlivedinSmeltertown.

MaryRomerowritesthatSmeltertownfamiliestriedearlyontogetthecitytorespondtoproblemsofpollution.Residentshadorganizedinthe1950’sinanunsuccessfulattempttogetthecitytopaveSmeltertownstreetsandthuscontrolthedustproblem.Severalparentshadsoughtmedicalattentionforchildrenbornwithbraindamageandotherillnesses;notonecase,however,hadbeendiagnosedasleadpoisoning.Pastattemptstolabelhealthproblemsaspollution-relatedillnesseshadbeenunsuccessful(Romero35).

TheresidentsofSmeltertownwerewellawareofthediscomfortsfromdustandsulfurdioxideemissions,buttheywereunawareofthedangersthatleadexposureposedtothemselvesandtheirchildren.Initiallythefamiliesreactedtothedisclosuresofleadcontaminationwithgreatconcernandcooperatedwiththeresearchteamsanddoctorswhocametotestandtreatthechildren(Romero,35).Somechildrenweretakenoutofthecommunitytobetested—DanielSolis’4year-oldsisterwastakentoChicagoalthough,as,Danielrecounts,“Shehadneverbeentotheairport,muchlessonanairplane.”Mostofthechildrenweretreatedatlocalhospitals,usingchelationtherapy,adrugregimendesignedtoremoveheavymetalsfromtheblood.Thetreatmentispainful,andcanbeprolonged.

Duringthetrial,KenNelson,DirectorofEnvironmentalSciencesforASARCO,saidthatissuesofleadcontaminationinSmeltertownhadbeen“overlooked”bythecompany(Shapleigh,15).ASARCOofficialssaidithad“neveroccurred”tothemtoincludeSmeltertowninthecompany’sairpollutionmonitoringsystem.AformidableteamoftrainedphysiciansandresearcherstestifiedaboutthehealthimpactsonchildrenlivinginSmeltertown.Whenthedefenseendeditscase,ASARCOchosenottopresentadefense.Instead,in1972,thepartiesagreedtoasettlementagreementthatincludedfines,commitmentstoinstallnewemissionscontrolequipment,andafundformedicalcareforchildrenwithelevatedbloodlevels.

PeralesarguesthatintheprocessleadingtothelegalsettlementtheneedsanddesiresofmanyEsmeltianoswereignored.Shewrites,“Whilethecompanyandcityarguedhealthandenvironmentalpolicy,Smeltertownresidentswereconcernedwithpreservingtheircommunity…Inattendingcommunitymeetingsandtellingtheirstoriestothepress,theresidentscontinuallystatedtheirrefusaltomoveandtheirdesiretomaintainawayoflifethathadexistedforgenerations.”Ultimately,ASARCOandtheCityreachedanagreementovertheobjectionsofSmeltertownresidents,thatcommunitymembersshouldbeevictedandthecommunitydestroyed.BecausetheresidentsofSmeltertowndidnotownthelandonwhichtheirhomeswerebuilt,theywerenoteligibleforrelocationbenefits(Romero31).Someresidentswereeligibleforpublichousing,andthecityarrangedforthemtohavepriorityaccesstonewpublichousingprojects.Otherssimplymovedaway.


MaryRomeropointsoutthatthedemolitionofSmeltertownrepresentedtheleastexpensivesolutionforthecityandASARCO.Shewrites,“DecontaminationoftheareaandmonitoringthehealthofSmeltertownresidentsdemandedexpensiveeconomiccommitments,notonlyfromASARCO,butfromthecityaswell”(Romero,31).ShepointstoastatementbyASARCO’sphysicianthatthecontinuationofSmeltertownwouldhaverequiredagreatercommitmentsoffundsandservicesthaneitherthecityorcompanywaswillingtoprovide.

Ifthesefamilieselecttomove,itwillofcoursesimplifymyjobinrelationtotheircontinuedexposure.Iftheyelecttoremainandareallowedtoremain,thenIthinkourinterestsfortheirchildrenandtheirfamiliesshouldprovidemorethandustcontrol.Itshouldalsoprovidedrainage,itshouldprovidegarbagecollection;itshouldprovidesewagedisposal;allofthesefactorsasfarasIamconcernedareimportanttotheirmakeupandtheirhealth(quotedinRomero31-32).

