snc-2de study notes - angelfire: welcome to angelfire · web viewaltitude: the height about sea...

Jimmy HaoJune 12, 2001

SNC-2DE Study Notes

Weather Dynamics:

Define Climate and Weather:Weather: a set of environmental conditions encountered day to day, such as a single rainy day or a

thunderstorm.Climate: a set of environmental conditions average over many years, such as a desert climate in a

desert or a humid, rainy climate in a rain forest.

Find a Position on the Earth using latitude and longitude:Longitude: The angle measured east or west from 0°C line, Prime Meridian which passes through

Greenwich, England. The vertical lines on a map.Latitude: The angle measured north or south from the equator. The horizontal lines on a map.

Explain the importance of vast quantities of water to the planet’s weather and the survival of life on this planet:

Water has a high albedo, reflecting away solar radiation that would otherwise overheat the Earth Is an excellent heat sink, stores energy keeping the Earth warm Ocean currents distribute the Sun’s heat throughout the earth Vital for humans, animals and plants (farming) Weather systems depend greatly on the water cycle Most of the sun’s rays hit the Earth at an ocean, this allows the Earth to store more energy than it

would if most of the sun’s rays hit the Earth on land.Albedo: A measurement of the percentage of light that an object reflect; the higher the albedo, the

greater the object’s ability to reflect sunlight.

Explain the Occurrence of the Seasons: The Earth is tilted at 23.5° Summer here occurs when the northern hemisphere is at its maximum tilt towards the sun. This allows the sun’s rays to hit the northern hemisphere most directly, at a perpendicular angle,

reducing the amount of energy that bounces off the Earth. Winter here occurs when the southern hemisphere is at its maximum tilt towards the sun, or when

we are at the furthest tilt away from the sun. The sun’s rays hit us at the greatest angle in winter, resulting in more energy bouncing off Earth. Summer in the Northern Hemisphere is winter in the Southern and vice versa. June 21; summer solstice; sun over the Tropic of Caner December 21; winter solstice; sun over the Tropic of Capricorn March 21; Vernal Equinox; spring; sun over equator September 23; Autumnal Equinox; autumn; sun over equator

Become Familiar with the EM spectrum:All parts of the EM spectrum travel at the speed of light, as the EM spectrum is light.

Visible Spectrum: Visible lightRadio Waves: Waves used in radios and televisions.Microwaves: Waves used to cook foods, in microwaves.Infrared: Allows remote controls to control televisions.Ultraviolet: Rays that cause skin cancer and sunburns.X Ray: Rays that penetrate skin, but not bone.Gamma Rays Rays that are given off of radioactive material.

Define and explain Radiation, Conduction and Convection:


Radiation: The transfer of energy by means of waves, does not require a medium to travel through. Can travel in a vacuum. An example is light.

Conduction: The transfer of energy through the collision of particles. Occurs more easily in metals, because of mobile electrons. When atoms have energy, they vibrate, the more energy, the more the atom vibrates and eventually it hits another atom and that atom begins to vibrate. As long is heat is being conducted, the atoms will hit each and constantly vibrate, creating heat.

Convection: The vertical transfer of heat by particles in a fluid.Advection: The horizontal transfer of heat by particles in a fluid.

Describe the absorption and reflection of energy by the Earth: Electromagnetic waves hit the Earth 27% are reflected off the atmosphere and clouds back into space. 3% passes through the atmosphere and bounces off the surface of the Earth. 50% is absorbed by land and water. 20% is absorbed by clouds.

The amount of energy that bounces off the Earth depends on the albedo of the object. Snow has a high albedo Black paint has a low albedo

Define heat sink and heat capacity:Heat Sink: Any object/material that absorbs energy and becomes warmer. An object that can hold

heat.Heat Capacity: Measure of how much heat a substance requires to increase its temperature by a ° or how

much heat it releases as its temperature in ° decreases.Variables: The variables that affect heat capacity are the mass of the object and the amount of

energy required to heat it 1°C.

Explain using the KMT how heat is transferred by convection, conduction, radiation and give examples related to weather.Convection: Heat is transferred vertically. Energy is transferred to particles in form of heat. This

causes the particles to vibrate, and thus expanding the space a fluid occupies. The particles begin to rise, as that body of fluid becomes less dense than the surrounding fluid. Cooler fluid rushes in to fill the space left by the rising fluid and the process continues. Convection currents are the cause of some of the Earth’s winds, as well as ocean currents

Conduction: Heat is transferred by the collision of particles. Energy is transferred to particles in form of heat, causing the particles to vibrate. The vibrating particles collide with other particles, causing them to vibrate as well. This sets off a chain reaction that continues until the energy source is removed. Though barely noticeable in everyday life, heat from the Earth’s core is conducted to the surface of the Earth. This effect is most noticeable in volcanoes, where the heat from the Earth’s core has melted rocks.

Radiation: This is the transfer of heat in the form of waves that we call the electromagnetic spectrum. This form of energy transfer does not utilize particles. The sun’s energy is an example of radiation.

Weather Conditions Affecting Conduction:Hot: particles move faster, quickening the rate of conduction.Cold: particles don’t move as fast, slowing the rate of conduction.Icy: ice forms as an insulator, prevents friction between object.


Solve Heat Problems. Solve Mixture Problems:Q: Quantity of heat, in J.C: Specific heat capacity.M: Mass, in kgΔt: Change in temperature, in °C.

Q = cm ΔtΔt=cm/Qc=m Δt/Qm=c Δt/Qt1= Δt-t2

t2= Δt-t1

lf: Latent heat of fusion, solid to liquid; liquid to solid. For H2O – 336,000J/kglv: Latent heat of vapourization, liquid to gas; gas to liquid. For H2O – 2,268,000J/kg

Qgained = Qlossedm1 x c1 x Δt1 = m2 x c2 x Δt2

Define atmosphere, altitude, temperature gradient, atmospheric pressure, pressure gradient:Atmosphere: The blanket of air and moisture that surrounds the Earth.Altitude: The height about sea level, usually measured in metres or kilometres; also called

elevationTemperature Gradient: The change of temperature of the atmosphere at different altitudesAtmospheric Pressure: The pressure the air exerts as gravity pulls it toward the centre of Earth; it is

greatest at sea level and decreases at higher altitudesPressure Gradient: A measure of the amount the atmospheric pressure changes across a certain

distance; can be vertical or horizontal

Explain the importance of the atmosphere to life on this planet: Protects us from the harsh vacuum of space. Oxygen and nitrogen in atmosphere are needed to support life. Carbon dioxide needed by green plants to survive. Ozone in upper atmosphere absorbs ultraviolet radiation, protecting us from harmful radiation. Plays a role in the water cycle, as water vapour in the air and in clouds supplies the surface. Offers protection from meteors as the friction of any incoming object vapourizes it. Circulates air.

Describe and explain applications of temperature and pressure:Temperature is a measure of heat and pressure is a measure of how much weight is pushing on an object. We use pressure unknowingly all the time. Atmospheric pressure is what causes eyedroppers to fill up, vacuums to work and it is what causes winds and weather. Differences in pressure also allow planes to fly. Differences in temperature are utilized to allow hot air balloons to float, to allow engineers to fit a metal ring on train wheels, and it necessitates the building of gaps in structures to allow for the expansion of the building material in different temperatures.

