SobreviviendoaFloreciendo:InsightsonUrbanAgricultureinSanJuan,PuertoRicoFromtheWomenImmersed

By

AnaMariaZepeda THESIS

Submittedinpartialsatisfactionoftherequirementsforthedegreeof

MASTEROFSCIENCE

in

InternationalAgriculturalDevelopment

inthe

OFFICEOFGRADUATESTUDIES

ofthe

UNIVERSITYOFCALIFORNIA

DAVIS

Approved:

AmandaCrump,Chair

ClareCannon

SusyZepeda

CommitteeinCharge

2020

i

2

AbstractItiswidelyknownthatthemajorityofhumansthroughouttheworldtakingpartin

urbanagriculturearewomen(FAO,2013).However,notenoughisknownaboutwhythe

majorityofthehumanstakingpartinthisprojectarewomen;Whataretheirexperiences,

thebenefitsandchallengestheyencounter,thesignificanceoftheurbanfarms,what

approachestheyusefortheirfarming,andhowurbanagriculturebenefitstheir

communitiesinthefaceofadiminishinglocalagriculturalproduction.Moreover,this

researchfocusesonLatina’sbecauseLatina’sareimportantfixturesoffoodsystems

throughouttheworld.

Throughurbanagriculture,womeninPuertoRicoarecreatingaresistancetothe

import-orientedagriculturalsystemtheirleaderscontinuetoperpetuateandsupport.

Sincethe1960’sPuertoRicohasbeenaimportingamajorityoftheirfood,in2017itwas

estimatedthatthearchipelagoimported90-95percentoftheirfood(Carro-Figueroa2002;

Robles&Sandurani,2017).Asaresult,thefewurbanfarms(huertosurbanos)provide

someoftheonlylocallyproducedfreshproduceforPuertoRicans.Dependencytheory

supportstheideathatthecolonialrelationshipbetweentheUnitedStatesandPuertoRico

maintainsthearchipelagodependentonimportinggoodsfromtheUnitedStatesandthe

archipelagoservesastax-exemptionparadiseforAmericanbusinesses.

InJuly2019,IvisitedPuertoRicoduringthistimeIinterviewedninewomenwho

areinvolvedinurbanagricultureindifferentcapacities:volunteers,projectimplementers,

managers,andprofessors.

Theoverallobjectiveofthisresearchwastounderstand:

• Therolethathuertosurbanosplayinthelivesofwomenandthecommunities

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Theresearchquestionsaskedinordertouncoverthiswere:

• Whatarethewomen’slivedexperiencesbeinginvolvedinhuertos?

• Whataresomeofthechallengesandbenefitsexperiencedbywomeninvolvedin

huertos?

• Whatisthesignificanceofthesehuertostothewomeninvolved?

• WhatarewomenperspectivesandexperienceswiththePuertoRicofoodsystem?

• Whatislostorcouldbelostintheeventofnaturaldisaster,inrelationtothe

huerto?

Thefindingsdemonstratethatmanywomenreallyenjoyurbanfarmingandthatthis

activityprovidesfresh,healthy,andsafeproducefortheirfamiliesandcommunities.Local

consumersareeagertobuyproducegrowninPuertoRico;howevermarketinsecurityand

smallerproductionmakesthisdifficultforurbanfarmers.Localhuertosselltheirproduceat

muchlowerpricesthanthegrocerystores. Almostall thewomenfarmersexperienceda

declineinparticipationofvolunteersafewyearsaftertheestablishmentofthehuertosand

evenmoreafterHurricaneMaria.Howevermanywomendescribedthatthehuertosarevery

important for the community, as a space for food cultivation and production as well as

communitygatheringcenter.Throughurbanagriculture,womeninPuertoRicoarecreating

aresistancetotheimport-orientedagriculturalsystemtheirleaderscontinuetoperpetuate

andsupport.

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Acknowledgements

Iwouldfirstliketoexpressmygratitudetomythesiscommittee:Dr.Cannon,Dr.Crump,andDr.Zepeda;thankyouforyoursupport,advice,andguidancethroughoutthisprocesses.Iamsoluckytohaveacommitteemadeupofkind,helpful,andinsightfulindividuals.Thankyouformakingthisprocesssmoothforafirst-gengradstudentlikeme!Amanda,Ifeelsoluckytohavebeenyoufirstmentee.Thetimeandeffortyouputintoeachoneofyourstudentsdoesn’tgowithoutnotice.Thankyouforenvisioningakinderandmoreequitableacademiaandworkingtomakethathappen. IwouldalsolikethankAngieforherdedicationtotheIADprogramandallthehardworksheputsintosupportalltheIADstudents.Thankyouforalwaysbeingsupportiveandforthebestconversationsinyouroffice. ThisresearchwouldhavenotbeenpossiblewithouttheworkthatDr.MariaCalitxta-Ortizandherteamdid.IamgratefulthatDr.Calitxa-Ortizguidedmeonthisprojectandconnectedmewithintreviewees.

Eva,MuchasgraciasporelapoyoyporsermiguíaenSanJuan.Graciasporhabermedadolabienvenidaconlosbrazosabierto.¡Sequeteniasmuchascosaspendientesenesosdías,perosiemprehicistetiempoparajuntarnos! Muchasgraciasalasmujeresquefueronpartedelasentrevistas.Graciasportomarseeltiempoparamientrevistayenseñarmesushuertos.SonungrupodemujeresfuertesybondadosasqueestánhaciendoungrantrabajoparatodoslosPuertoRiqueñosymesientomuybendecidadehabertenidolaoportunidaddeaprenderdeustedes.Esteproyectonohubierasidoposiblesinustedes. Meghanthanksforyoursupportandfriendship,thoughouttheyears.Ifeelsoluckytobegoingthroughthisgraduateschooljourneywithyou.Youarethebest!

BitsIdon’tthinkIwouldhavebeenabletogothroughthisprocesseswithoutyourconstantsupportandpositiveoutlookonlife.Thanksforvisitingmeonweekendsandmakingmelaughnonstop.

Finalmente,muchasgraciasamifamilia-mimama,papa,ymihermano.Amihermanoporsuamistad.Mesientoorgullosadesertuhermana.Graciasamimamaypapaporsiemprehacernossentirsuapoyoyamortodoslosdías.Elapoyodeustedeshasidodesdequeyoerachiquita,cuandomellevabanalibreríaporquesabíanquemeencantabaleer.Esporeseapoyoquehoysoyunamujerqueleencantaleeryaprender.Amipapa,graciasporenseñarmeaserunapersonatrabajadora,humilde,yporiluminarmecuriosidaddelmundo.Amimama,ademásdesermimejoramiga,ereslamejormamaqueDiosmepudierahaberbendecidocon.Tusiemprehassidounejemplodeunapersonaquesiemprepudeverlascosaspositivasencualquierasituaciónymehasensenadocomogozardelavida.Ademásdetodoestoeresungranejemplodeeltipodemujerqueyoquisieraser.¡Graciasportodoslosgirlsweekendsquepasamosjuntasenmiapartamento,sondemismemoriasfavoritas!MilGraciasatodos!

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TableofContents

INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................. 7

LITERATUREREVIEW ..................................................................................................................... 13

PUERTORICO ...................................................................................................................................... 13 URBANANDPERI-URBANAGRICULTURE ................................................................................................ 15 URBANAGRICULTUREANDLATINAMERICA ............................................................................................ 16 URBANANDPERI-URBANAGRICULTUREANDWOMEN ............................................................................ 18 GENDERANDDISASTER ........................................................................................................................ 19

THEORETICALFRAMEWORKS ........................................................................................................ 22

DEPENDENCYTHEORY .......................................................................................................................... 22 FEMINISTTHEORETICALFRAMEWORK ................................................................................................... 25

POSITIONALITY ............................................................................................................................... 26

RESEARCHOBJECTIVES ................................................................................................................... 27

METHODS ......................................................................................................................................... 28

URBANFARMERSINTERVIEWED ............................................................................................................ 30

FINDINGS .......................................................................................................................................... 34

URBANAGRICULTURE ........................................................................................................................... 34 COMMUNITYRESPONSETOESTABLISHMENT .................................................................................................. 34 PERCEPTIONSOFURBANAGRICULTURE .......................................................................................................... 35 FUTUREOFURBANAGRICULTURE .................................................................................................................. 36 SELLINGOFPRODUCTS .................................................................................................................................. 37 QUALITYOFPRODUCTS ................................................................................................................................. 38 VOLUNTEERS ................................................................................................................................................ 39 WHATTHEWOMENENJOY ............................................................................................................................. 40 YOUTHINVOLVEMENT ................................................................................................................................... 41 PUERTORICANFOODSYSTEMANDFOODSOVEREIGNTY .......................................................................... 43 FOODSYSTEMINPUERTORICO ...................................................................................................................... 43 WOMENINURBANAGRICULTUREINPUERTORICO ......................................................................................... 44 FOODRESILIENCY ................................................................................................................................ 45 COLLABORATION .......................................................................................................................................... 45 CAPACITYBUILDING ..................................................................................................................................... 45 SUSTAINABILITY ........................................................................................................................................... 46 COMMUNITY ........................................................................................................................................ 46

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PARTICIPANTCHANGESOVERTIME ................................................................................................................ 46 SIGNIFICANCEOFWHATISGROWN ................................................................................................................ 47 WHOTHESPACEBELONGSTO ....................................................................................................................... 48 SIGNIFICANCEOFSHAREDSPACE ................................................................................................................... 48 SUPPORTOFGOVERNMENTANDHURRICANEMARIA ............................................................................... 49 RESPONSETOHURRICANEMARIA .................................................................................................................. 49 SUPPORTOFGOVERNMENT ........................................................................................................................... 52

DISCUSSION ...................................................................................................................................... 52

CONCLUSION .................................................................................................................................... 58

REFERENCES .................................................................................................................................... 60

APPENDIX ........................................................................................................................................... 70

APPENDIX 1: SURVEY QUESTIONS .............................................................................................................. 70

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Introduction

Urbanandperi-urbanagricultureisdefinedasthegrowingofhorticulturaltrees,

food,otheragriculturalproducts,andraisinglivestockwithinthebuiltareaorthefringes

ofacitybytheResourceCenterforUrbanAgricultureandForestry(RUAF,n.d.).Urban

agricultureisasystemthatpeoplelivinginurbanareasusetoincreasetheiraccessto

fresh,healthy,andsafefood.TheFoodandAgricultureOrganizationoftheUnitedNations

(FAO)foundthatin1999,800millionpeoplegloballywereengagedinsomesortofurban

orperi-urbanagriculturewithinandsurroundingurbanboundaries(2014).PertheFAO,

3.5billionpeoplearecurrentlylivingincitiesandby2030thatnumberisestimatedtobe5

billion(UnitedNationsSustainableDevelopmentGoals,n.d).Specifically,inLatinAmerica

andtheCaribbean,theurbanpopulationhasincreasedtoalmostonebillion,becomingthe

mosturbanizedregionintheworld(FAO,2014).Urbanpovertyhasremainedhigh,as80

percentofthepopulationofthisregionliveintownsandcities(FAO,2014).TheFAO

predictsthatoftheurbanpoor,women,andchildrenareparticularlyvulnerabletofood

insecurityduetotheirdependenceonfoodpurchasesandvariationsinfoodprices(FAO,

n.d.).Foodinsecuritycanalsobearesultfromadiminishingagriculturalsectorand

importingthemajorityoffoodconsumed,muchlikeinPuertoRico.Furthermore,not

enoughisknownaboutstrategiesused,especiallybyLatinas,togrowtheirownfoods.