Shortlyafterthetrialconcluded,businessinterestsorganizedtodefeatMayorBertWilliamswhohadhelpedtospearheadthesuitagainstASARCO.In1978,5yearsafterthecourtsettlementinwhichASARCOagreedtoinstallnewemissionscontrolequipment,Dr.BernardRosenblumoftheElPasoCity-CountyHealthDepartmentwrotethatElPasocontinuedtohaveoneofthehighestlevelsofleadinairintheUnitedStates.Hewarnedthatairleadconcentrationsinthecitywereincreasing.

In1979,afterseveralpostponements,ASARCOfinallycompletedtheinstallationofemissionscontrolequipmentattheElPasoplant.In1982thezincplantwasshutdown;in1985,theleadplantwasclosed;in1986thecadmiumplantwasdemolished.In1989ASARCOapprovedtheexpansionofcopperproductionfacilitiesattheElPasoplant.

6.ENVIRONMENTALABUSESDISCOVEREDINASARCO’SPLANTSACROSSTHENATION

Inthe1970’sand1980’sASARCO’splantsaroundtheU.S.werereceivingheightenedscrutinyfromlocal,stateandfederalofficials,workers,andenvironmentalgroups.Intheearly1970’shighlevelsofarsenicwerediscoveredintheurineofchildrenlivinginRuston,Washington,nexttoanASARCOcoppersmelter,andaUniversityofWashingtonresearcherfoundthatRuston-areasoilshadeighttimestheamountofarsenicasthenationalaverage.MembersoftheUnitedSteelworkersunioninRustoncreatedanewspaper,“TheSmelterworker,”whosefirstissueexploredtheproblemofarsenicexposure.AccordingtoRodgerJones,thenewspaper’sfirsteditor,“IftheyhadconcernsaboutthekidsinRustonandtheirexposuretoarsenic,whataboutpeopleworkingintheplant?There’sgottobesomeconcernthere!”EventuallytheentiretownofRustonwasdeclaredaSuperfundsite.


Intheearly1980’stheNationalPublicHealthServicefoundthatcadmiumfromASARCO’sGlobeville,Coloradoplant,hadseverelydamagedworkers’healthandthreatenedlocalneighborhoods;theplantwasclosedandseveralhousingprojectsweredemolishedbecauseofconcernsaboutcadmiumcontamination.ASARCOfacilitiesinNewJersey,California,NewMexicoandArizonawerealsoclosed.

In1989aSteelworkerslocalinHayden,Arizona,discoveredthatASARCOhadbeensystematicallyfalsifyingtheresultsoflungfunctiontestsforitsHispanicworkers,inflatingthemby15%inordertoconcealdamagetotheirlungs.TheunionbroughtinDr.DavidParkinsonfromtheDepartmentofCommunityandPreventativeMedicine,theStateUniversityofNewYorkatStonyBrook,toinvestigate.InalettertoASARCO’smedicaldirector,CharlesHine,Dr.Parkinsonlistedanumberofpressingmedicalconcerns,includingthefollowing:

(1)ASARCO’sX-raymachinewasnotadequatetotestlargerindividuals,andtheresultsoftheX-rayswerenotbeingproperlyreportedtoOSHA.

(2)Pulmonaryfunctiontestingequipmentwasobsoleteandhadnotbeencalibratedforatleasttwoyears,sothatthereadingsitproducedcouldnotbetrustedtobeaccurate.

(3)Themedicalrecordsdidnotconsistentlyshowbloodleadandurinearsenictestresults.

(4)Chemistrytestresultssuggestedthatworkershadillnesseslikediabetesorliverenzymeabnormalities—buttherewasnoevidencethattheworkershadbeeninformed.

Inanextensivereport,entitled“ARSENICandASARCO:Therighttoknow,therighttolive,”WillieCraig,Presidentofthelocal,wrote,“IfaHispanicemployeehasapulmonaryfunctionof85%ofcapacity,whenusingtheCompany’smethod,thisemployeeisstillratedhashaving100%ofpulmonaryfunction…Thispracticeinstillsafalsesenseofsecuritywithintheemployee.”AndCraigadded,“ItseemsthispracticecouldhaveadirecteffectonthehigherthannormallungcancerrateintheHayden/Winklemanarea”(emphasisintheoriginaldocument).