Students will observe, describe and explain the effects of atmospheric pressure.We can see that the atmosphere exerts pressure through the many experiments we did. In almost every case, when we isolated a part of the atmosphere inside a container of some sort (thereby maintaining the same pressure) and then changed the pressure of its surroundings, there would be some sort of reaction. The atmospheric pressure was quite noticeable in the experiments we did. It was atmospheric pressure that pushed the water into the eyedropper, it was atmospheric pressure that pushed on the suction cup, holding it down, it was the same pressure that caused the balloon to expand, the cardboard to stick to the beaker and the different rates of water drainage in the different sized flasks. Therefore, we have a copious amount of evidence that shows that the atmosphere does indeed exert pressure.


Water Boiling ModelThe phenomenological definition of boiling is the existence of sustained bubbles that break free of the surface. In order for these bubbles to exist, the pressure of the water vapour in the bubble must equal the pressure of the water and almost all the pressure on the water comes from the atmosphere. So, the frequency and energy which the water vapour molecules collide / push against the bubble wall from the inside must equal the pressure exerted by the atmosphere, the energy and frequency which air molecules collide / push against the bubble from the outside. Heating the water will increase the energy in the water vapour and consequently increase the pressure inside the bubbles. Thus, the lower the air pressure, the lower the temperature at which the water will boil. So, being on top of a mountain would mean that there would be a lower pressure then being at sea level, and so water would boil faster on top of a mountain because the boiling point is lower because of the previously stated reason. However, since cooking is a chemical process, it still takes a certain amount of energy to happen, no matter what the altitude. So, since the water is at a lower temperature (less energy, less vibrations), it will take longer for the vegetables to gain the energy required for the chemical process of cooking.

Vacuum Jar ModelWhen the vacuum pump started, it began to remove air molecules from the space in which the balloon was contained. This meant there were less air molecules vibrating, which meant less energy outside the balloon, which meant a lower frequency of collisions with the balloon. Inside the balloon, the pressure remained the same, which meant the number of molecules stayed the same. However, when the pressure outside the balloon was decrease, the frequency of the collisions against the balloon wall, pushing outwards was more then the frequency of collisions pushing against the balloon wall, pushing inward. Thus, because there was more energy and more collisions inside the balloon, there was an unbalance of pressure, and so the balloon’s walls were pushed outward by the higher pressure on the inside of the balloon, increasing the balloon’s size, in an attempt to equalize the pressure.

Define Hydrosphere. Describe water distribution in the hydrosphere. Describe the water cycle with the use of a labelled diagram.

Hydrosphere: A geographic term for all of the Earth’s fresh water, salt water, liquid water, water vapour and frozen water

Of the World’s Water97.5% - Salt Water2.5% - Fresh Water

Of the World’s Fresh Water87.3% - Glaciers and polar ice caps12.3% - Underground Water

Of the World’s Surface and Atmospheric Water90% - Lakes9% - Atmosphere1% - Rivers

Water Cycle: Radiant energy warms air, land and water. Causes sublimation (ice to gas) in glaciers, evaporation of water and transpiration from organisms. Collects as water vapour which rises and condenses to form clouds. When too much water vapour is collected, the water vapour precipitates. The soil absorbs the water, joining the ground water where it reaches oceans, rivers or lakes where

it may stay as a liquid or freeze, starting the cycle again.


Describe the importance to life of the hydrosphere and the water cycle.All organisms need water to survive.The water cycle constantly recycles water, circulates water and provides us with water to drink.

Describe the role of energy in the water cycle.Radiant energy from the sun warms air, land and water, causing evaporation, sublimation or transpiration.The lack of energy is what causes condensation, precipitation and freezing.

Define convective clouds, frontal clouds, orographic clouds. Describe the formation of each .Convective Clouds:

Convective clouds are produced when the air near the ground absorbs energy from heated surfaces and becomes warmer and less dense, thus rising. As the warm air rises, it carries water vapour with it, when the air reaches an altitude where the pressure is lower and the temperature is cooler, the air molecules begin to lose energy and contract. The water vapour cools to a point where condensation occurs, spawning clouds. This process can occur wherever solar energy is absorbed by water and other surfaces.

Frontal Clouds:Frontal Clouds form when the leading edge or front of a large moving air mass meets with a contrasting air mass. The warmer air within the warm air mass if forced to rise above the cold air mass as warm air is less dense than cold air. As the warm air rises, it begins to cool with higher elevations, causing condensation to occur, also spawning clouds.

Orographic Clouds:Orographic clouds form when moist air, usually from a body of water meets a mountain range. In order for the air to travel past the mountain, the air is forced to ascend the mountain. As the air ascends up the side of a mountain, the air pressure becomes lower causing the air mass to expand and condense, creating clouds. The side of the mountain where the air rises is called the windward side and the side where the rain shadow is, is called the leeward side.


Define fog and explain its formation:Fog is a cloud that forms near ground. It can be produced on clear nights when energy from the surface radiates upward but it not reflected back to Earth by any clouds, thus allowing the air near ground to cool and condense, forming clouds. Fog can also occur when warm air passes over snow-covered ground and when moist sea air drifts over a cold ocean current or seashore. It can also be formed due to orographic lifting.

Classify Clouds:Cumulus Clouds:

billowing and have a round shape grow vertically indicate instable weather result of convection currents or orographic lifting

Stratus Clouds: Grow horizontally Indicate stable weather Result of fronts Flattened and layered

Cloud DescriptionCirrus Thin, wispy cloud made of ice crystals below 8000mCirrocumulus Thin, patchy clouds that form wavy patterns. 6000 to 8000mCirrostratus Thin, veiled clouds that produce the halos we occasionally see around the Sun and

Moon, 6000 to 800mCumulonimbus Large, darker clouds. Low to about 8000m, sometimes reaching 15000m. (King of

Clouds)Altostratus Sheets of gray or blue; The Sun and Moon may appear as if behind frosted glass.

3000 to 7000mAltocumulus Gray or white puffy clouds, usually not continuous but alternating cloud and clear.

3000 to 7000mStratocumulus Irregular rolling or puffy clouds, usually following a passing cold front. Below

2000mCumulus Low rounded clouds. Below 2000mNimbostratus True rain clouds; dark and wet looking. Below 2000mStratus Low, uniform sheet clouds, often with drizzle. Below 2000m

Solar Energy, Clouds, Earth’s rotation ,Jet Streams, Prevailing Winds, Ocean Currents, Land Masses, Hydrosphere:Solar Energy:

During the winter in the Northern Hemisphere, the far north receives no solar energy for months, so it is extremely cold there. In the rest of the world, the amount of solar energy received depends on the cloud cover and the angle at which the Sun’s rays strike the Earth. The rays hit most directly south of the Equator, reaching 23.5 south latitude around December 21 each year. The sun’s rays also hit most directly around the equator where the area is mostly covered by water. This is very important, because water has a high heat capacity, allowing the Earth to retain a lot more energy from sun than if the area around the equator was covered mostly by land.

Cloud Cover:Clouds help maintain the energy balance on Earth. Clear skies allow solar energy to pass through the atmosphere and strike the surface, increasing the evaporation rate of water. This causes a build-up of clouds, which reflect much of the solar energy back into space, thus reducing the amount reaching the surface. Clouds also absorb infrared radiation both from the Sun and emitted from Earth’s surface.


Earth’s Rotation:Earth spins eastward around its axis once every 24h, causing our day-and-night cycle. This rotation also causes winds to tend to twist toward the right in the Northern Hemisphere and toward the left in the South Hemisphere (Coriolis Effect).