PuertoRicoisanarchipelagointheCaribbeanSea(Mathews,Wagenheim,

Wagenheim,2020).Itisaself-governingCommonwealthoftheUnitedStates(Mathews,

Wagenheim,Wagenheim,2020).In2019,itwasestimatedthat3,193,694peoplelivedin

PuertoRico(UnitedStatesCensus,2020).Specifically,intheSanJuanMunicipality,there

wereanestimated318,441residents,whichis10percentoftheoverallpopulation.

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(UnitedStatesCensus,2020).Approximately93.6%ofthePuertoRicanpopulationlivesin

urbanareas(FAOSTAT,2018).

Thishighurbanpopulationexertspressureontheagriculturalfoodsystem,aswell

asotherindustries.Currently,PuertoRicoimportsanestimated85percentoftheir

agriculturalproducts(Robles&Sadurini,2017).Economicdevelopmentfocusingmostly

onmanufacturingcausedmanyPuertoRicanstomovefromthecountrysidetocitiesfor

jobs.ThisresultedinPuertoRicoimportingthemajorityofitsfoodsupplyovertime.

Despiteeconomicdevelopmentandhavingrelativelyhighersocialandeconomic

conditionsincomparisontootherLatinAmericanandCaribbeancountries,PuertoRicohas

highlevelsofpovertyandfoodsecurity(Mathews,Wagenheim,Wagenheim,2020).Itis

estimatedthatthemedianhouseholdincomeinPuertoRicofrom2014-2018was$20,166

(UnitedStatesCensus,2020).Comparatively,theU.S.statewiththelowestmedian

householdincome,Mississippi,was$43,567(UnitedStatesCensus,2020).Inaddition,

approximately43percentofpeopleinPuertoRicoliveinpoverty(UnitedStatesCensus,

2020).In2015,itwasestimatedthat32percentofPuertoRicansovertheageof18faced

foodinsecurity(Santiago-Torresetal.,2019).Incomparison,in2018theUnitedStates

DepartmentofAgriculturefoundthat11.1%ofhouseholdsfacedfoodsecurityatsome

pointduringtheyear(USDA,2018).Thisnumberisanaverageandcommunitiesofcolor

experiencefoodinsecurityatamuchlargerscale.In2018theUSDAfoundthat22%of

blackhouseholdsand16%ofHispanichouseholdsfacedfoodinsecurity;Pardillaand

colleagues(2014)foundthat76%oftheirsamplesizeintheNavajonationexperienced

foodinsecurity(Coleman-JensenA.,Gregory,C.,&Rabbitt,M.,2019).Genderisanother

wayinwhichfoodinsecuritydiffersinPuertoRicoandtheUnitedStates.Researchers

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foundthatPuertoRicanwomenfacedlargerratesoffoodinsecurity(47.6%)thanmen

(38.7%)(Santiago-Torresetal.,2019).IntheUnitedStates,womenalsofacelargerratesof

foodinsecuritythanmen,howevercurrentlythedataisnotseperatdbyrace,wecan

expectthatwomenofcolortofacehigherratesoffoodinsecurityduetothealreadyhigh

prevelanceoffoodinsecurityinmarginalizedcommunities.

Anotherformoffoodinsecuritymarginializedcommunitiesfaceisfooddeserts.

Generallyspeakingafooddessertisdefiniedasaneighborhoodthatlacksaccesstohealthy

foodsourcesandmayhavehigherpresenceofliquorstoresandfastfoodoptions(USDA,

n.d.).Fooddesertsarealsocommoninmarginalizedcommunites,forexampleonaverage

residentsoftheNavajoNationdriveonaverage3hoursforgroceriesPartnersinHealth,

2018).Thismeansthatthesecommunitieshaveageneralsenseofinstabilitywhenit

comestofood,theyneedtocarveout3hoursoftheirdaytogoandaquiregroceries,ifthey

don’ttheymaynothaveanythingtoeat.SimilarlyPuertoRicansalsofaceageneralsense

ofinstabilityandvulnerabilityduetothehighvolumeoffoodinports.(Santiago-Torreset

al.,2019)Thisinstabilityisgeneratedfrompeoplenotbeingsecureinthequantityof

productsavailableatgrocerystores.Inaddition,theonlywayofgettinganyproductsinto

PuertoRicoisonairplanesoronshipssoifsomethinghappenstoairportsordocks,food

availabilityinPuertoRicoisthreatened(Irizarry-Ruiz,2016).AfterHurricaneMaria,

PuertoRicanairportsandportswereseverelyaffected.Theairportterminalsfloodedand

therewasdebrisontherunways,portsdidn’timmediatelyopenandoncetheydid,they

werenotabletoworkatcapacityduetolackoffuel,affectedroads,andlackoflabor

(Dorsey,2017;Meyer,2017).Thismeansthatnotonlywerepeoplenotabletogetfoodbut

theywerealsonotabletodrivetostores,hospitals,andotheressentialservicesduetothe

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lackoffuelandaffectedroads.Thelossofjobsmeansthatpeoplehadnoideawhen,where,

andhowtheyweregoingtogettheirnextpaycheck.

Althoughunknown,wecanbeexpectlikeotherdisasters,thatafterHurricane

Maria,peopleexperiencedgreaterratesoffoodinsecurity.TheSurveyofFoodSecurityin

PuertoRicotookplacein2015;2yearsbeforeHurricaneMaria.OrvilleM.Disdier,

ExecutiveDirectoroftheInstituodeEstadísticas,predictedthatinthemonthsdirectlyafter

HurricaneMaria,ratesoffoodinsecuritywereevenhigher(VeraRosado,2019).Itisclear

thatPuertoRicansfacehigherratesoffoodinsecuritycomparedtotheaverageUS

household.Inaddition,thisstateoffoodinsecurityhasmorethanlikelyincreasedafter

HurricaneMaria.Itislikelythatthegenderedeffectsoffoodinsecurityremainedthesame

afterHurricaneMaria,withwomenbeingmorefoodinsecurethanmen.Thisgendered

effectoffoodinsecuritybeforeandafterHurricaneMariaisimportantbecausethis

highlightsthevulnerabilitythatwomenfaceinsocietybeforeandafterdisasters.For

example,womenwhoaresinglemotherswillbedisaproartnelyaffectedafteranatural

disasterincomparisontoanuclearfamilyof4.InPuertoRicothisisfurtherstratified

becausewomeninPuertoRicoaremorelikelytobetheprimaryearnersintheirfamilies.

Colón-Warren(2010)arguesthattheemploymentofPuertoRicanwomenhasincreased

autonomy,equity,andshiftsingenderroles,howeverithasalsoresultedinmorewomen

becomingtheprimaryearnerevenifthewomenismarried.Thisshiftinprimaryearner

statusdoesnottypicallychangeawomen’sworkloadathomeresultinginmoreworkand

pressureforwomeninPuertoRico(Lyon,Mutersbaugh,&Worthen,2016).However,inher

work,Colón-Warren(2010)foundthatmanywomenvaluedtheirjobsforothersocial

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benefitssuchasanincreasedsenseofpersonalworth,meetingpeople,andsocializingwith

peers.

Itisimportanttonotethatwhiledevelopmentstrategies,suchasmanufacturing

andpharmacuticals,inPuertoRicodidimprovethestatusofwomenandwerenotas

effectiveaspeoplehoped.ThedevelopmentofPuertoRico’seconomyinthe1940’sand

wellintothe1960’swasfocusedonmanufacturingandfactorywork.Theworkavailableto

womeninthesejobswaslowpayingandusedto“cushiontheimpactofconsequent

povertyandsocialinequity”(Colón-Warren&Alegría-Ortega,1998).Womenexperienced

povertyandgreatsocialinequityafterdevelopmentprojectsbecausetheseprojectswere

implementedwithhopesthattheywouldimprovetheeconomicsituationinPuertoRicoas

awhole,andnotsolelyfocusedonthelivesofmostvulnerablepeopleinsociety.Theshift

toamechanization-basedeconomyopenedupmanyjobopportunitiesforwomenthat

requiredlow-costlaborandthedexterityoffemaleworkers(Colón-Warren&Alegría-

Ortega,1998).However,thesejobopportunitiesdidnotnecessarilymeanthesewerehigh

qualityjobs.Mostofthejobsbeingoccupiedbywomenareatlowerlevelsof

administrativeandprofessionalsectors,continuingandperpetuatinggenderinequity

(Colón-Warren&Alegría-Ortega,1998).Thisinequityisincreasedforless-educatedmen

andwomenwhodonothavethetrainingtoworkinhigh-techandfinancialservices

sectorsthatarebecomingincreasinglypopularinPuertoRico(Colón-Warren&Alegría-

Ortega,1998).Itisalsoimportanttonotethatthecurrentdebtcrisisandausterity

measurestakingplaceinPuertoRicoputwomeninanincreasedvulnerableposition.In

1998,Colón-WarrenandAlegría-Ortegafoundthatreductionsingovernment

employmentsresultedinmorewomenbeingaffectedthanmen.Oneimportantideathat

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Colón-WarrenandAlegría-Ortega(1998)pointoutisthesocialandeconomicimportance

ofdomesticworkandtheextraworkburdenthatwomenmustendurewhentheyenterthe

workforce.Whileurbanandperi-urbanagriculturewillnotbearemedyforallpoverty

issues,itcanbeusedasamethodtohelpwomengenerateextraincomeforthemselvesand

providehealthyfoodforthemselvesandfamilyandperhapsincreaseempowerment.