CraigalsoraisedquestionsaboutASARCO’sfugitiveemissionsand“thenewtechnologyoftheflashfurnacethatbeganoperationin1983”andwhich“hasgreatlyincreasedtheamountsandconcentrationsofcarcinogenicsubstancesproducedbytheHaydenPlant.”Heconcluded:

“ItismybeliefthattheinvestigationperformedhasshownthatASARCOhaswillinglymisrepresentedmedicalevidenceasgatheredthroughthemedicalsurveillanceprogramattheHaydenPlantClinic…AlsoASARCOhasconspired…todistort,misrepresentandmisleaditsemployees,thepublicsectorandvariousstateandfederalagencies[regarding]importantinformationneededtoprotecttheworkforceandsurroundingcommunitiesfromexcessivearsenicexposure.”


Inthemid-1990’stheCopperFistCoalitioninHayden,Arizonaorganizedover200peopletofileaclassactionlawsuitagainstASARCOforserioushealthimpacts,includingcancersandbirthdefectsbelievedtohaveresultedfromASARCO’semissions.Thesuitwasthrownoutinearlycourthearings,thenreinstated.ItwaseventuallysettledduringASARCO’sbankruptcy.Thecommunitywasawarded$4.8million,ofwhich60%isestimatedtohavegonetoattorneystopaylegalfees.

7.ASARCOINELPASOILLEGALLYBURNSHAZARDOUSWASTEFORADECADE

Intheearly1990’s,withcopperpricesfallingandmanyplantsshuttered,ASARCOcontractedwiththeDepartmentofDefensetoaccepthazardouswasteatitssubsidiary,Encycle,inCorpusChristi,Texas.ThewastecamefromDODfacilitiesattheRockyMountainArsenalandRockyFlatsinColoradoandTooele,Utah,amongothers,wherenapalm,saarinnervegas,clusterbombs,plutoniumandwhitephosphoroushadbeenproduced.Theliquid“quenchwater”wastewasshippedtoEncycle,whereaconcentratewasmadeandshippedittoASARCOsmeltersforincineration.

In1998theEPAdiscoveredthatEncycle/ASARCO,ratherthanstoringtheDepartmentofDefense-originatedhazardouswaste,hadbeenillegallyburningitatitsEastHelena,MontanaandElPasoplants.Itislikelythatthewastewasshippedtoothersmeltersaswell.UndertheResourceConservationandRecoveryAct(RCRA)someindustrialactivitiescanberegulatedasrecyclingratherthanwastemanagement.EncycleandASARCOinsistedthatthematerialstheyreceivedfromtheDepartmentofDefensehadsignificantamountsofcopperandthereforequalifiedasreplacementforcopperore.EPAconcluded,however,thatASARCOhadengagedin“shamrecycling”—incineratingmaterialswithnodiscernablecoppercontent.TheEPAreportclearlydocumentedthischarge,demonstratingthatforalmostadecadeatleast247shipments,totalingapproximately5,079tonsofhazardouswaste“thathadvirtuallynometalsvalue”hadbeenreceivedatEncycleand“incorporatedintoEcyclealleged‘products.’TheEPAwrote,“Thisactivity,plainandsimple,wasillegaltreatmentanddisposalofhazardouswaste,sincethewastescouldnothavecontributedinanysignificantwaytotheproductionofthemetalsconcentrates.”

In1998theEPAandASARCOsignedtwoconsentdecrees,designedtoresolveconcernsaboutASARCO’soperationsandensurecompliancewithfederalregulations.Thefirstdealtwithgeneraloperations,safetyproceduresandtrainingatallASARCO’sremainingplants.Thesecondspecificallyaddressedtheillegalincinerationofhazardouswaste.UnderthetermsofthetwoagreementsASARCOwastosubmittoregularinspections,produceperiodicreports,strengthenitsemployeesafetyprocedures,andpayover$50millioninfines.InElPasothecompanymadeacommitmenttotheCityofElPasotospend$370,000ayeartopavecityroads.