Jet Stream:These high-speed winds in the upper troposphere are caused by pressure differences between the warm and cold regions of the world. They tend to travel in a wavy pattern from west to east. In winter, the temperature difference, and hence pressure difference is greater than in summer, so the jet streams are stronger. The jet streams play an important part in weather patterns, as they act like a wall between air masses. Imagine a powerful river, if you were to run into the river, you would not be able to reach the other side as the strong currents would drag you away and most likely kill you. That is the reason why the jet stream acts as a boundary between air masses.

Prevailing Winds:Large-scale winds help maintain Earth’s energy balance by moving energy from the hot equatorial regions towards the poles while at the same time moving cool air from the poles toward the equator. The directions of these winds are complex because of the Coriolis Effect.

Ocean Currents:Ocean currents also help distribute energy from the equatorial regions towards the poles and cold water from the polar regions toward the equator. Surface currents are influenced by the winds above the surface, but when these current hit land, their direction changes. Salt also plays a part in ocean currents in “deep ocean” currents. When water evaporates, it leaves behind the salt content, the salt content then sinks as salt is denser than water. This sinking action creates deep ocean currents that affect the ocean currents. The Gulf of Mexico is an example of the effects of salt.

Land Masses:Since land has a low heat capacity, it heats up and cools down much more quickly than water. This influences cloud formation and local weather effects.

The Hydrosphere:The majority of Earth’s surface is covered with water and ice. Water takes a long time to heat up and cool down.

Observe Bernoulli’s Principle and account for various observations in terms of this principle:Bernoulli’s Law:Where the speed of a fluid is high, the pressure is low and where the speed is low, the

pressure is high.

Low pressure created when two cars pass each other, created by their immense speed. The number of particles on the other side of the subway cars outnumbers the amount of

particles on the low pressure side of the cars More particles are hitting the car from the other side than the low pressure side causing

the cars to lean in. The speed of the car creates an area of low pressure. The air on the platform rush towards the area of low pressure, pushing people towards the

tracks.

Define Weather system, air mass, warm front, cold front, occluded front, cyclone, cylogenesis, stationary front, anticyclone. Explain the formation of a storm.Weather Systems:

A set of temperature, wind, pressure and moisture conditions, for a certain region, that moves as a unit for a period of days.

Air Mass:A large body of air in which the temperature and moisture content at a specific altitude are fairly uniform.

Warm Front:The leading edge of a warm air mass

Cold Front:The leading edge of a cold air mass


Occluded Front:The front that forms when a cold front catches up to an overtakes a warm front; the warm air is lifted above the surface of Earth and cut off, or occluded from the cooler air below and the storm weakens.

Cyclone:A low pressure, swirling air mass; winds in a cyclonic storm move counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the South Hemisphere.

Cylogenesis:The process of creating a cyclone

Stationary Front:An unmoving front between a warm air mass and a cold air mass; usually means stable weather until the air masses begin to move.

Anticyclone:A high pressure system that rotates clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and counter clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere.

Low pressure weather systems bring cloudy weather and stormy weather. Cold and warm air mass meet, because of their different properties, the two air masses do not mix

instead form a boundary, called the front. The jet stream pulls in air from the air masses, creating an area of low pressure near the ground. This creates an area of low-pressure near the ground that draws in more air. The warm front rises over, because it is less dense and more of the warm air is being pulled away

by the jet stream, because it is less dense. As the warm air rises, the air starts to cool and the water vapour within condenses to form

billowing cumulous clouds as the air continues to rise. The storm ends when an occluded front occurs, the cold air mass cuts the warm air mass off from

the ground, taking away its supply of air, ending the storm.

Explain drizzle, rain, freezing rain, snow, ice pellets or sleet:

Type of Precipitation Formation of Precipitation (Different Forms)Drizzle 1. Water droplets are formed in cumulonimbus clouds

2. Water droplets collide and form drops; thus creating drizzle

Drizzle consists of fine water droplets between 40m (micrometers) and 0.5mm in diameter. Depending on the intensity of precipitation, both rain and drizzle can be classified as light, moderate and heavy.

Rain 1. Water droplets are formed in cumulonimbus clouds2. Water droplets collide and form drops;3. Water drops collide and form larger drops; thus creating rain

Rain consists of falling water droplets between about 0.5mm and 5mm in diameter. If a larger drop forms, it breaks into pieces as it falls through the air.

Freezing Rain 1. Water droplets are formed in cumulonimbus clouds2. Water droplets collide and form drops3. Water drops collide and form larger drops4. Rains strikes a cold surface; thus creating freezing rain

When raindrops are close to freezing and strike a cold object on or near the ground, the drops freeze almost instantly.


Snow 1. Water droplets and a few ice crystals form from cumulonimbus clouds2. Ice crystals grow and combine to form snowflakes

Snowflakes that fall to the ground directly result in dry snow. Snowflakes that fall to the ground after being exposed to warm air

results in wet snow.

Snow is formed when water vapour crystallizes on tiny particles of dust and other solid substances, such as smoke. Snow only forms when the air temperature, and therefore the water vapour, has cooled below 0°C.

Ice Pellets (Sleet) 1. Water droplets and a few ice crystals form from cumulonimbus clouds2. Ice crystals grow and combine to form snowflakes3. The snowflakes are exposed to warm air and then to cold air; thus

creating ice pellets or sleet

Ice Pellets, also known as sleet, are a solid form of water. They form when snow falls through a warm layer of air, partially melting, and then falls through a layer of air below 0°C. The resulting beads of ice are hard enough to bounce off the cold ground when they strike it.

Explain the formation of dew and frost and distinguish these from precipitation: Dew forms when air cools near the ground. The water vapour in this air condenses on a cool

surface where the temperature is above freezing. Frost forms when air cools near the ground. The water vapour in this air sublimates on a cool

surface where the temperature is below freezing. Different from precipitation as there is no falling action.

Explain the different types of transformations of water vapour in the atmosphere and their effects:Draw water evaporating first.


Define humidity, relative humidity, saturated air, dew point, psychrometer. Describe examples of Canadian technology in meteorology:

Humidity: A measure of the amount of water vapour in the atmosphere; the more water vapour in the atmosphere, the more humid it becomes.

Relative Humidity: The measure of the amount of water vapour actually in the air as a % of the maximum amount of water vapour the air can hold at that temperature.

Saturated Air: When air reaches saturation, this means that, at a particular temperature, air is holding its maximum amount of water vapour possible.

Dew Point: The temperature at which dew forms; few forms when air reaches it saturation temperature.

Meteorology Technology: Weather satellites gather weather-related data, images and relay them to stations on the ground. High orbit satellites in orbit around the Earth, detect electromagnetic radiation from various levels

of atmosphere. Provide images using visible light and take infrared images. Lower-Orbit satellites use infrared and microwaves to detect changes in the temperature and water

vapour at various levels of the atmosphere. Also detect wind patterns. Weather balloons can also collect data on winds.

Describe the Greenhouse Effect.The process by which gases build up thermal energy (heat) in the atmosphere by absorbing infrared radiation from Earth’s surface is the Greenhouse Effect. When solar energy is absorbed by the Earth’s atmosphere or surface, it can be re-emitted as infrared radiation that can pass through some atmospheric gases like nitrogen and oxygen, but is absorbed by greenhouse gases (atmospheric gases that absorb and re-emit infrared radiation: water vapour, CO2, methane, nitrous oxides, ozone and CFC’s). This increases the temperature of these molecules which re-emit infrared energy to the surface, helping to maintain the range of temperatures that support life on Earth. In addition to natural events that create greenhouse gases (evaporation, transpiration, forest fires caused by lightening, there are many human activities that create greenhouse gases. For example, burning fossil fuels and using air condition can cause greenhouse gases to find their way into the atmosphere. Also, ground level ozone is created when solar radiation interacts with natural gases and emissions from industries and vehicles.