Hereinliestheimportanceofurbanandperi-urbanagriculture:whencountriesface

largeratesoffoodinsecurity,urbanagriculturecanbeusedtoprovidepeoplewithnot

onlyfreshfoodbutalsotheopportunitytosellthatfood.Itiswidelyknownthatthe

majorityofhumanstakingpartinurbanagriculturearewomen(FAO,2013).However,not

enoughisknownaboutwhythemajorityofthehumanstakingpartinthisactivityare

women.Specificallywhataretheexperienceofminoritywomen:Latinas,Blackwomen,

Indigenouswomen,womeninthedevelopingworld,andlow-incomewomen.Wedon’t

understandtheirexperiences,thebenefitsandchallengestheyencounter,thesignificance

oftheurbanfarms,andwhatisorcouldbelostintheeventofanaturaldisaster.Their

experiencesofthesewomenwillbefardifferentthanthoseofawhitewomenlivingina

countrylikeBelgiumduetorace,gender,andclassstructures.Furthermore,thisresearch

centerstheexperiencesofLatinasbecauseLatinasareimportantfixturesateverypartof

ourfoodsystem.

ThisresearchseekstouncovertheexperiencesofwomeninSanJuan,PuertoRico

involvedinurbanagriculture.ThisresearchwasinspiredbytheworkthatDr.Maria

Calixta-OrtizandherteamdidontheirGuidelineforTheDevelopmentofCommunity-Based

UrbanOrchardsinPuertoRico(2018).Furthermoremostoftheirresearchwasbefore

HurricaneMariaandalsodidn’taddressgenderissuesinurbanagriculture.

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FirstIwillreviewrelevantliteratureonurbanagriculture,PuertoRico,andgender

anddisasters.ThenIwillgooverthetheortoritcalframeworkthatisguidingthisresearch.

FollowingthisIdescribemypostionalityandhowthatinfluncesmyresearch.Iwillthen

describethemethodsusedtoconducttheresearch.Lastely,Isharemyfindingsand

concludewithreccomendatins.

LiteratureReview

PuertoRico

PuertoRicohasbeenpartoftheUnitedStatessince1898,whentheUnitedStates

acquiredthearchipelagoattheendoftheSpanish-AmericanWar(Carro-Figueroa,2002).

PuertoRico’spopulationfollowssimilartrendsthroughoutLatinAmericaandthe

Caribbeaninthatmostpeopleontheislandliveinurbanareas.Infact,93percentofthe

populationlivesinurbanareas(FAO,n.d.).Approximately10percentofthepopulation

livesintheSanJuanMunicipality.

PuertoRicoproducedasubstantialamountofitsownfoodupuntilthe1950’s

(Carro-Figueroa,2002).Afterthe1950’s,PuertoRico’sagriculturalproductiondecreased

astheeconomyshiftedtowardsothersectors.Section936oftheInternalRevenueCode

wascreatedin1976,exemptingUScompaniesfrompayingfederaltaxesonprofitsearned

inPuertoRico(Meléndez&Venator-Santiago,2018).Bythe1990’spharmaceuticaland

manufacturingwerestaplejobprovidersontheisland,replacingagricultureandSection

936workedasenvisioned(Meléndez&Venator-Santiago,2018).In1996,a10-yearphase

outofSection936began,inordertosupportsmallbusinesses(Meléndez&Venator-

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Santiago,2018).WhenSection936wasineffect,theeconomygrewatasteadypaceup

untilthephaseoutperiod(Meléndez&Venator-Santiago,2018).Arecessionsoonfollowed

andPuertoRicocontinuestobeinarecessiontothisday.

Duringthistimeperiod,asmanufacturingincreasedthroughouttheisland,sodid

foodimports.In2017,PuertoRicoimported85percentoftheirfood(Robles&Sadurní,

2017).In1938,theislandstillproduced65percentofthetotalquantityoffoodconsumed

(Carro-Figueroa,2002inHillandNoguera,1940)andin1951therewasslightdecreaseto

59percentofthetotalquantityoffoodconsumedwasgrowninPuertoRico(Carro-

Figueroa,2002inNazario&Diaz-Cruz,1952).In1980,theproductionoffoodconsumed

ontheislandtookasharpdecreaseto30to40percent(Dietz,1982).Itiswithoutadoubt

thatasPuertoRicoturnedtowardsamoreindustrializedeconomytherewasashiftfrom

agriculturalproductioninthecountrytomanufacturingandfactoryproduction.Dietz

(1986)writes“Yet,thechoiceneednothavebeeneitheragricultureorindustry;itcould

havebeenamixofagricultureandindustry,andofindustryinagriculture,alongwith

selectivemanufacturing”.Thisdismissaloftheagriculturalindustryisstillreflectedtoday

inthelownumberoffarmsinPuertoRicoandthepercentagethatagriculturemakesofthe

totalGDP.Accordingtothe2012FarmCensusPuertoRicotherewere13,159farmsin

2012,adecreasefrom15,745farmsaccountedforin2007(USDA,2012).Thisisperhaps

duetotheeconomicstagnationontheislandwithmanypeoplearemovingtomainland

UnitedStatesorurbanareasinPuertoRico.MostfarmsinPuertoRicoaresmallholder

farms;39percentarelessthan10cuerdas(1cuerda=.97acre)andanadditional21

percentarelessthan50cuerdas.Thereare12,066farmsinPuertoRicowheremenarethe

principaloperatorsand1,093inwhichtheprincipaloperatorisawoman(USDA,2012).

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Theeconomicshiftontheislandhashadasignificantimpactintheindustriesthatwomen

primarilyworkintothisday.

UrbanandPeri-UrbanAgriculture

Urbanandperi-urbanagriculture(UPA)canbeanimportanttechniqueusedtohelp

feedthegrowingpopulation.Astheglobalpopulationbecomesincreasinglyurbanized,

solutionstofeedagrowingpopulationareneeded.UPAproductsarenormallyperishable

yethighvalueandincludeproductslikevegetables,mushrooms,eggs,andproteinsources

(DeZeeuwetal.,2011).ThereareconcernsthatUPAhastheabilitytocompetewithrural

agriculture,howevertheyeachhavedistinctcharacteristics:UPAproducesmore

vegetablesandfruitswhileruralagricultureproducesmostofourfoodstaplessuchascorn

orwheat(Dubbelingetal,2017).Someofthepositiveresults(Zezza&Tasciotti,2010)

foundfromurbanhouseholdsengagedinUPAare:foodsecurity,diversediet,and

increasedvegetableconsumptionincomparisontohouseholdsnotengagedinUPA.

UPAisalsobeneficialforneighborsoffolksinvolvedinUPAbecausefarmersoften

sellsurplusintheircommunities(DeZeeuwetal.,2011).However,intheirresearchZezza

andTasciotti(2010)foundthatincomegenerationfromUPAwasonlysignificantinAfrican

countriesandthepoorerpopulationsinNepalandVietnam.Warrenandcolleagues(2015)

foundthatUPAwascommonamonglow-incomehouseholdsparticularlyintimesofcrisis

orshock.UPAisanactivityinwhichpoorurbanhouseholdsaredisproportionately

represented,duetoitsabilitytogeneratequickincome(Zezza&Tasciotti,2010).Urban

agriculturehasbeenopposedbynationalandlocalauthoritiesoverconcernsofhealthand

environmentalrisksthatcommunitymembersmightbeexposedto(DeZeeuwetal.,2011).

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Themainareasofconcernarecontaminatedwaterandtheuseofagrochemicalsinclose

proximitytohumans.Economically,UPAmaynothavethelargestimpactonahousehold,

butitstillremainsasurvivalstrategyfortheurbanpoor(DeZeeuwetal.,2011).

UPAcanbedesignedinawayinwhichitcanbeapublicgoodandbeneficiariesare

notexcluded(DeBonetal.,2008).UPAnormallyutilizeslandthatotherwisewouldbe

consideredundesirablesuchaslandunderoverpassesorlandthathasbeenabandoned(

Kaufaman&Bailkey,2000).InthiswayUPAincreasestheuseoflandincitiesthat

otherwisewouldnothaveanyoutputs,physicallyoreconomically.Besidesphysicalor

economicaloutputs,UPAprojectsalsocreateotherintangiblevaluablethings:senseof

communityandaplacetogather.Inadditiontothenutritionalandeconomicimpactsthat

UPAhasoncommunities,italsoplaysaroleintheinclusionofvulnerablegroupsofsociety

(elderly,refugees,women)withwhichtheycangeneratetheeconomiccapitalthatmay

resultinproduce,confidence,andentrepreneurialism(Bailkeyetal,2007).ManyUPA

publicationsmentiongenderinpassing,howevernoneofthemembarkonadeeper

understandingastowhywomenmakeupthemajorityofpeopleinvolvedinUPA.Thisis

whyresearchcenteringtheexperiencesofwomeninvolvedinurbanagricultureis

importantandneeded,specifficallyinlower-incomecountries.

UrbanagricultureandLatinAmerica

Urbanandperi-urbanagriculturalprojectsvaryinsize,scope,andgoalsthroughout

LatinAmericaandtheCaribbean.Taguchi(2015),writesthat,inLatinAmerica,UPAgrew

outofanecessityforfoodsecurityandeachcountryhasdevelopedpoliciesthatwouldbest

servetheircountry.TheUNFAOwroteareportonUPAinLatinAmericaandtheCaribbean

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titled,“GrowingGreenerCitiesinLatinAmericaandtheCaribbean”.Theysurveyed23outof

27countriesintheregionin2013.Intheirresearch,theyfoundthatUPAiscommon

throughouttheregion,notingthat“20percentofhouseholdsinGuatemalapracticeUPA,

50,000familiesinBoliviaarefoodproducers,and8,500familiesinColombiagrowsomeof

theirownproduce”(FAO,2014).Theyfoundthatfamilygardensarecommonincountries

throughouttheCaribbeanandinurbanareasofColombia,Ecuador,Nicaragua,andPeru

(FAO,2014).Asidefromgrowingfruitsandvegetables,someurbanfarmersalsoraisesmall

animalsasasourceofprotein.Intheirreport,theFAO(2014)notesthaturbanfarmers

comefromavarietyofdifferentbackgroundsbutmostarelow-income.

DespitethepopularityofUPA,thereisalackofUPApolicyintheLatinAmerican

region.Outofthe23countriessurveyedonly12hadpoliciesthatexplicitlypromoteUPA;8

ofthosewereintheCaribbean(FAO,2014).Thecountrieswerenotexplicitlynamedand

neitherweretheextentofthosepolicies.InQuito,Ecuador,ClavijoandParades(2015)

foundthaturbanfarmsthatareapartofthecityrunprogramAGRUPAR(ElProyectode

AgriculturalUrbanaParticipativeorTheUrbanAgricultureParticipationProject)hadhigher

ratesofculturaladaptabilityandmoreknowledgeonorganicfarmingthatotherurban

farms.TheypredictthatthisisbecauseAGUAPARprovidesmoretechnicalsupportforits

farmers(Clavijo&Parades,2015).