UnderthetermsofagreementASARCOdidnotacknowledgeanyculpabilityforhazardouswasteincineration.(In2006TomAldrich,VicePresidentforEnvironmentalAffairsatASARCO,restatedthecompany’sofficialposition:thatthematerialsreceivedfromEncycle“containedrecyclablequantitiesofcopper”andwere“notparticularlydangeroustohumanhealthortheenvironment.”)

ThesettlementagreementreachedbyASARCOandEPAdidnotincludeanyprovisionsfortestingworkers,soil,air,waterorcommunitymembersforexposuretopotentialcontaminantsintheDepartmentofDefensewastes.TheElPasocommunityalsowasnotinformedabouttheillegalincinerationofhazardouswaste.Itwouldbe8yearsbeforethepeopleoftheElPasoborderregionbegantodiscoverthetruth.

8.ELPASO,NEWMEXICOANDCIUDADJUÁREZFIGHTASARCO’SPERMITRENEWAL

In1999,oneyearfollowingtheEPAconsentdecrees,ASARCOclosedtheElPasoplant,citingthefallingpriceofcopperasthereasonfortheclosure.Thecompany’sofficialpositionwasthattheclosurewastemporary,butindefinite.Theannouncementshockedthecommunity.ASARCOworkersrememberthedaytheclosurewasannounced,andthebewilderingrushofemotionstheyfelt.Manywentbacktoschooltolearnnewskills;otherssoughtnewjobs.

In1999ASARCOwaspurchasedbyitsMexicansubsidiary,GrupoMexico,makingGrupothethird-largestcopperproducerintheworld.In2002GrupopurchasedASARCO’slucrativePeruvianminingaffiliate,SouthernPeruCopperCorporation,forwhattheU.S.courtslaterdeterminedtobeabelow-marketprice.AsASARCO’sassetsweretransferredacrossthebordertoGrupo’sbooks,theJusticeDepartmentwarnedthatASARCOmightbecontemplatingbankruptcy.AnASARCObankruptcywouldhavejeopardizedcleanupsthathadpreviouslybeennegotiatedatASARCOsitesthroughoutthecountry.AsaconditionforallowingthesaleofSouthernPeruCopper,theDOJrequiredASARCOtoestablisha$100milliontrustfundtosupportitsclean-upactivities.

In2002ASARCOappliedtotheTexasCommissiononEnvironmentalQualitytorenewtheairpermitwhichallowedthecompanytooperate.Butbythistimeconditionsinthecommunityhadchanged.ElPasohadbeenrelativelyfreeofsulfurdioxideemissionsforthreeyears.Formerworkershadbeguntofocusonunexplainedmedicalproblemsthatbeganwhileworkingatthesmelter.LinkagesweredevelopingbetweentheworkingclasscommunitiesandenvironmentalgroupsinElPaso,JuarezandnearbySunlandPark,NewMexico,andpeoplehadbeguntoeducatethemselvesaboutthedangersofASARCO’semissions.TheUniversityofTexasatElPasowasfoundtohavesignificantlevelsofleadcontaminationinitssoils.SunlandPark,whichhadreceivedsignificantamountsofASARCO’semissionsbecauseoftheprevailingwinds,wasidentifiedasoneofthemostlead-pollutedcommunitiesinthenation.


ASARCOrequestforAirQualityPermitNo.20345Pollutants(TONSperyear)AllowedLead2.59OxidesofNitrogen230.04CarbonMonoxide287.68VolatileOrganicCompounds7.66SulfurDioxide6,673.15ParticulateMatter352.60Particulatematter<10349.63SulfuricAcid16.21

ActivistshavealsobecomeconcernedaboutimpactsongroundwaterandaquifersconnectedtotheRioGrandeRiver,asourceofdrinkingwaterandirrigationforbothElPasoandMexico.TheTexasCommissiononEnvironmentalQualitydocumentedlevelsofarsenicthataresignificantlyabovefederalstandardsfordrinkingwater.Othercontaminantsofconcernthatexceedfederalstandardsarelead,cadmium,chromium,copperandselenium(ii).