Describe the ozone layer:Ozone is a greenhouse gas and molecularly, consists of three oxygen atoms. Ground level ozone is harmful to humans and the environment, but upper-level ozone (between 10 and 50 km) is extremely important because it absorbs UV radiation from the Sun, preventing it from reaching the Earth’s surface. UV radiation can be very harmful to humans, causing skin cancer and cataracts. It can damage plants and agricultural productivity. Also, it can reach the upper levels of the oceans, interfering with the production of plankton, the beginning of the food web involving krill, fish, seabirds, penguins, whales, etc. Ozone depletion is caused by the use of CFCs, which drift into the stratosphere and break apart, creating chlorine which destroys ozone.

Investigate factors which affect the development, severity and movement of global and local weather systems.

Any adjacent land, as land can affect weather systems as land heats and cools very quickly and can store less energy than water.

The season, as the climate in the area during different seasons differ considerably. In different seasons, the amount of solar radiation can differ due to the tilt of the Earth, the temperature of the ocean currents also change affect weather systems as well.

When contrasting air masses, they create a front that can affect the weather system as front can lead to storms and precipitation.

The amount of atmospheric pressure in different areas can affect weather systems as energy always flow from areas of high pressure to low pressure, creating winds.


Air masses also affect weather systems as they bring air with different characteristics. A warm, moist air mass will bring warmer temperatures and possibly precipitation.

Pollution affects the weather as well, things such as oil spills change the ocean currents and the density of currents changing the weather. Also, carbon emissions trap heat in the earth, slowly causing the average temperature to rise.

Ocean currents are great moderators of energy as water is a good heat sink. The air above ocean currents take the characteristics of the ocean current, thus affecting the weather system around that area.

Phenomena such as El Nino and El Nina are phenomena that change the way ocean currents and winds sometimes blow, greatly affecting the weather system.

Weather Unit:Things worth studying for not included in this study note or on the learning outcomes include all labs, such as the heat labs, pressure labs, levels of the atmosphere and 13.13 for the vector diagram.

Chemistry Unit:

Classify matter as: elements, pure substances, compounds, heterogeneous mixtures and solutions.Elements:

A pure substance that cannot be broken down any further.Pure Substance:

A substance that consists of only 1 kind of particle or element.Compound:

A pure substance that consists of more than one kind of element in a fixed proportion; can be written as a chemical formula.

Heterogeneous Mixture:A mixture the consists of substances that can be taken apart easily. Not in a uniform proportion. An example is sand with pebbles in it, or pizza.

Homogenous Mixture/Solution:A mixture that consists of substances that cannot be easily taken apart. There is a uniform proportion of the substances throughout and the different substances cannot be easily distinguished. An example is dissolving salt in water.

Identify properties of matter as physical or chemical:Physical Properties:

A characteristic or description of a substances, such as the state of matter at room temperature, hardness, melting and boiling points, odour, solubility and colour.

Chemical Property:The characteristic behaviour that occurs when a substance interacts with another to become a new substance.

Physical Change:Change in the size, form of a substance, but doesn’t change any chemical properties.

Chemical Change:The alteration of a substance into one or more different substances with different properties; also called chemical reaction.Colour ChangeHeat or Light is Given OffBubbles of gas are formed.A Precipitate is formedThe Change is difficult to reverse.

Define reactants and products:Reactants: The starting material of a chemical reaction.


Product: The substance produced in a chemical reaction.

Recognizing elements:Oxygen Gas: Indicated if a glowing splint busts into flames when placed in the gas.Carbon Dioxide:Indicated if limewater solution turns milky when gas bubbled into it. Flaming splint is

extinguished.Hydrogen Gas: Indicated if flaming splint causes ‘pop’ sound in gas.Water Vapour: Indicated if cobalt chloride test paper changes from blue to pink.

WHMIS Symbols:Workplace Hazardous Materials Information SystemMost automobile products at flammable and poisonous.Most cleaning products are corrosive and poisonous.Most paint products are flammable and poisonous.Most pesticides are just poisonous.

State the Periodic Law:Chemical elements are arranged according to their atomic number on the Periodic Table, thus they’re arranged into chemical families (columns) with similar chemical and physical properties.

Identify elements as belonging to selected chemical families: alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, halogens and noble gasesAlkali Metals:

Names all end with ium, ionic charge of 1+, outer orbits = 1e-. They’re shiny, silver metals and form compounds that are white solids, soluble in water.

Alkaline Earth Metals:Names all end with ium, ionic charge of 2-, outer orbits = 2e-. They’re shiny, silvery metals, form compounds that are insoluble in water.

Halogens:Names all end with ine, ionic charge of 1-, outer orbits = 7e-. They all have similar properties such as being non-metal, poisonous and very reactive.

Noble Gases:


Names all end with on, except for helium. Completely stable, have full valence shells, very unreactive and are in a gas form at room temperature.

List the properties of metals and non-metals:Property Metals Nonmetals

Lustre Shiny DullMalleability Malleable BrittleConductivity Conductor Mostly insulators

Reactivity with Acids Mostly yes NoState at Room Temperature Mostly solids Solids, liquids and gases

Bohr Model:The Bohr-Model of the atom states that an atom consists of 3 parts, negatively charged electrons, positively charged protons and neutrally charged neutrons.

Describe the ionic bond, list the properties of ionic compounds.Ionic Bond: An ionic bond is a bond formed between two ions, one positively charged, and another

one negatively charged. The two ions exchange ions to gain full valence shells to become stable.Only the valence shell is involved in any kind of bonding. The ending of the nonmetal become ide, like sodium chloride.

Ionic Compounds:Insoluble, the products of reactions between alkali metals and halogens, sometimes with alkaline earth metals.

Define the term valence electron.The electrons located on the valence shell.

Binary Ionic Compounds:Binary Ionic Compound:A compound that consists of 2 elements, held together by an ionic bond.

Positive Test for Ions:A positive test for a substance is one that clearly indicates the substance is present. A positive test for a dissolved ion may produce an insoluble precipitate or it may produce a coloured product or show conductivity.

Polyatomic Ions:Groups of atoms that stay together. More than one atom. Oxyacids are compounds formed when H+ combines with polyatomic ions containing oxygen.Nitrate = nitric acidNitrite = nitrous acid

Describe covalent bonding. List the properties of molecular compounds.Covalent Bond: A covalent bond is a bond between atoms where electrons are shared between two atoms.

There is no electron sharing, instead, both atoms share electrons as the become isoelectronic, or stable.

Molecular Compounds:Compounds that are created through covalent bonds, do not conduct electricity, are neutrally charged, and consist of most of the compounds in our bodies.


Prefixes:

Prefix #of AtomsMono 1

Di 2Tri 3

Tetra 4penta 5

Binary Covalent Bonds:H2O

Hydrocarbons:Hydrocarbons: Group of molecular compounds (binary) containing carbon and hydrogen.Main Uses: crude oil and natural gas; to power vehicles and heat homes.

Coal is used to generate electricity in power plants.Petrochemicals are used to make industrial chemicals and consumer products.