Oneofthemaingoalsofurbanagricultureistoincreasefoodsecurityinurban

areas.Dubbelingandcolleagues(2017)foundthatnearly50percentofproductsgrown

weresoldinfarmersmarketsawayfromproducers.Whileitisimportantthaturban

farmershavetheopportunitytogenerateextraincomefromtheirgardens,itisimportant

thattheyfirstensuretheirownfoodsecurity.SuccessfulUPAprojectsarecharacterizedby

18

farmer-to-farmertraining,consideringthelocalpeople’sopinions,andfrequenttrainings

forurbanfarmers(Franklin,2010;Lovo,Falcão,&Lopes,2015;Joshi&Velasco,2015).Itis

importantforprojectorganizerstoemphasizetoparticipantstheimportanceofincreasing

foodsecurityandavailabilitytothecommunitybeforetheyuseitasameanstogenerate

income.Inaddition,participantshavetheabilitytopassongenerationalandcommunal

knowledgeofworkingwiththeearth.UPAprojectscanrangefromindividualplotsat

hometocommunitygardens.Successfulonesareonesinwhichlocalpeople’sopinionsand

needsareconsideredandcateredto.Additionally,thesustainabilityoftheprojectis

assuredwhenparticipantsteachothermembersofthecommunitytheskillstheylearned

throughtheproject.Thisway,adiversenumberofcommunitymembers,includingwomen,

canstarttheirownurbangardens.

UrbanandPeri-UrbanAgricultureandWomen

ManyUPAprojectshavegreatparticipationratesamongstwomen.AnFAOreport

foundthat,inthemajorityofprojectstheyobserved,mostoftheparticipantswerewomen,

eveniftheprojectsweregearedtothecommunityatlarge(2014).Women-ledurbanfarms

totaled90percentinManagua,86percentinHaiti,70percentinBelizeCity,and25

percentinQuito(FAO,2014).Traditionalgenderrolesdictatethatwomenmustprepare

foodfortheirhouseholds.Thismightbethereasonforthelargerateofparticipation

amongwomeninUPA,toensuretheirhouseholdhasenoughfood.

Boserup(1970)writesthatwhenwomenmovefromruralareastourbanareas,

theyareexpectedtoworktokeepupwiththehighcostsassociatedwithlivinginthecity

andsincemostoftheirmoneyisspentonfood,thereisincentivetogrowtheirown.

19

Additionally,thereisalsotheappealofbeingabletosellextraproduce.InanUPAproject

inJamaica,projectmanagersweremoreeasilyabletorecruitwomentoraisechickenthan

vegetables,becausetheywouldmakemoremoneysellingpoultry(Valstar,1999).The

womeninthatprojectweredrawntotheideaofgeneratingextramoneyfromtheproject

andnotnecessarilyincreasingfoodsecuritywithintheirhomes.Incontrast,inHaiti,

womenweredrawntoanurbanagricultureprojecttoincreasefoodavailabilityintheir

homestoimprovenutrition(Vansteenkiste,2014).Awomanwasquotedsaying,“Our

great-grandparentslivedlonglives.Nowkidsaresick;twelveandthirteenyearsoldsare

gettingsick.Itistheimportedprocessedfoodthatismakingussickandbecauseweareno

longereatingfreshfood”(Vansteenkiste,2014).Inthisproject,themaingoalwastohelp

womennolongerfaceinjusticesintheirlivesandencouragewomentoparticipateinmore

socio-economicactivities(Vansteenkiste,2014).However,Haitainwomenhadahardtime

understandingtheoverallgoalofthembecomingmoreautonomousandcommunity

leaders(encouragingthemteachotherwomentostarttheirowngardens).Theydidnot

seehowthegardenscouldbeameanstogainmoreagencyandshattergendernorms.

Womenfromtheprojectpaidmentobuildtheraisedbedsrequiredforthegardens

becauseitwasconsideredmen’swork(Vansteenkiste,2014).Thelackoforganizationand

clarificationofobjectivestomeettheirgoalshinderedtheprojectsopportunitytoreachits

fullpotentialintermsofequity.

GenderandDisaster

Whennaturaldisastersoccur,noteveryoneisequallyaffected(EnarsonE.,

1998;Austin,K.&McKinneyL.,2016;Enarson,E.,Fothergill,A.,&Peek,L.,2017;Fothergill,

20

A.,&PeekL.,2004;Jordan,E.,Javernick-Will,A.,&Tierney,K.,2016).Somepeoplelose

everythingduetothewaysinwhichtheirhomeswereconstructedandsomepeoplehave

enoughmoneytofleetheirhomestosafety.TheCaribbeanspecifically,isbecomingmore

vulnerabletonaturaldisasterswithincreasedoccurrence,frequency,andstrengthof

hurricanes(Deare,2004).Whenlookingattheeffectsofnaturaldisastersthrougha

genderedlens,womenaremoreimpactedbynaturaldisasters.Acountry’sdevelopment

andvulnerabilityareinfluencedbythesocio-economicpositionandconditionsbeforea

naturaldisasterandwomenandchildrenaretheoneshardestaffectedduetotheirprior

vulnerability(Deare,2004).

Vulnerabilityisaconceptthatconsidersthedifferencesamongpeopleanduncovers

thecircumstancesthatcanchangefromanevent,likeanaturaldisaster,andhighlightthe

lackofresourcesthataremagnifiedinanaturaldisaster(Bradshaw,2014).Juran(2019)

writes,“Thus,whilethepost-disasterarenavariesgreatlyfrom‘normaltime’the

overarchingparallelisthatdisparitiesthatexistedbeforethedisasterareperpetuatedand

exacerbatedbothduringandafterthedisaster”.Farmsandfarmersexperiencesignificant

lossesafterdisastersduetotheextremechangeinweatherpatterns.Forpeoplethat

dependsontheirfarmsfortheirlivelihood,naturaldisastershavethepotentialtodestroy

theireconomicsecurityinthepresentandinthefuture.InNicaragua,afterHurricane

Mitch,peoplesurveyedweremoreconcernedabouttheirproductionlossesincomparison

tolossesinsubsistencecapacity(Bradshaw,2014).Inaddition,Bradshaw(2014),found

that32percentoffemale-headedhouseholdsdidnotplanttheyearafterthehurricane,in

comparisonto23percentofmale-headedhouseholds.Noinformationisavailablefor

backyardagriculturalproduction,howeverthevalueoflossineggproductionwas

21

estimatedbetween$90,000-$120,000permonth(Bradshaw,2014).Womenaremore

likelytobeemployedintheinformalsector,likesellingeggsfromhome,whichmeansthat

afteradisastertheyaremoreaffectedduetothedisruptionsincommunicationsand

transportation(TheWorldBank,2001).

Womenplayimportantrolesinpost-disastercleanupandsearchingforfood,

howevertheireffortsarenotvaluedandforgottenbymen(Bradshaw,2014).The

minimizationofwomen’scontributiontopostdisastercleanupissignificantbecause

womenhavelargersocialnetworksthatcanbemorehelpfulthanmen.Whenthereisno

crisisoccurring,women’ssocialnetworksarenotvalued.TheWorldBank(2001)found

thatinHondurasafterHurricaneMitch,thesocialnetworksofwomenwereimportantfor

peopletorebuildandaccessresource(2001).Anotherwaywomenandmenare

disadvantagedafteradisasteristheymayhavetopayforhiredlaborontheirfarmsforany

damagedsustained,howeverwomenaremoreadverselyaffected,duetolowerincomeand

repairstakingupalargerpercentoftheirearnings(Deare,2004).Theprocessofobtaining

fundingandaidislonganddaunting,thuswomenmaynotwanttoengageintheprocess

(Juran,2012).Ifawomanhasabusinessandalsoneedstogothroughtheprocessforher

ownpersonalhome,shemayopttonotdoitforherbusiness.Thisaffectsherfutureand

potentialtohaveeconomicsecurity.Thereisusuallyverylittleassessmentabouttheloss

ofwomenrunbusinesses(Juran,2012).Itisuncleariftheseareformalorinformal

businesses,howeveritisclearthatmoreattentionshouldbepaidtowomenoperated

businessesregardlessiftheyareformalorinformal.Approachestobetterpreparefor

disastersmustintegratethelivelihoodsofwomenintotheirplansandbemoreproactive.

22

Urbanagriculturecanbeutilizedbyindividualsorcommunitiesforanarraryof

reasonsincludingincomegeneratingactivitiesandbetteraccesstolocallyproducedfoods

Thisisespeciallyimportantforvulnerablecommunitiesandcountriesthatimportalotof

theirfood,likePuertoRico.Womenareanimportantandvitalpartofurbanagriculture,

howeverlittleisknownabouttheirexperiences.Therefore,womeninvolvedinurban

agriculturemustbefurtherresearchedtounderstandtheirperspectivesandexpertiseon

urbanagriculture.Furthermore,theycanprovideinsightonimportantorientedfood

system,likePuertoRico’sdependencyonfoodimportsfromtheUnitedStates.

TheoreticalFrameworks

DependencyTheory

Theeconomicprojectionofcountrieslike,PuertoRico,whohaveincreased

industrializationbutstillrelyonanoutsidecountryfornecessitiesandothergoodshas

beenstudiedindepthbydevelopmentscholars,

specifically,DependencyTheoryscholars(Henrique

Cardoso,F.,&Faletto,E.,1971;Prebisch,R.,1959;&

Gunder-Frank,A.,1966).DependencyTheorystatesthat

whilemetropolesaredeveloped,thesatellitesare

underdeveloped.(Gunder-Frank,1966).Thisisaresult

ofperiphery(satellite)countriesprovidinglowercost

rawmaterialsorservicetothecore(metropoles),whoproducehighercostindustrial

Figure 1 :Dependency Theory Framework

23

products(Figure11.)Inaddition,RaulPrebischaddsthatthebenefitsofincreased

productivityhavenothadthesamepositiveeffectoncountriesintheperiphery(satellite)

incomparisontocountriesthatarethemetropoles(1959).

Despitethesameconclusionoftheunequaldistributionofpowerbetween

metropolesandsatellites,PrebischandGunder-Frankdisagreeonhowacountycan

achieveeconomicsuccess.Gunder-FrankarguesthatcountriesinLatinAmericahave

experiencedtheirgreatesteconomicgrowthwhentiestoforeigncountriesaretheweakest

(1966).PrebischbelievesthatLatinAmericashouldusetheirabundanceofnaturaland

rawmaterialstoincreaseeconomicdevelopmentthroughoutcountries.Hewrites,“The

moreactiveLatinAmerica’sforeigntrade,thegreaterthepossibilityofincreasing

productivitybymeansofintensivecapitalformation”(1959).Thisisjuxtapositionwith

Gunder-Frank’soverallbeliefthatcapitalismwasnotworkinginfavorofLatinAmerica’s

development.Despitethesedifferences,bothscholarsbelievedthatinordertofind

solutionsfortheunderdevelopmentinLatinAmerica,peoplemustframetheproblemsand

issuesinthecontextofthecountrybeingworkedin.Prebischwrote,“ThecaseoftheLatin-

Americancountriesmustthereforebepresentedclearly,sothatinterests,aspirations,and

opportunities,bearinginmindofcourse,theindividualdifferencesandcharacteristics…”

(1959).Gunder-Frankechoedsimilarthoughtswriting,“…neitherthepastnorthe

presentoftheunderdevelopedcountriesresemblesinanyimportantrespectthepastof

thenowdevelopedcountries.Thenowdevelopedcountrieswereneverunderdeveloped,

thoughtheymighthavebeenundeveloped”(1966).However,bothauthorsagreethat

1 Figure 1 is adapted from Gunder-Frank and Prebich’s work.

24

exploitativenatureoftradebetweencountriescanbedetrimentaltothelessdeveloped

one.