Acoalitionformed,fueledbyconcernedresidents,students,environmentalactivists,formerASARCOemployees,andpublicofficials.Severalgroupsjoinedin,includingGettheLeadOut(ElPaso),theSunlandParkGrassrootsEnvironmentalGroup,ACORNandtheEnvironmentalCenterofJuarez.TogethertheyfocusedtheirenergiesoneducatingtheircommunitiesaboutthedangersofASARCO’semissionsandopposingtherenewalofASARCO’sairpermit.AttheUniversityofTexas,ElPaso(UTEP),studentsorganizedtheirownmovementtoopposeASARCO’sairpermit,StudentsAgainstASARCO.

In2005ASARCOenteredintoChapter11Bankruptcy,citingitsenvironmentalliabilitiesastheprimarycause.OperationsatitsArizonaminesandlastfunctioningsmelterinHayden,Arizonacontinued.AspartofthecourtprocessofcorporatereorganizationASARCOwasremovedfromGrupoMexico’scontrolandplacedunderthecontrolofaboardofcreditors,whichincludedthecompany’smainunion,theUnitedSteelworkers.DuringthisprocessASARCOcontinuedtopressitscasetorenewitsairpermitinElPaso.

InOctober2005anAdministrativeCourtissuedanonbindingrulingthatASARCOhadfailedtoproveitwouldchangeitspollutionpracticesifgrantedanewairpermit.ThecourtrecommendedthattheTexasCommissiononEnvironmentalQuality(TCEQ)rejectASARCO’sairpermitapplication.

InJanuary2006theSierraClubreleasedastudylinkingASARCO’semissionstosoilcontaminationonbothsidesoftheU.S.Mexicoborder.Thestudy,conductedbyMichaelKetterer,ProfessorofChemistryatNorthernArizonaUniversity,took97soilsamplesinElPaso,Anapra,NewMexicoandCiudadJuarez,andconcludedthattheleadinthesoilhadthesame


“fingerprint””(leadisotoperatio)astheleadinorereceivedfromASARCO’sSantaEulaliamine(http://lonestar.sierraclub.org/press/newsreleases/20060131.asp)InMay2007,asthecampaigntokeepASARCOclosedgainedmomentum,theElPasoCityCouncilvotedunanimouslytoopposethereopeningofASARCO.InJune2007publicofficialsfromElPaso,SunlandParkandCiudadJuarezmetatMonumentOne,theinternationalareanexttotheRioGrandeRiver,andsignedaresolutionopposingtherenewalofASARCO’sairpermit.

In2006researcherandteacherHeatherMcMurrayobtainedacopyoftheEPAconfidentialmemoaboutASARCO’s“shamrecycling.”ForthefirsttimethecommunityhadhardevidencethatASARCOhadillegallyincineratedhazardouswasteitsElPasoandEastHelena,Montanasmelters.InaninterviewMs.McMurrayexplained:

WeknowthatASARCOhadasubsidiary,Encycle,inCorpusChristi.Encycleprocessedhazardouswaste.Itwasarecyclingcenter.TheyweresupposedtopulloutmetalsfromtheproductorsendthematerialstooursmelterhereorinEastHelenathathadmetalsinthemthatcouldbesmeltedout.Insteadofdoingthattheysentusstuffthathadnometalsvalueinit.Therewasnoreason,itwasnotlegalforthemtosendthatherewithoutpermittingusasahazardouswasteincinerator.Buttheydidit,andfinallytheEPAcaughtthem.When[theEPA]caughtthemtheykeptitsecret,theydidn’twanttoletanyoneknow.Wedon’tknowwhytheywantedtokeepitsecret,butASARCOsmeltedthestuffforalmostadecadeillegally,andthencovereditupthroughthegovernmentforanotherseven-eightyears.

Infall2006theNewYorkTimespublishedastorybasedonHeatherMcMurray’sfindings:“Abankruptcoppergiantfacingbillionsofdollarsinpollutionclaims…pretendedforyearstorecyclemetalswhileillegallyburninghazardouswasteinanotoriousElPasosmelter”(iii).SincethattimemembersofthebordercoalitionhavecontinuedtouncoverinformationrelatingtoEncycle/ElPaso’sillegalshipmentsofhazardouswastetosmelters,andtheincinerationofthewasteinASARCO’sstacks.