Define natural product, synthetic, monomer, polymer, plastic. State the pros and cons of synthetic products.Natural Product: A product that is obtained from natural sources, such as animals, plants or minerals.Synthetic: Artificially made materials that have been manufactured in the chemical industry.Monomer: A single molecule.Polymer: A long chain of molecules when smaller molecules links together.Plastic: A polymer that has been molded into a certain shape.Synthetic Pros:

Antibiotics save thousands of lives. Styrofoam cups use fewer resources than natural product cups. Saves tress. Synthetic vitamins are cheaper. Synthetic diapers are better than cotton, because they the baby dry. Plastics are light, more durable and easier to repair. Synthetic fertilizers can be made to exact specifications. New devices, such as prosthetics, computers and cell phones. Synthetics save natural resources. Superior sporting equipment. Natural products damage the environment, deforesting, animal slaughters and harvests.

Natural Pros: Safer drugs. Do not use up non-renewable petroleum resources, uses natural renewable resources. Losing weight by eating less is safer than synthetic drugs that may have side effects. Cotton diapers do not take up landfill space and are reusable. Natural foods contain many of the nutrients we need. Organic fertilizers allow farmers to recycle animal waste. Paper products are easier to recycle than plastic. Wood frames for houses are better because they are biodegradable and better insulators. Natural materials are safer to use. Wool carpets stabilize the humidity in houses by absorbing or releasing moisture.

Law of Conservation of Mass using the atomic theory.The Law of Conservation of Mass states that in a chemical reaction, the total mass of the reactants is always equal to the total mass of the products.

Atoms in chemical reaction cannot change.

Chemical Equations:What is the formula for the ionic compounds composed of Al and S?


3Al (s) + 2S (s) Al2S3 (s)

What is the crisscross rule?The crisscross rule is a rule designed for obtaining the formula of a compound. The following shows how to use the crisscross rule:

Predicting the product when sodium and chlorine combine:

Na1+ + Cl1-

Crisscross Rule: Write the ionic charges above the elements. Then crisscross the numbers, using the crisscrossed number as the number of that element in the product.

1+ 1- The formula is NaClNa Cl The total ionic charge is 1(1+) + 1(1-) = 0

What is a covalent bond?A covalent bond is a bond between atoms where electrons are shared between two atoms. There is no electron sharing, instead, both atoms share electrons as the become isoelectronic, or stable.

What are the products and reactants of this chemical reaction: copper + silver nitrate silver + copper(II) nitrate.

The reactants are copper and silver nitrate and the products are silver and copper(II) nitrate.

Write a word equation for HBr + NaOH H2O + NaBr.hydrogen bromide + sodium hydroxide water + sodium bromide

Balance the following equations: Ca + HBr CaBr2 + H2

CaCl2 + Al2(SO4)3 CaSO4 + AlCl3

Al + O2 Al2O3

KNO3 + HBr KBr + HNO3

Ca + 2HBr CaBr2 + H2

3CaCl2 + Al2(SO4)3 3CaSO4 + 2AlCl3

4Al + 3O2 2Al2O3

KNO3 + HBr KBr + HNO3

Use the symbols A, B, C, D, E to make equations that show synthesis reactions, decomposition, single displacement reactions and double displacement reactions.

Synthesis: A + B ABDecomposition: AB A + BSingle Displacement: A + BC B + ACDouble Displacement: AB + CD AD + CB

Decomposition:H2CO3 H2O + CO2

Ca(OH)2 CaO + H2OLi2CO3 Li2O + CO2

2KClO3 2KCl + 3O2

2HgO 2Hg + O2

2NaCl 2Na + Cl2

Write a skeleton equation and a balanced equation for the following reactions.hydrogen + oxygen water


carbon dioxide + water carbonic acid

H + O H2O2H + O H2O

CO2 + H2O H2CO3

Already balanced.

Define reaction rate. Investigate the factors that affect the rate of chemical reactions.Reaction Rate: Speed at which a reaction occurs. Various changes and factors affect the speed of a

reaction.

Factors/Variables: Temperature affects rate of reaction. The warmer the temperature, the more energy, the

more and faster the molecules move. Concentration of oxygen affects speed at which substances burn. Thus, the concentration of a solution affects the reaction rate. Increasing concentration results in increased reaction rate. When molecules are packed into a smaller space, they are more likely to collide as there

is a greater chance of molecules hitting each other. As the temperature increases, the speed of the molecule increases. The harder molecules hit each other, the greater the chance of breaking chemical bonds to

form new ones. Surface area is the amount of area of matter able to react. The greater the surface area, the more area there is for collisions to occur, thus increasing

reaction rate. The smaller the surface area, the less area there is for collisions to occur, thus decreasing

reaction rate. Catalyst is a substance that increases rate of chemical reactions without being consumed

by the reactant. Provides an easier way for reactions to occur. Does this by decreasing the amount of collision energy molecules need to break bonds

and form new ones. Increases the fraction of effective collisions. For example, instead of 1/1000 being

effective, a catalyst can change it to 1/10 change of being effective.

Explain the affect of a given factor in terms of the KMT and collision theory. When molecules in solids are heating, they move more quickly until they break apart and

form a liquid. If molecules move slowly, they bounce off when they collide, thus no reaction. If molecules move quickly, they hit harder, creating a chance that the hit breaks apart

bonds and allows new bonds to form. This is a very small chance though.

Collision Model states that: rate of reaction is affected by the number of collisions of reactant molecules and the reaction rate becomes faster with:

Increasing number of collision. Increasing chance that collisions are effective.

Describe the role of enzymes and catalysts in controlling the rate of reactions.Catalysts:

Increases the percentage of effective hits that break apart bonds.


Does not become consumed by the reactant. The exact rate can be controlled depending on what catalyst used and how much.

Enzymes: Biological catalysts. Substances that control the rate of reaction in our bodies. Allows us to eat many foods, like starch, lactose. Enzymes in our blood promote clotting.

Describe the role of energy in chemical reactions. Define endothermic and exothermic reactions.Role of Energy: Some reactions speed us as they as occur because of the heat released when reactions

occur. Reaction releases heat, temperature goes up, reaction rate goes up. (*like that perpetual motion machine Lisa built that kept speeding up*)

Endothermic: Chemical reactions that absorb heat energy from surroundings.Exothermic: Chemical reactions that release heat energy into the surrounding.

List properties of acids and bases.Acids:

Sour-tasting, soluble, conductors, contain hydrogen, corrosive. Release hydrogen atoms when dissolved in water, very reactive.

Bases:Bitter tasting, soluble, conductors, slippery when in aqueous solution. Release hydroxide ions when dissolved in water. React with proteins to break them down into smaller molecules.

Name and Write formulas for selected acids and bases.Acids: The formula begins with hydrogen: H2SO4

Bases: The formula contains hydroxide ions: NaOH

Use the pH scale to compare relative acid or base strength. Calculate ph.pH: Power of Hydrogen. A numerical scale, ranging from 0-14, used to measure how acidic or basic a

solution is. Zero representing very acidic and 14 representing very base. The scale can go beyond the common 0-14 range.Logarithmic scale, every change of one unit represents 10 fold effect.

Calculate:pH = -log10[H+]

Ex1. Calculate the pH with hydrogen concentration of 0.1m/L.H+ = 0.1pH = -log[0.1]pH = 1

Ex2. Calculate the power of hydrogen with a pH of 9.H+ = 10-pH

H+ = 10-9

H+ = 1-9 or 0.000000001

Define Indicator:A substance that turns a different colour with acids and bases. Indicates the presence of something.