Inthiscase,theUnitedStateswouldbethemetropoleandPuertoRicowouldbethe

satellite.Historically,PuertoRicoprovidedtheUnitedStateswithcheapagricultural

commodities,likesugarandtobacco.Thentheislandbecameasourceofcheaplaborfor

factories,andcurrentlymanufacturingpharmaceuticalsandtheserviceindustrymakeup

mostoftheireconomicsectors.Itiswidelybelievedthatinorderforacountrytoachieve

thestatusofa“developed”nation,an“underdeveloped”nationmustallowtheinfiltration

offoreigncapital,values,andinstitutionsfromthemetropoles(Gunder-Frank,1966).In

PuertoRico,thehistoricalinfluxofforeigncapitalandvalueshashadmanyunintended

consequencessuchaslowermedianhouseholdincomesandgreaterpovertyandfood

insecurityamongwomen,asnotedintheIntroduction.Thecurrentpathofeconomic

developmentisextractive,exploitative,andenforcesanunequalpowerdynamicasseen

betweentheUnitedStatesandPuertoRico.“Economicreformsbasedontheideaof

limitlessgrowthinalimtedworldcanonlybemaintainedifthepowerfulgrabthe

resourcesofthevulnerable”(Mies&Shiva,2014).Thisimbalanceofpowermanifestsitself

intheinabilityofPuertoRicanwomentofindandaffordlocallyproductedfreshfruitsand

vegetablesbecausethemajorityofthefoodisimportedduetothemechanized-oriented

economytheUnitedStatesstructured.

25

FeministTheoreticalFramework

Feministstandpointtheoryisaframeworkusedthatcentersthelivedexperiences,

subjectivity,andknowledgeofaspecificpersonandarguesthatthepersonisthemost

knowledgeableonthatsubjectorlivedexperience(Bowell,n.d.).Forinstance,women

haveacquireddifferentknowledgeoncertainsubjects,likefarming,duetotheirstatusas

womenandtheirperceptionandknowledgeofitwilldifferfrommen’sduetotheir

genderedposition.Inaddition,feministstandpointtheoryarguesthatresearchshouldbe

focusedonhegemonicrelationshipsandshouldcenterthelivesofmarginalizedpeople

(Bowell,n.d.).FeministscholarslikeNancyHartstock,SandraHarding,DonnaHaraway,

andPatriciaHillsCollinsadvocateintheirscholarshiptheimportanceofcenteringthelived

experiencesofwomenandplaceingthatknowledgeatthecenterofresearchinquiry

(e.g.,Haraway1988,Harding,1993;HillsCollins,1997).Whatthesescholarsargueisthat

positionsthatwomenoccupyinsocietyinformthewaysinwhichtheyseetheworld,

interactwithpeopleinpower,andhowtheyapproachissuesandproblemsolving.Sandra

Hardingwrote,“Startingoffresearchfromwomen’sliveswillgeneratelesspartialand

distortedaccountsnotonlyofwomen’slivesbutalsoofmen’slivesandofthewholesocial

order”(1993).

Womenindifferentindustrieswillalsohavedifferentexperiences,challenges,and

solutionsthanthoseofmen,particularlywomenofcolor.Muchoftheresearchthatisdone

centersaroundurbanagricultureandsometimesthecommunity,completelydisregarding

genderstructures.Puttingthefocusonwomen’sworkallowsresearcherstohaveamore

holisticandaccurateunderstandingoftheadvantages,challenges,andbenefitsofurban

agriculture.Hardingaddsthatstandpointtheorydemonstrateshowasocialdisadvantage

26

canbeturnedintoascientificadvantage,amongotherthings(2004).Thisframeworkis

mostappropriateforthisresearchbecausethewomeninPuertoRicothatareurban

farmersaremuchmoreknowledgeabethanIonwhattheirexperienceshavebeen,why

theseprojectsstarted,andmuchmore.Itistheirnarrativesthatwilldrivemy

understanding.Thesewomenarestrong,wise,andcapablewomenhowever,thelackof

governmentandattimes,volunteersupportleadstowomenworkingmorethanthey

mighthaveanticipatedandthisworkseekstohighlightthemandgivethemagencyby

centeringtheirvoices.

Positionality

Inqualitativeresearchitisimportanttoaddressbiasandismyresponsibilityin

ordertoestablishtransparency,trustworthiness,andaccountabilitywiththereadersand

thewomenIinterviewed.ForthepurposeofthisstudyitisimportanttonotethatIama

24-year-oldChicanafromalow-incomebackground.Iamcurrentlypursuingagraduate

degreeinInternationalAgriculturalDevelopmentandpreviouslypursuedundergraduate

degreesinAgriculturalBusinessandLatinAmericanStudies.Thisresearchstemsfroma

commitmenttogenderequity,findingalternativeandnonconventionalwaystoincrease

foodsecurity,accessibility,andsovereignty.Inaddition,thisresearchfocusesonLatinas

becauseLatinasareimportantfixturesatallpartsofthefoodsystem,andlargelynot

focusedon.SinceIalsoidentifyasaLatinaandcanspeakSpanish,itcreatedasenseofease

andcomfortbetweenmyselfandthewomenIinterviewed.Itispossiblethatthewomen

mighthavebeenmorecomfortablearoundmesinceIamMexican-American.Therewerea

fewtimeswhenwomenreferredtomeasonlyMexican.However,itisimportanttonote

27

thatwhilePuertoRicancultureandMexicanculturehavesomesimilarities,therearealot

ofdifferencesstartingwithdistinctgeographicandregionaldifferences.Inadditionbothof

ourculturesmustdealwiththepressurestoassimilateintothedominatecultureofthe

UnitedStates.HoweverPuertoRican’shaveamuchdifferentrelationshiptothisdueto

theirroleasaseparatenation-statewithperhapssimilarbutdistinctvaluesandculture.

Inordertointegratemyselfbetter,IusedtypicalPuertoRicanwordsformanyitems

includingurbangardens(HuertosUrbanos)andfamiliarizedmyselfwithstaplefooditems

andmadesuretoaskquestionsabouttheirsignificance.Itisimportanttoalsoaddthat

whileinPuertoRicoIhadaguide,EvaBayona.EvarecentlygraduatedwithherMaster’sin

EnvironmentalPlanningandhadworkedonCalitxtaOrtizandcolleagues’(2018)guidefor

huertosinSanJuan.Herfamiliaritywiththetopicandsubjecthelpedmetosetup

interviewsbecauseshehadpreviouslyworkedwiththemandsheeditedmyquestionsto

makethemmoreunderstandableinPuertoRicanSpanish.

Finally,asmuchasIcouldtrytoremovepowerimbalancesbetweenmyselfandthe

womenIinterviewed,theinadequateandcatastrophicresponsebytheUnitedStates

governmentinthewakeofHurricaneMaria,mayhaveinfluencedmydecisiontogoto

PuertoRicoandresearchthesignificanceofthesespaces.

ResearchObjectives

Theoverallobjectiveofthisresearchwastounderstandtherolethathuertosurbanosplay

inthelivesofwomenandthecommunities.Specifically,thefollowingresearchquestions

wereaimedataddressingthesebroadquestions:

• Whatarethewomen’slivedexperiencesbeinginvolvedinhuertos?

28

• Whataresomeofthechallengesandbenefitsexperiencedbywomeninvolvedin

huertos?

• Whatisthesignificanceofthesehuertostothewomeninvolved?

• WhatarewomenperspectivesandexperienceswiththePuertoRicofoodsystem?

• Whatislostorcouldbelostintheeventofnaturaldisaster,inrelationtothe

huerto?

Methods

TheresearchinthispapertookplaceinurbanfarmsthroughoutSanJuan,Puerto

Rico.IwasinPuertoRicofromJuly11th,2019toAugust9th,2019.Iconductedsemi-

structuredin-depthinterviewswithninewomen,interviewslastedbetween45minutes

andonehourand45minutes.Purposivesnowballsampalingwasusedtoidentifywomen,

whowerealldistinctlyinvolvedindifferentareasofurbanagricultureinSanJuan.The

womenlistedbelowarethewomenIinterviewed.Intervieweeswereasked13open-

endedquestions.Themethodologyandtoolsusedforthisresearchareinfluencedby

ParticipatoryActionResearch(PAR).Chambers(1994)describesparticipatoryaction

researchas,“anapproachandmethodforlearningaboutrurallifeandconditionsfrom,

withandbyruralpeople”(pg.1).Thisapproachcanbeusedtolearnaboutalltypesof

peopleregardlessofwheretheylive.MostofthewomeninterviewedareKeyInformants,

expertsofurbanagriculture.Theinterveiwquestionswereallcategorizedunder

distinctivethemesIwantedtoaddressinmyresearch.Thethemeswere:

v UrbanAgriculture

29

v Disasterresponse

v Foodresiliency

v Foodsovereigntyandchangesinthefoodsystem

v Communitysupport

Withinthesethemesandtheirdistinctquestions,IhadsubthemesthatIhopedeach

womanwouldaddress.Forexample,intheresponsetotheurbanagriculturequestionsI

hopedthatsubthemesaddressedwouldbe:

o Influence

o Knowledgebeforefarming

o Decidingwhattoplant

o Supportfromsocialnetwork

o Sellingsurplus

o Benefitsfromurbanfarm

Havingthislistofsubthemes,Ihopedwouldbeaddressedintheinterviewallowed

fortopicstobebroachednaturallyasopposedtoaskingdirectquestionsonthetopics.

OriginallyquestionswerewritteninEnglishandthentranslatedintoSpanish.Uponarrival

inPuertoRicomyguide,Eva,alsomadesomelanguagechangesthatwouldbeunderstood

betterinPuertoRicanSpanish.