Despite6yearsofhardworkbyenvironmentalactivists,formerASARCOemployees,publicofficials,universitystudents,andresidentsofElPaso,JuarezandAnapra,theTCEQ*,atafinalhearinginAustin,Texas,inFebruary2008,agreedtograntASARCOarenewedairpermit,providedthatthecompanycoulddemonstratethattheshutteredplantwasstilloperableandcouldmeettheguidelinessetforstateemissions.

InApril2008threeyearsintoASARCO’sbankruptcyprocess,theArizonaRepublicreported,“anunprecedentedriseincopperprices,bankruptcyanddedicatedmanagershavehelpedtransform…ASARCOLLCfromafinancialtrainwreckintoasolidbusinesswith$1billionincash,nooperatingdebtandapromisingfuture”(April16,2008).

InFebruary2009theEPAtoldTexasofficialsthatunderfederallawthesmelterdidnotqualifyforthepermitrenewalgrantedbytheTCEQ.


OnthesamedayASARCOannounceditwasdroppingitsplantoreopentheASARCOsmelter.Thecompanyattributeditsdecisionto“adramaticdownturnoftheworldeconomy”(DallasMorningNews,February4,2009).

*TCEQistheTexasenvironmentalregulatingagency.Inmanyareas,itsetsindustrystandardsthatareoutofcompliancewiththenationalregulationsfromEPA.Allofthemembersoftheboardareappointedbythegovernorofthestate,andduringGovernorPerry’sadministration,theboardconsistentlysupportedhispositiontoreduceenvironmentalregulationstobenefitthegrowthofindustry.

9.EARLYSCHOOLSINSMELTERTOWN

ThefollowinginformationisfromSmeltertown:MakingandRememberingaSouthwestBorderCommunitybyMonicaPerales,TheUniversityofNorthCarolinaPress,2010.

Intheearlyyears,theElPasoschoolsdidnotallowChildrenwhodidnotspeakEnglishtoentertheirschools.ChildreninSmeltertownoftenlearnedbasicsinprivatereligiouspreparatoryschoolsmeetinginhomesandtheparishhalls.Althoughtheseschoolsexistedprimarilytopreparechildrentomaketheirfirstcommunion,studentsalsolearnedmath,readingandwritinginSpanishandenoughEnglishtoentercountyschools.

Formanyyears,studentsofSmeltertownattendedCourschesneElementary,aboutamilefromSmeltertown.Iftheycouldaffordtocontinuetheireducationbeyondseventhgrade,theyattendedElPasoHighSchool.Inthe1930s,E.B.JonesElementarySchool,namedafteranadministratorwithASARCO,wasopened.ChildreningradesonethroughfourattendedE.B.JonesandthoseingradefivethroughsevenattendedCourschesne.

Duringthistimeofimmigration,variousstate,private,andreligiousorganizationsbeganeducationalprogramswiththepurposeofassimilatingtheMexicanimmigrantsintoU.S.Americancultureandsociety.OneoftheseeffortswastheSmelterVocationalSchooldirectedbyMiguelCarrasco,Sr.,andopenedin1923.GirlsstudiedhomeeconomicsandotherskillsthatpreparedthemtobedomesticservantsinElPasohomes,andboyslearnedvariousindustrialtrades,therebyproducingaskilledworkforce.Theschool,moreover,offeredopportunitiesforSmeltertown'syoungpeopletosocialize.

AlthoughthevocationalschoolsservedasasocialbindingforcefortheSmeltertowncommunity,theintentionoftheseschoolswastobenefitthesmelterbyprovidingtrainedemployeesandfreelabor.Thevocationalschoolsalsobenefitedtheschoolsystembyprovidinganalternativeforsomeoftheirstudent,aswellasprovidinglabortohelpbuildschoolsandequipmentfortheElPasoCountySchoolSystem.TheboysintheVocationalSchoolbuilttheformsandpouredthecementforthestillexistingZachWhiteElementarySchool.

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