Type Litmus Paper Bromthymol Blue Phenolphthalein MarbleAcid Red Yellow Clear Gas createdBase Blue Blue Pink/Purple clear

Define strong and weak acids and bases:Strong Acid: Concentrated acid, high corrosive, very low pH level.Weak Acid: Diluted, close to 7 on the pH scale, often found in foods like lemon juice.


Strong Base: Concentrated base, high corrosive, very high pH level.Weak Base: Diluted base, close to, but above 7 on the pH scale.

List the characteristics of metal and nonmetal oxides:Metal Oxides: Metal reacting with oxygen to become metal oxides. (rusting)

Metal oxides react in water to form bases.Nonmetal Oxide: Nonmetals react with oxygen to make nonmetal oxides.

React in water to form acids.

Explain how acid precipitation is produced:Nonmetals are released into the atmosphere, such as nitrogen, sulfur acid, carbon dioxide and such. They react with the oxygen in the air to become nonmetal oxides, then reacting with water vapour to form acids. This liquid acid then precipitates in the form of rain. Acid precipitation is classified as rain with a pH lower than 5.6. Destroys forests, kills aquatic life, the health of people, damages buildings and cars.

Investigate Acid Base neutralization reactions.Acids and bases react with each other to produce a salt and water.It’s a double displacement reaction.

Reactions of acids (Note: these equations are unbalanced and simply show types of reactions)• With bases acid + base salt + waterfor example, HCl + NaOH NaCl + H2O• With metalsacid + metal hydrogen + saltfor example, 2HCl + Mg H2 + MgCl• With metal oxides acid + metal oxide salt + waterfor example, HCl + MgO MgCl2 + H2O• With carbonates acid + carbonate salt + water + carbon dioxidefor example, HCl + Na2CO3 NaCl + H2O + CO2

Reactions of bases (Note these equations are unbalanced and simply show types of reactions) • With acids acid + base salt + waterfor example, HNO3 + NaOH NaNO3 + H2O• With salts base + salt salt + metal hydroxidefor example, NaOH + KNO3 NaNO3 + KOH

Combustion:Complete Combustion:

The products are carbon dioxide, water vapour and energyIncomplete Combustion:

The products are carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, carbon and water.

Physics Unit:


Apply the Laws of Exponents:104 x 107 = 1011 When multiplying, add the exponents together.105 / 104 = 101 When dividing, subtract the exponents.8 6 + 8 5 8 5 (8+1) 8-2 + 8-3 = 8-3(8+1) = 88 Factor out the like terms, that cancel out identical terms.

Express Answers to problems to the correct number of significant digits:Significant Digits: An indication of the certainty of a measurement; the number of certain digits,

plus one estimated digit in a measurement.Certainty of a digits determined by how many certain digits, PLUS 1, are obtained by a measuring device.

All digits in a stated value, except for leading zeros are significant digits. The position of the decimal is unimportant.

Express the numerical answers correctly rounded:Measurement Certainty

Significant digits307.0cm 4

61m/s 20.03m 10.5060 4

3.00 x 108m/s 3

Certainty Rule for Multiplying and Dividing:When multiplying or dividing, the answer has the same number of significant digits as the measurement with the fewest number of significant digits.

Rounding:If the digit after the digit to be retained as significant is a 5 or greater, round up.

Precision Rule for Adding and Subtracting:When adding and subtracting measured values of known precision, the answer has the same number of decimal places as the measured value with the fewest decimal places.

Convert measurements from one metric unit to another:Ex 1. Convert 95km/h to metres per second.

Average Speed: Vav = total distance divided by total time for trip.Vav = ∆d/∆t = d2 – d1

t2 – t1

Overall speed during the trip.

Instantaneous Speed:Speed at which an object is traveling at a particular instant. Isn’t affect by previous speed or how long it’s been traveling. Figured by finding the slope of the tangent of a velocity-time graph.

Constant Speed (Uniform Motion):Instantaneous speed that remains same over a period of time.

Position:Separation and direction from a reference point.

Vector Quantity:Quantity that involves a direction, has units and has direction.

Scalar Quantity:Quantity that involves only size.

Displacement:Change in position from d1 to d2


Drawing Single Vectors:State directionDraw line to stated scale, write size of vector next to line.Direction of line represents direction of vector, length of line represents size of vector.

Ex1.

∆d = d2 - d1

= +45 – 0 = 45m [F]

∆d = d2 – d1

= -20m – 0 = -20m or 20m [B]

Adding Vectors Along a Straight Line:Join each vector connecting ‘head’ end of one to the ‘tail’ end of the other. Find resultant by drawing an arrow from tail of the first vector to the head of the last vector.Resultant displacement ∆dr.Ex1.

∆dr = +250m + (-215m) = +35m [W]


Summary: State direction List givens, indicate variables to be solved. State scale. Draw one of the initial vectors to solve. Join 2nd and additional vector’s head to tail Draw and label resultant vector Measure resultant, convert length using scale. Write statements including size and direction of resultant vector.

Adding Vectors Algebraically:∆d1 = 250m [W] = -250m∆d2 = 175m [E] = 175m∆dr = ∆d1 + ∆d3

= (-250) + (175) = -75m = 75m [W]

Summary: Indicate which direction, +, which – List givens, indicate variable to be solved Write equation for adding vectors. Substitute numbers with correct signs into equations, solve. Write statement with answer.

Combined Method:

∆dr = ∆d1 + ∆d2 + ∆d3

= (-30m) + (-50m) + (+60)= -20m= 20m [W]

Summary: State positives and negatives Sketch labeled vector diagram Write equation for adding vectors. Substitute numbers into equations, solve Write statement.

Adding Vectors at an Angle:


Ex1. Person walks 15m[E] then 20m[S] then 30m[W], what is his resultant displacement?

SOH CAH TOA

C2 = a2 + b2

= 202 + 152

= 400 + 225= 625

c = 25

sin = opp/hyp= 15/25= 0.6= 37

Resultant displacement = 25m [S37W]Angle must always be inside triangle.

GRASS:


Given; state given variablesRequired; state required variablesAnalysis; state formula, make any rearrangementsSolution; show all steps in solving the equationStatement; make a statement

Distance:Length of path traveled, a scalar quantity

Displacement:Change in position, vector quantity.

Uniform Motion:Constant speed or constant velocity; car in cruise control.

The speed of an object is the slope of the line on a distance-time or position-time graph.

Position-Time Graph:Curved line represents changing velocity, because the slope of the line is changing.To find instantaneous velocity at a particular point, draw tangent crossing graph at that point, find slope.

Displacement:Area under line on a velocity-time graph.

Velocity:Speed in stated direction; displacement divided by time.

Average Velocity:The resultant displacement divided by total time from start to finish; overall rate of change of position.

Instantaneous Velocity:Change in position over extremely short period of time, a tangent to the curve on a position-time graph.

1. Start from reference point, moving east at a constant velocity.2. Stopped walking for a period of time.


3. Starts walking home at the same speed as before (similar slope), but in opposite direction.4. Walks past home, continues west for a while.5. Slows down before stopping and turning back east for home.6. Return to original position.

Acceleration:Rate of change in speed (scalar) or velocity (vector).

Velocity-Time Graph:

1. Runs north at a constant speed.2. Sudden stop.3. Remains stationary for a period of time.4. Sudden change of velocity.5. Maintains constant velocity.6. Suddenly changes velocity to a slower one before stopping.

% of Error:your value – accepted value x 100 accepted value

Relative Motion in One Dimension:A person walks towards the back of a boat at 1.5m/s. The current is traveling against the direction of the boat’s travel at 5m/s. If the boat is developing a speed of 8m/s, find the velocity of the person with respect to the ground.