AnotherPARtoolthatwasusedinmyinterviewsweretransectwalks.Transects

walksaredescribedbyChambers(1994)as,“walkingwithlocalpeoplethroughanarea,

observing,asking,listening,discussing,identifyingdifferentzones,soils,landuses,

vegetation,crops,livestock,localandintroducedtechnologies,etc.”.InSanJuan,transect

walkswereusedtoobtainadeeperknowledgeofthehuertoitself,theimportantfoodsthat

30

wereplanted,landuse,problemsareas,uniquecharacteristicstoeachhuerto,andmuch

more.Thesetransectwalksinpartnershipwiththeinterviewscreatedamoreholistic

interviewprocess.Duringthetransectwalks,informationdiscussedduringtheinterview

wouldbereinforced.Specificspacesintheirhuertoswouldremindthewomenofother

topicsthatwouldhaveotherwisenotcomeupduringtheinterview.Iftheinterviewwas

conductedatthehuerto,atransectwalktookplacebeforeorafterthesit-downinterview.

MostinterviewswerejustmeandthepersonIinterviewed;however,insomecases,there

werevolunteersatthehuertoorneighborsthatwouldstopbyandchat.Whilethecontent

ofwhattheseexternalpeoplesaidisnotincludedinthescopeofthispaper,itallowedfor

metoseethedynamicandsocialnatureofthesehuertos.Alloftheinterviewsconducted

wereinSpanish.DuetotheshortnatureofmystayinPuertoRicoandpeoples’schedules

someoftheinterviewswereconductedoverthecomputerlater

UrbanFarmersInterviewed

PuertoRicoisadiverseislandfullofmultiracialpeople.Muchofitspopulationhasa

combinationofBlack,Taino,andEuropeanancestry.Thisdiverseancestryresultsin

significantphenotypicvariation(Landale&Oropresa,2002).Havingacomplexbackground

assuchmakesitdifficultforpeopletochoosearacethattheyidentifywith.In2014,58

percentofPuertoRicansidentifiedasWhitetotheUnitedStatesCensus(VargasRamos,

2016).ThatsameyearthesecondmostpopularoptionwasthecategorySomeOtherRace,

26percentofPuertoRicanschoosethiscategory,choosingtowriteinPuertoRicanor

Boricua(VargasRamos,2016).PuertoRicanswhoidentifiedasblackin2014were

approximately7percent(VargasRamos,2016).Furthermore,duetosystemsandsocietal

31

inequitiesthroughuttheworlditcanbeexpectedthatpeoplewhoidentifyasblackorfolks

thathavedarkerskinaremorelikelytofacemorehardshipsthanwhitePuertoRicans.

VargasRamoswrites“…theexpectionforthepresentanalysisisthatnon-whitePuerto

RicanswillnotpreformaswellaswhitePuertoRicansalonganumberofsocioeconomic

indicatiorsbothinPuertoRicoandtheUnitedStates”.InthisstudyIdidn’taskthewomen

howtheyidentify.Lookingbackatit,IwishIwouldhave.However,asanoutsiderofthis

communityitisnotuptometodecidewhichoftheseladiesisaBlackPuertoRicanora

WhitePuertoRican.Asaresultinthedescriptionbelowracewillnotbementioned.I

interviewedthefollowingwomen,nameshavebeenchangedtoprotectconfidentialityand

inaccordancewithbestresearchpractices.

VictoriawasthefirstpersonIinterviewed.Shebroughtadifferentperspective

abouturbanagricultureduetoherexperienceworkingasaprojectmanagerbutalsoasan

individualwhowasveryenvironmentallyconscious.Wehadasit-downinterviewata

locallunchrestaurant.Shehasanagriculturalbackgroundthathasallowedforhertoapply

theseskillsinvarioussettingsinPuertoRicoinadditiontothehuertos.Sheisnotanative

toPuertoRicowhichaddedanextralayerofintricacytoherexperiences.

Yolandawasaregularvolunteeratahuertoinadditiontohavinganotherjob.She

wasoneoftheyoungerwomenIinterviewed.IinterviewedYolandaatthehuertoshe

workedat,thismadeitpossibleforustohaveasit-downinterviewinadditiontoatransect

walk.

Lindawasthemanagerandfounderofabighuerto,inadditiontobeinga

communityleaderandpsychologist.Herinterviewwasheldatanofficeintheapartment

complex,beforetheinterviewweconductedatransect-walk.Heruniqueexperiencesfrom

32

amanagerialpointofviewbroughtauniqueandimportantperspectivetothestudy.Sheis

oneoftwoolderwomenthatwereinterviewed.

Maya2becamethemanagerofahuertoshortlyafterHurricaneMariaandworked

thereuntilshortlybeforeIarrived.Maya’sinterviewwasconductedin-personatalocal

coffeeshop.Inadditiontoherexperienceofworkingonthehuertoduringacriticaltimeshe

alsoworksinagroecologyandisgenerallyverypassionateaboutagriculture.

EricajustfinishedherMastersinenvironmentalstudies.Shehasexperience

volunteeringatvarioushuertosurbanosandfarmsinPuerto.Sheisveryfamiliarwith

agriculturebecauseshegrewuponafarminLatinAmerica.Sheisthesecondoftwonon-

PuertoRicansinterviewed.Herinterviewtookplaceatalocalrestaurant.

Antoniaisthefounderoftheurbanfarmshemanages.Shegrewupinaruralareaof

PuertoRicoonafarm.Antoniaisthesecondofthetwoolderwomeninterviewed.

Antonia’sinterviewtookplaceatherhouseonthefronporch,afterwordswedidatransect

walkatthehuerto.

Marisahasalotofexperienceinagriculture,havingnotonlygrownupoutsideof

thecitybutalsoresearchingurbanagricultureandworkingonvarioustoolsforurban

farmersinPuertoRico.InadditiontothissheisalsoaprofessoratauniversityinPuerto

Rico.Marisa’sinterviewtookplaceinherofficeatalocaluniversity.

CarinaiscurrentlyagraduatestudentatauniversityinPuertoRico.Carinawas

interviewedoverzoom.Herresearchisoneducationalurbanagriculture.Shehas

experiencenotonlyasaprojectmanagerandimplementerofurbanagriculturebutalsoas

avolunteer.

2 NoemiandMayaworkedatthesamehuerto.

33

Noemi3isadoctoralPh.DstudentinPuertoRicowhoiscurrentlythemanagerofa

huertourbano.NoemiistheonlypersonIinterviewedtwice,wedidatransectwalkatthe

huertowhenIwasinPuertoRicoandazoomcallonceIreturnedtoCalifornia.Sheisone

oftheyoungerpeopleinterviewed.Althoughherresearchfocusesonriversandstreams,

shedoesn’thavearobustagriculturalbackgroundlikeotherpeopleinterviewed.

Inadditiontotheinterviewsandtransectwalks,Iwouldjournaleverynightduring

mytimeinPuertoRico.ThisallowedmetoreflectontheinterviewsIconductedandnote

themesduringmytimeinPuertoRico,outsideoftheinterviews.Ialsovisited3different

farmersmarketsinPuertoRico(MercadoAgricoladeViejoSanJuan,LaPlazadelMercado

deSanturce,andMercadoOrganica).Mygoalindoingthiswastogetagreater

understandingofthelocalagriculturalfoodsystem.Thesefarmersmarketswerealso

mentionedmanytimesduringmyinterviewswithvariouswomen.Aftervisitingthese

markets,Iwouldjournalabouttheexperienceandwhatproductsweresold.Itwasalso

usefultocomparethisexperiencetothesupermarketIwouldpurchasemyownfoodfrom.

Aftertheinterviewswereconducted,theywerethentranscribedusing

ExpressScribe.InterviewswerethenanalyzedusingNvivoandusedadeductivecoding

methodrootedinfeministframeworksofstandpointtheoryanddependencytheory.I

developedasetofthemesthatwasreferencetoguidethecodingprocess(Yi,2018).

DespitetheinterviewsbeingconductedinSpanishandtranscribedinSpanish,thecodes

usedinNVivowereinEnglish.Standpointtheorywasusedasguidebecausetheresearchin

thispaperincludestheinherentknowledgeandlivedexperiencesofthesewomento

informfindingsandrecommendations.Furthermore,Dependencytheoryallowsforthe

3 NoemiandMayaworkedatthesamehuerto.

34

topicsthatwerediscussedwiththesewomentobefitintoabroaderframeworkofPuerto

Rico,ingeneralandhowcolonialrelationshipswiththeUnitedStatesinfluencetheir

huertos.

Findings

Thefindingsinthissectionareorganizedusingthefivedistinctivethemesthatmyresearch

questionswerecenteredaroundandthenbysubtheme.Themajorityofthesubthemes

werealsoidentifiedastopicsIwantedparticipantstoaddressintheiranswers.Someof

themwereincludedafterInoticedthemcomeupinmorethanoneinterview.Intrivews

werecodedusingadeductivecodingprocess.Thecodesusedwerethesamesubthemes

theyaredividedunder.

UrbanAgriculture

CommunityResponsetoEstablishment

Howacommunityrespondstotheestablishmentvarieshuertotohuerto.

Establishmentreferstotheinitationofcreatingahuertoinacommunitybutalsothe

huertoitself.Thequestionaskedwas“Comorespondiolacomunidadalhuerto?”(howdid

thecommunityrespondtothehuerto).InCarina’sexperienceworkingwithelderlypeople

establishingahuertoinanapartmentcomplex,someneighborswerephysicallynotableto

helpestablishthehuerto.However,theyhelpedinotherways,likedonatingseedsor

starterplants.InLinda’scase,agroupofwomenattheapartmentshelivedatidentified

communityneedsandthensurveyedpeoplewholivedintheapartmentcomplextosee

35

whattheybelievewasthegreatestneedforthecommunity.Lindasaidoverwhelmingly

thatpeopleexpressedaneedforfreshandorganicproduce.InMayraandNoemi

experiencesitwasalsothecommunitythatidentifiedtheneedforproduce.Marisaadded

thatshebelievesthatmanyofthepeopleinvolvedinthecreationofahuertotypicallyhave

somesortofexperiencewithagriculture.Incontrast,somepeoplemightbelimitedintheir

abilitiestoparticipatebecausetheylackanyknowledgeonagricultureandfeel

intimidated.

Antoniawastheonlywomenwhosehuertowasaresultofpreventinggentrification.

AccordingtoAntonia,theplacewherethecommunityhuertoissituatedwastheparkinglot

forashoppingcenterthatnevergotbuilt.Onedayaforeignladyapproachedherandnoted

thatthelotwastheperfectplacetobuildahouse.“YoBoricuahastaelfin,paraqueinvida

otra,invadoyoquesoydeaqui(IamBoricuauntilthedayIdie,insteadoflettinganother

personinvade,IamfromhereandIwillinvade)”.Sheslowlybeganplantingflowerseeds

earlyinthemorningandthenbananas.Eventuallyheractionscaughttheattentionofthe

presidentoftheneighborhoodassociationandheaskedherifshewouldliketoestablisha

huerto.Tothisdaytheyaretheonlyconsistentvolunteersofthathuerto.Thecreationof

huertosincommunitiesinPuertoRicorangedfromparticipatorytoradical,asinthecaseof

Antonia.