V = (+8m/s) + (-1.5m/s) + (-5m/s)V = 1.5m/s wrt to the ground.

Ecology:This Entire Section is based upon my personal notes and the textbook with no guidance from a Learning Outcomes Sheet. Use at Your Own Risk.Ecology: The study of the relationship of organisms with their environments and with each other.Abiotic Factors: Non-living parts of the environment, such as water, air, soil, light and temperature.Biotic Factors: The living parts of the environment, such as plants, animals and rotting logs.Ecosystem: Interaction between biotic and abiotic factors within a definite boundary, such as a pond,

meadow, forest or ocean. All parts of an ecosystem are interrelated. Each part is affect by all other parts. If one part changes, all other parts will change as well.

Climate: Generally determines the nature of an ecosystem. A dry and hot climate will result in plant and animal life adapted to such an environment.Creatures in ecosystems such as rain forests grow larger than in other areas because there’s more water and food, resulting in larger creatures.


Structure of an Ecosystem: Biotic PartsHabitat: The place where an organism lives. The habitat of an earthworm is rich soil.Niche: The total role of an organism in its community. The niche of female mosquitoes is to

suck blood and lay eggs.Producers/Autotroph:

Organisms that make their own food. All plants are autotrophs as they use photosynthesis.

Consumers/Heterotroph:Organisms that cannot make their own food and must feed on other things.

Decomposer/Saprophyte:Organisms that break down and feed on non-living organic matter, such as dead plants and animals.

Food Chain: a step-by-step sequence linking organisms that feed on each otherProducers: beginning of the food chain (lowest level), food source, generally plantsConsumers: continuation of the food chain, containing animalsHerbivores: animals that eat only plantsCarnivores: animals that feed off other animalsOmnivores: animals that eat both plants and animalsDetritus: waste from plants and animals, including dead remains, detritus food

chains are critical in recycling matter in the ecosystemDecomposers: organisms that break down detritus to get nutrients for their own

use, while also releasing nutrients into the soil and water, plants and algae growoff these nutrients

Food Chain and Food Web:Grass Producer 1st Trophic LevelRabbit 1st Order Consumer 2nd Trophic Level

HerbivoreRed Fox 2nd Order Consumer 3rd Trophic Level

1st Order CarnivoreLynx 3rd Order Consumer 4th Trophic Level

2nd Order CarnivoreCougar 4th Order Consumer 5th Trophic Level

3rd Order CarnivoreTop Predator

Food Web:

Human Impact On Extinction:


Loss of Habitat: The growth of cities, agriculture, human activities and industry effect the habitat and can result in drastic population changes. Something as small as a highway separating a woodlot from a pond or lake can kill a lot of frogs.

Air and Water Quality:Human population can effect the air and water quality. Many creatures cannot survive. An example if acid rain.

Ultraviolet Radiation:The thinning of the ozone layer by humans allow more UV radiation to reach us. Many organisms such as frogs cannot handle this kind of radiation, resulting in serious cell damage.

Climate Changes:Human activity of many kinds can change the climate in an area, changing swamps and bogs into fields for example. On a greater scale, global warming.

Classifying Species at Risk:Extinct: A species that is no longer found anywhere.Endangered: A species that is close to extinction in a large area.Extirpated: Any species that no longer exist in one specific location, but can still be found in other

areas.Threatened: Any species that is likely to become endangered if factors that make it vulnerable are not

reversed.Vulnerable: Any species that is at risk because of low or declining numbers at the fringe of its range

or in some restricted area.Wolves: Wolves were hunted to near extinction on North America because they were blamed as a

competitor with humans for bison and other big game. They were also viewed as a danger to human life and livestock. The result were increased elk population. Wolves have been reintroduced into some area in order to restore balance.

Ecotones: Areas between ecosystems that act as a transition, such as the edge between a lake and a forest.

Ecosystem:The more biodiversity an ecosystem has, the stronger it is. This is because if a creature disappears, there are other creatures that can take over its niche and restore balance. However, there are many creatures that area extremely important, like the wolf. With their disappearance, elk populations soared because there were no other creatures that could kill them. However, with wolves gone, coyote population soared, resulting in a reduction of small mammals (the prey of coyotes).

Energy Movement:

Pyramid of Numbers:1 cougar must eat several lynx who must eat several red foxes who each must eat many rabbits who eat lots of grass. As you go down the food chain, the numbers decrease. However, this pyramid only counts numbers.

Pyramid of Biomass:Each trophic level shows the total mass of the organism.

Pyramid of Energy:Each trophic level shows the total energy provided by the organisms. Since all organisms need energy, this is the most useful.

Thermodynamics:The first law of thermodynamics states that although energy can be transformed from one form to another, it cannot be created or destroyed.The second law of thermodynamics states that during any energy transformation, some of the energy is converted into an unusable form, most thermal energy (heat) that cannot be passed on. Each time energy is transformed, some energy is lost from the system. As a result, the amount of energy available in each step of a chain of transformation is always less than the amount of energy available at the previous step.

Cycling of Matter in Ecosystems:


Organic Substances: Substances that always contain atoms of carbon and hydrogen.

Inorganic Substances: Substances that does not contain carbon and hydrogen.

The materials in organisms are limited to the atoms and molecules on the planet. Thus, all the atoms and molecules in us have been recycled over and over again. This recycling comes from food and eating. The food we take in is broken down and sometimes becomes a part of us.

Pesticides: Pesticides are chemicals designed to kill pests, organisms that we consider harmful and

annoying Our first pesticides were chemicals such as sulfur, mercury, arsenic and lead but these

were poisonous to us as well. DDT is fat soluble, but no water soluble. Thus, the poison stayed in the fat of the animal

that eat the crops. This moves up the food chain to creatures such as owls that eat a lot of rabbits that eat a lot of grass. This process is referred to as bioamplificaiton.

Recently, many pests have genetic resistances to pesticides. Because the original pesticides killed off 90% of the pests. The remaining 10% had some resistance to the pesticide and reproduced. This new generation of pests all had resistances.

Carbon Cycle:Photosynthesis: Plants take in carbon dioxide, water and light to make food and release oxygen.6CO2 + 6H2O + light C6H12O6 + 6O2

carbon dioxide + water + light = glucose + oxygenC6H12O6 + 6O2 6H2O + 6CO2

Carbon is held in may forms before being released back into the cycle, this can include, rocks, the atmosphere, living organisms and the ocean.

Inorganic Carbon Reservoirs:Stored at CO2 or some other carbon gas in the atmosphere.Dissolved carbon dioxide in oceans.Carbon in soil.Carbon in rocks, most inorganic carbon is found here.

Organic Carbon Reservoirs:Help in the bodies of living things.Returned to the carbon cycle once the organism dies.Carbon atoms can still be locked in dead bodies though, such as fossil fuels.Fossil fuels are the dead bodies of life that are trapped in a low-oxygen environment with tremendous pressure exerted on them for millions of years.

Nitrogen Cycle: Nitrogen atoms are needed by cells to make proteins. Nitrogen is also needed for the synthesis of DNA. 79% of the Earth’s atmosphere is nitrogen. For nitrogen to be useful for humans, nitrogen has to be in the nitrate ion, NO3

-

Nitrogen is converted into nitrates through a process called nitrogen fixation.

Detrification:The process through which nitrates are broken down into nitrites, then into nitrogen gas and released into the atmosphere by bacteria that do not require oxygen.