Perceptionsofurbanagriculture

Womeninterviewedhadagenerallypositiveperceptionsofurbanagricultureand

whatahuertocouldcontributetoacommunity.Carinabroughtupthaturbanagriculture

wasawayforeverydaypeopletocreatechangesinthePuertoRicofoodsystem.Huertos

areaphysicalspacethatcommunitymemberscanusetointeractwithoneanother.There

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isaninherentexchangeofknowledgewithoneanotherand,attimes,anintergenerational

exchangeofknowledgebetweenolderpeopleandyoungerpeople.Inaddition,Ericaadded

thatvolunteeringatvarioushuertosmadeherinteractwithdifferentpeoplewhoexposed

hertoalotofuniqueideasaboutagriculture.Sheaddedthattheconversationswith

volunteersatLinda’shuertoaremuchdifferentthanthosewithcollegestudentsatthelocal

huerto.Antoniaaddedthatmostpeopleinhercommunityappreciatethevalueandbeauty

thatthehuertobringshercommunity.Howeverthisdoesn’tresultinmorevolunteers.

Peopleinhercommunityfeltasifitgavetheircommunityabetterreputation.Mayaadded

thatshenotedalackofinterestwhencommunitymembersweregiventheoptiontohave

theirownplotandgrowtheirownfood.Sheaddedthatisunderstandable,especiallyfor

folkswhoworkallday,andthelastthingtheymaywanttodoismorework.Incontrast,

Marisanotedthatinherexperiencepeoplebegantonoticethepotentialofurban

agriculture,inmomentsofcrisisorinamomentoffoodinsecurity.Manywomenalso

notedthatthehuertosareoftentimesusedbythemselvesasateachingtooltoteachabout

theenvironment,agriculture,ornutrition.Severalwomenaddedthaturbanareasalso

needsustainableandnutritionaldevelopmentprojects,especiallyafterhurricaneswhen

urbancommunitiesareleftvulnerable.Creatingsustainabledevelopmentprojectswould

increasetheoverallpositiveperceptionofurbanagriculturethatwomenandothershave.

Futureofurbanagriculture

ManywomensharedthatthereisalackofinstitutionalsupportfromthePuerto

Ricangovernment,whichthreatensthefutureofthehuertos.Atleasttwowomen

interviewedexpressedthattheygotfundingfromtheToyotaFoundationwhileanother

sourceoffundingidentifiedwastheBancoPopulargrantopportunities.Somewomen

37

mentionedreceivinghelpfromuniversitiesthroughextensionandvolunteersupport.

However,thiswasnotwidespreadandextensionserviceswereonlyreceivedduringthe

firstyearsofthehuerto.

Theyweremixedintheirrecommendationsandideasofhowthefuturewouldlook

forurbanagriculture.Marisaexpressedthatthereneedstoberegulationspassedsothat

urbanagricultureisregulatedandorderly.Sheaddedthatthereneedstoberegulations

thatregulatetheenvironmentforthecommunityandwhatcanandcannotbegrown.

Antoniaexpressedthatthefutureofurbanagricultureisthreatenedbythelackof

volunteers.FurthermoreCarinasaid,“Nodeberíanestarsobreviviendo,deberíanserque

tienenelapoyo,ysecontinúanrenovando,creciendo,yteniendomásimpacto…(They

shouldn’tjustbesurviving,theyshouldbereceivingsupport,continuallygrowingand

renovating,andhavingmoreimpact)”.Therewassomehopeexpressedsincemanywomen

witnessagrowinginterestfromyoungerpeopletobeinvolvedinagriculture.Marisaadded

thatthereissuccesswiththeindividualhuertosthatpeoplehaveattheirhomesandthat

mightbeapossiblesuccessrouteforurbanagricultureinPuertoRicothatcanbeexplored.

Sellingofproducts

Oneoftheprimarybenefitsthathuertosbringtotheircommunitiesistheincreased

availabilityoffreshproduce.Allwomeninterviewedonlygrowwhattheyknowpeopleare

goingtobuyorwhattheyknowismostcommonlyconsumed.Allhuertossoldthings

cheaperthanthegrocerystore.Lindaaddedthatifsheknewsomeonedidn’thavemoney,

shewouldgivethemfreeproduce.Manywomennotedthattheysoldproducemuch

cheaperthanthegrocerystoreandwithbetterquality.Around50%hadsoldorwere

currentlysellingproducetocommercialbuyerslikerestaurantsorhotels.

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Successingrowingatacompetitivepriceischallenging,however.Ericaaddedthat

itisnormallyveryhardforhuertostobeaconsistentproviderofproduceduetothe

irregularityofvolunteersandperhapsnotbeingabletofulfillacontract.Another

constraintforhuertosisidentifyinghowmuchpeopletheycanactuallyserveandwhothey

wanttoserve.Ericanotedthatwhenhuertosstartsellingproducetopeopleoutsideofthe

community,thegoalofprovidingforthecommunityisnolongerthere.Thiscanbeahard

positiontonavigatebecausethoseinvolvedinhuertosfeelproudofbeingabletoselltheir

productstopeopleoutsideoftheirdirectcommunity.Atthetimewhenthewomenwere

interviewed,somenotedthatthehuertoswereproducingenoughforvolunteersandlocal

communitymembersbutnotenoughtoselltootherpeople.Valeriaaddedthatingenerala

lotofworkneedstobedonetocreateandstrengthenthelocalmarketsforvendors.

Somewomenmentionedthatitwashardtofindorgettoalocationwherelocally

grownproducewassold.Thismakesbuyingfromnearbycommunitiesmucheasier.

Anotherhurdleafewwomenmentionedisdealingwithcommunitymemberswhowant

produceforfree.Ericaaddedthatmostpeopledon’tknowhowmuchtimeandeffortgoes

intogrowingaproduct.Othersourcesofincomeforthehuertosincludeofferingurban

agricultureworkshopsandsellingplantsforconservationprojects.

Qualityofproducts

Inorderforpeopletosupportlocalfarmerstheymustexperiencethedifferencein

tasteandquality,asexpressedbyMarisa.Mostwomenhadthisperceptionthatthelackof

chemicalsbeingusedonthehuertosresultedinbettertastingproduce.EricaandLinda

addedthateatingleafygreensboughtatthegrocerystoretastedlikechemicalsin

comparisontothemoredesirabletastefromtheleafygreenstheycouldacquireintheir

39

huertos.Antoniaaddedthatnotonlywassheeatingbetterqualityproducebutshewasalso

savingmoney.Duetotheperceptionofhigherqualityandbettertastingproduceatleast

twohuertossoldtheirproducetohigh-endrestaurants.Noemialsoaddedthathuertosalso

growitemsthatarenottypicallyconsumedorproducedontheislandduetoculturaldiets.

Mayranotedthathuertosnormallyexposechildrentodifferentfruitsandvegetablesand

canpotentiallychangeconsumptionpatternsoftheyouth,influencingthemtoeathealthier

andfresherproduce.Thus,thereweremanybenefitstohavingqualitythatwasperceived

asbetterthangroceryproduce.

Volunteers

Everywomaninterviewedmentionedalackofvolunteersathuertos.Eachwoman

hasattemptedmorethanonemethodtoreachouttopeopleincludingwordofmouth,

events,flyers,andFacebookevents.Antoniaaddedthatifpeoplevolunteered,therewould

benoneedtosellthemproducts,theycouldallshare.Thelongevityandstrengthofthe

huertoisdependentoncommunitysupport,accordingtoEva.Therewereatleasttwo

huertoswhohadasignificantamountofcollegestudentsasvolunteers.Onehuertoworked

directlywithalocaluniversityandtheotherdidnot.

Anothersourceofvolunteerswasthroughvolunteerbrigades.Thesebrigadescome

fromallovertheislandtohelpvariousentities,includinghuertos.Lindanotedthat

brigadeswerevitaltohelpinghercleanupherhuertoafterHurricaneMaria.Mayraadded

thatpeoplegenerallyunderestimatethevalueofvolunteersbecausetheirlaborisfree.She

addedthatthesmallgroupofvolunteersultimatelygetstriedandcannotvolunteer

anymore.Onlyonewomanexplicitlymentionedthatshewishedthatthereweremore

adults(non-collegestudents)whovolunteered.

40

WhatthewomenenjoyIdentifyingwhatwomenenjoywasveryimportanttoincludeinthisresearch.It

wasimportanttoincludeanarrativeofwhattheyarefondoftohighlightwhytheychoseto

facesomeofthedifficultiesthatarisewithbeinginvolvedwithahuerto.Inaddition,itwas

alsoimportanttofindoutofwomenactuallyenjoyedgrowingtheirownproduceorifit

wasdonemoreoutofnecessity.Overall,mostwomenexpressedthattheyfeltvery

positivelyaboutthehuertos.

Thethingsthatwomenenjoyaboutthehuertosvariedwomanbywoman.However,

therearesomecommonthemesthatcameup.Womenstatedthatcommunitymembers

enjoytheproductsgrownatthehuertos.Yolandabelievesthatpeopleenjoybeingableto

haveaccesstofruittreesinacity,anareawheretherenormallyarenone.Tothatpoint,

Marissamentionedthathavingthefinalproductandbeingabletosellitisalsoahighly

enjoyedactivity.Sheaddedthatgettingthefinalproductmakespeoplefeelaccomplished

becausetherearemanystagesthatneedtobecompletedbeforegettingthefinalproduct.

Threeofthewomeninterviewedsaidthattheirfavoritepartwasplantingseedsand

witnessingtheirgrowth.Antoniaexpressedthatoneofthethingssheenjoyedwasbeing

abletoimplementwhatshelearnedfromherfatherwhenshewasgrowingupinthe

countryside.Shealsoaddedthatshelikedsittingdownintheeveningsanddehulling

pigeonpeas.Carinasaidherfavoritethingwasbeingabletocreateconnectionsbetween

peoplethatcancollaborateonfutureprojects.Someothernon-agronomicthingspeople

enjoyincludebeingabletospendtimewithlike-mindedpeople,havingaccesstoproduce

withouthavingtogotothegrocerystore,communityeventsheldatthehuertos,anda

spaceforkidstoplayandreceivehomeworkhelp.

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Anothernon-agronomicbenefitofhuertosarethetherapeuticeffectsofinteracting

withnature.Onewomaninterviewedstatedthatbeinginvolvedinhuertosmakesherfeel

asifsheiscontributingtoasolutiontotheissueoflackoffreshproduceinPuertoRico.

Ericastatedthatworkinginthehuertohelpsherdestress.Shealsoaddedthatbeingableto

experiencethegrowthofplantisgreatforthesoul.Beinginvolvedinhuertosisalsoaway

forwomenwhogrewupinthecountrysidefarmingtogetbackintouchwiththoseroots.