Phosphorous Cycle: Phosphorous is a key element of cell membranes, in the molecules that help release

chemical energy, and in the making of long molecules of DNA and in the calcium phosphate of bones.

Living things divert phosphates from the normal rock cycle. Phosphorous is water soluble so gets washed away and dissolved out of rock. This phosphate is absorbed by photosynthetic organisms, such as plants and algae in the

sea. Once into these producers, the phosphate into the food chain and is cycled.

Nutrients: Nutrients are chemicals that are essential to living things.The rate of nutrient cycling depends on the rate of decomposition. Decomposition is faster in the humid, hot climate of the rain forest than in the arctic, so the nutrient cycle is faster in the tropics.Temperature and oxygen are the two most important factors that affect the rate of decomposition.

Population Growth Patterns:Natality: The number of offspring of a species born in one year.Mortality: The number of individuals of a species that die in a year.Immigration: The number of individuals of a species moving into an existing population.Emigration: The number of individuals of a species moving out of an existing population.

Open and Closed Populations:Open Population: Populations that include natality, mortality, immigration and

emigration.Closed Population: Population that includes only natality and mortality.

Population Pyramids:An ascending pyramid symbolizes population growth.A less steep pyramid symbolizes stabilizing growth.A block pyramid symbolizes population decline.

Limits on Population:Biotic Potential: The maximum number of offspring that a species could produce, if resources

were unlimited. Regulated by 4 factors.Birth Potential: The number of offspring per birth.Capacity for Survival:

The number of offspring that reach reproductive age.Procreation: The number of times that a species reproduces each year.


Length of Reproductive Life:The age of sexual maturity and the number of years that an individual can reproduce.

Limiting Factors: The environment provides factors that prevent populations from attaining their biotic potential.

Factors that Cause Population Increase Factors that Cause Poplulation Decrease

Favourable LightFavourable TemperatureFavourable Chemical Environment

Too much or too little lightToo cold or too warm

Unfavourable Chemical EnvironmentSufficient Food

Low number of ineffective predatorsFew or weak diseases and parasites

Ability to compete for resources

Insufficient foodHigh number of highly effective predators

Many or strong parasites and diseasesInability to successfully compete for

resourcesCarrying Capacity:

The maximum number of individuals of a species that can be supported indefinitely by an ecosystem.Populations can exceed this maximum for a short while, but the population will soon crash due to lack of food, overcrowding and disease and increased predators.

Limits of Tolerance:Law of the Minimum: The nutrient in least supply is the one that limits growth.Law of Tolerance: An organism can survive within a certain range of an abiotic factor; above and

below the limit it cannot survive. The greater this range of tolerance, the greater the organism’s ability to survive.

Density Dependent and Independent Factors:Density Independent Factors:

Affect the members of a population regardless of population density. Fire and floods are examples of this.

Density Dependent Factors:Affect a population because of the density of the population. Food supply, water quality, sunlight, disease, and territory are density dependent factors.

Biomes: A collection of ecosystems that are similar or related, usually in the type of plants

Sustainable System: A system that survives and functions over time

Tundra: cold desert, limited precipitation, small number of organisms most important abiotic factor is the shortness of the growing season

no large trees (see below)permafrost – layer of soil that never thawsactive layer – layer above the permafrost, thaws in summer

- plants have short rootsBoreal Forest: south of the tundra (also known as the taiga), dominated by

conifers, found in every province, comprises 80% of the forestharsh climate, rapid changes in temperatureno permafrostacidic soildrastic changes by seasons

Temperate Deciduous Forest: south of the eastern Boreal forests, dominated bydeciduous trees, maples and oakswide ecotone from Borealdeciduous trees take over conifers gradually moving southwardmost precipitation


biodiversityGrassland: same latitude as deciduous forests, extends from eastern Manitoba to the Rockies

not enough water to support treesprevious deliberate fires to maintain the grasslandsmost fertile soil in the world

deciduous forests – 3 levels of supportSoil: Made by breaking down bedrock, broken down by rain, wind, frost, snow and living

things.Litter: uppermost layer of soil, decomposed leaves or grassesTopsoil: second layer, small particles of rock, air, water, humus, rich supply of mineralsHumus: decomposing plant and animal matter in the topsoilSubsoil: below topsoil, stones mixed with small amounts organic matter

lighter colour, lack of humusBedrock: beneath the soil, layer of rock

soil began as bedrock, but was ‘weathered’ over timeSurface Water: collected precipitation flowing above ground, such as lakes, ponds, riversGround Water: rain, melted snow, etc that seems under the groundPercolation: ground water pulled down by gravity

larger the particles comprising the soil, greater the spaces, faster the rateWater Table: boundary between the area where ground water is percolating down and

the saturated layerLeaching: the process by which water seeps down, but carries organic matter and

minerals along with itsoil pH determined by the nature of the rock it was formed fromfossil fuel burning releases sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides

Acid Deposition: the acidic compounds that sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides form in the atmosphere and fall down to earth

Monoculture: ecosystem with only one plantdesigned to produce a single foodincubators for pests

Agricultural Technology: Only 11% of the earth is suitable for farming. New technologies will improve this.

Watering the Desert:Irrigating water to desert like areas can produce rich, fertile areas for farming. Water being brought in can evaporate, leaving the salt content behind, eventually making the soil too salty for crops.Also very expensive.

Fertilizing the Soil:Using more nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium, fertilizers can drastically increase the amount of food grown.Nutrients can run into the ground water and into surface water in lakes and river, stimulating algae growth.

Abiotic Factors in Lakes:Littoral Zone: Area extending out from the lakeshore to the point where plants rooted in the

bottom of the lake can no longer be found.Limnetic Zone: Area of open lake where there is enough light for photosynthesis to occur,

plankton is often found here.Profundal Zone:Not found in ponds, is below the limnetic zone. In most lakes, only dead plants

and animals are available here. This material is broken down by bacteria or by other bottom feeding invertebrates and fish, called deitrus feeders.


Changes in Lake Ecosystems:Oligotrophic:

Typically deep and cold lakes. Low nutrient levels, limiting the amount of producers. Due to low level of organisms, very clear water.

Eutrophic: Shallow and warm lakes. Have a lot of nutrients. Often murky due to the amount of life.

Gradually, oligotrophic lakes become eutrophic lakes through a process called eutrophication. This process can take hundreds or thousands of years. Humans often accelerate this process by adding nutrient rich waste such as waste and fertilizers.

Seasonal Variations in Canadian Lakes:Winter:

Lakes are covered with ice. Prevents atmospheric oxygen from dissolving in the water. Water is arranged by density underneath the ice. If the ice is not transparent or covered by snow, all life underneath will life, as there can

be photosynthesis and no oxygen.Spring:

The ice breaks and oxygen can dissolve back in again. The top layer of ice melts into water and falls below the less dense water, carrying it’s

important supply of oxygen with it, this is call turnover.Summer:

Layers of water are created again, coldest water is at the bottom. Epilimnion, the layer of water that warms up in summer. Hypolimnion, the lower layer that stays at a low temperature. Thermocline, a narrow zone in which the temperature drops rapidly from warm to cold. The two layers do not mix, so there is little movement of oxygen. Organisms living in the hypolimnion rely on the oxygen brought down from the spring

turnover. Organisms in the epilimnion are vulnerable to hot spells where the water hold little

oxygen. The amount of oxygen held by water is proportional to the temperature, the hotter it is,

the less oxygen the water can hold.Fall:

The top layer cools and falls down, creating another turnover.

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