Youthinvolvement

Despitemanywomenexpressingthatyoungpeoplearethefutureofagriculturein

PuertoRico,somewomenalsofeltasifyoungpeopledon’twanttodothehardlaborthatis

requiredforagriculturalworkandthatperhapsresultsinthelownumberofvolunteers.A

differentexperiencewasexpressedbyCarina,whoprimarilyworkswithchildren.She

addedthatteachersdonotrecognizetheinfluencethattheyhaveandthatthechildren

have.Shesaidthatifachildhasbeenlearningaboutagricultureatschool,theymight

mentionitathomeandinfluencetheirparentstostartahuerto.However,thispotentialhas

notbeenrecognized.Likewise,EricaandCarinabothmentionedthatthereisalackof

agriculturaleducationforchildren.Theybelievethatchildrenareinterestedhoweverthere

isn’tmuchinstitutionalsupport.Exposuretoagriculturethereforecomesfromexperiences

outsideofschool,likeatcommunitygardens.

However,thisexposureoutsideofschoolislimited.Forexample,atLydia’shuerto

theydoabriefsummercampandatNoemi’shuertothereisaregularprogramthatruns

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theentireschoolyearandtakesabreakduringthesummer.However,bothofthese

programsarelimitedtothechildrenthatliveinthosecommunities.

Mayaaddedthatchildrenwereessentialfortheestablishmentofthehuertoshe

workedatit.Itwasneighborhoodchildrenwhohadtheideatoestablishacompost

business,whichwhentheywereconnectedwithalocalprofessorinterestedinurban

agricultureturnedintoacommunityurbanfarms.Thesecommunityhuertosarealso

valuablebecausetheycandevelopcommunityleaderswhocontinuetobeinvolvedwith

thehuertoforalongtime.

Whenlivinginurbanareas,huertosbecomeanoasisforchildren.Theyareexposed

tomoregreeneryandareexposedtowheretheirfoodcomesfrom.AtthehuertoNoemi

manages,theyusedtoprovideyouthinvolvedwithastipendfortheirlabor.However,in

recentyearstheyhaven’thadthefundingtoaffordthestipend.Someoftheworkthat

childrenathuertosdoiswaterplants,preparingthesoil,andweeding.Noemiaddsthatitis

importanttorememberthatthechildrenwillgettired.Victoriaexpressedthatitiseasier

toworkwithchildrenthanadultsbecausechildrenaremoreflexiblethanadults.Indeed,

childrenareveryimportantforthesuccessofahuerto.Noeminoted,“Losniñossonel

corazondelhuerto,sonlaspersonassiemprepresente,sonlosniños.Losniñossonlosque

estansiempredeapoyo..(Thekidsaretheheartofthishuerto,theyarethepeople

consistentlypresent.Thekidsarealwaystheonestosupportus)”.

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PuertoRicanFoodSystemandFoodSovereignty

FoodsysteminPuertoRico

WheninterviewedabouttheoverallfoodsysteminPuertoRicoandhowhuertosfit

intothatsystem,womentalkedaboutfoodimportsinPuertoRicoandhowthereisalack

oflocallygrownfoodproductsingeneral.Someoftheolderwomenexpressedthatover

theirlifetimetherehasbeenlessaccesstolocallygrownproducts.Whilesomeofthe

youngerwomenbelievedthatthereweremorelocallygrownproducts.Mayaexpressed

thatfoodimportsbeganinthe1940swhenPuertoRicobegantofocusonotherindustries;

furthersupportingtheolderwomensentimentsthatavailabilityoflocalfoodshaschanged

intheirlifetime.Mayaaddsthatthedrasticchangesinthefoodsystemhaveoccurredinthe

lifetimeofoneperson,becauseapersonborninthe40swouldbe80yearsoldin2020.

Anotherobstacleidentifiedisthatitisnoteasyforpeopletobuylocallygrown

products.Thereareafewfarmersmarketswithlocalfarmers,howevertheymightnotbe

easytogettoorsomeofthefarmersmarketsareonlyweekendsandsomeareonlyafew

timesamonth.Manywomensaidthatitisveryrareforalocallygrownproducetobesold

atlocalgrocerystores.Ericaaddedthatonereasonisthatlocalfarmersdonotgrow

enoughproductsforgrocerystorestosell.Thisalsoincludeshuertos,theyaretoosmallto

produceasubstantivequantityforgrocerystorestosell,asmentionedabove.Atleasttwo

womeninterviewedmentionedthatHurricaneMariawasawake-upcalltotheentire

island;thattheyaretoodependentonfoodimports.ItwasstatedmanytimesthatPuerto

Ricohasgreatclimateandotheragronomicconditionsthatmakeitagreatlocationtogrow

manyproducts.However,itwasalsoexpressedthatlocalpeopleinfrequentlytake

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advantageoftheseattributesanditisoftenforeignerswhotakeontheseprojects.Many

womenwerehopefulabouttherolethatyoungpeopleareplayinginthecurrent

agriculturalsectorandbelievedthatthesefolkshavethemindsettogrowmorefoodinan

environmentally-consciouswaywhilealsobeingmoreconsciousconsumers,andthey

believehuertosfitintothesenewideals.

WomeninUrbanAgricultureinPuertoRico

Mostofthewomeninterviewedsaidthatthemajorityoftheirvolunteerswere

women.Whenaskedwhywomenmakeupthemajorityofvolunteerstherewerealotof

similaranswers.Forexample,womenhavethisnaturalabilitytogivelifeandmore

nurturingandtheytakethatskilltothegarden.Similarly,manysaidthatitisthematernal

instinctthatwomenhavethatleadsthemtothegarden.Inaddition,manystatedthatthey

believethatthedominantpresenceofwomenisbecausewomenaretheonesthatcookand

preparefoodfortheirfamilies.Havingahuertoorbeinginvolvedinonegivesthemthe

opportunitytohavefresherandhealthierproductsfortheirfamilies.Forexample,Linda

statedthatthehuertoinhercommunitycameaboutthroughaninitiativefromawomen’s

groupthatidentifiedneedsintheircommunity.Furthermore,anotherreasonidentified

washuertosareawayforwomenthatarefromthecountrysidetoreconnectwiththeir

roots.Itisimportanttonotethatwhenaskedwhytheythoughtmostofthevolunteers

werewomenmostofthewomenhadtotakeamomenttoreflectandcomeupwithan

answer.Manywomenstartedoffbysayingtheydidn’tknow.

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FoodResiliency

Collaboration

Themaincollaboratorswithhuertosingeneral,werelocaluniversities.Thehuerto

thatMayaandNoemiworkedathadastrongpartnershipwiththelocaluniversity.And,as

Mayapointedout,thatthelongevityofthehuertoisduetothesupporttheyreceivefrom

thelocaluniversity.Marisaaddedthatthereneedstobemoredirectgovernmentsupport

andcollaborationwiththeiroffices.Victoriahighlightedtheimportanceofcollaboration

betweengroupswithmutualinterests.Collaboratingwithothergroupsfacilitatesprojects

becausethereismorefundingavailable.Inaddition,bothgroupscanmutuallylearnnew

techniquesandmethodsfromoneanother.

CapacityBuilding

Womeninterviewedmentionedhowparticipantsandthemselveshavelearnedalot

aboutagricultureandagronomicpracticesfromeachother.Ericaaddedthatshewould

learnthingsatthehuertosshevolunteeredatandthenimplementtheminherown.Huerto

managerscanbuildcapacityincommunitymembersbyhostingeducationalworkshops.

Carinaaddedthatmanytimespeoplethatliveincitiesdon’tnormallylearnorhave

exposuretoagricultureoragriculturaleducation.Ericafurtheraddedthatpeopleat

huertoswouldexpressbeingfrustratedandthattheyneverhadlearnedhowtoplantseeds

andharvestitemssaying,“Peroporqueanosotrosnonosenseñanasembrarsieslobasico

queunodebesabar(thisisthebasicthingweneedtolearntosurvive)”.Furthermore,

Yvetteaddedthathuertosneedtobethecapacitybuilderforindividuals.Valentinabelieves

46

thatwithoutcapacitybuildingthefutureofhuertosisthreatened.Sheaddedthat

individualswhodon’thavetheskillscannotprovideaclearpathforwardforthehuertos.

Sustainability

Whenwomeninterviewedmentionedthewordsustainability,theyuseditmostlyin

referencetoenvironmentallysustainability.Allhuertosusednochemicalinputsand

utilizedcompostandmanure.Inaddition,theyallusedagroecologicalfarmingmethods.

Ericaaddedthatbyusingproductsfromherownhuertosheavoidedconsumingthemany

inputsthatproducefromthegroceryhas,likethegasneededfortransportationorthe

plasticcontainersleafygreenscomein.Shealsobelievesthatduetotheagroecological

methodsusedinthehuertos,peopleinvolvedwillbemoreinfluencedtochangetheirhabits

towardstheenvironmentandbemoremindful.Anotheraspectofsustainabilityisthe

socialandeconomiccomponentofit,whichensuresthatprojectshavearemaintainedfor

longer.Valentinabelievesthatpeopleinvolvedinhuertosdonothavethecreativityor

knowledgetoforwardlycarryoutthehuerto.Furthermore,Yvetteaddsthatatherhuerto,

theyalsogrowplantsthatareusedforsoilerosionconservationprojects.

Community

Participantchangesovertime

Morethanonewomaninterviewedtalkedaboutthe“boomandbust”huertos

experienceinvolunteers.Whentheyfirstopen,therearealotofvolunteers,howeverafter

afewyearsthenumberofvolunteersbegintodecrease.Mosthuertoshadlessthan10

regularvolunteers.

Inresponsetothisquestion,Carinasaidthatsupportforthehuertodoesn’tstayat

100%butwhenitdoes,itisbecausethoseinvolvedareactuallyveryinterested.Sheadded

47

thatpeoplethatstayandgetmoreinvolvedgenerallyhavemoreexperienceandmore

desiretogetinvolved.IncontrastErica,notedthatshesensedagenerallackofinterest

fromcommunitymembers.Shesaid,“Whentheydovolunteertheyworkforamonthor

two.Theybegintogettiredandvolunteerless.It’shardwork,it’snoteasy.”Sheaddedthat

mosthuertosonlyhave1-3volunteersleft.

However,manybeneficiariesofhuertosstillsaythattheysupportthehuertodespite

notbeingdirectlyinvolved.Lindaadded,“Siyofueroapartamentoporaptartamentotodoel

mundotevadecirqueapoyoelhuerto(Ifwentapartmentbyapartmentandaskedifthey

supportedthehuerto,theywouldallsayyes)”.Theybuyfromus”.Lindaalsonoticedthatat

thehuertoshewasinchargeof,theyhavehadmorevolunteersinthepast.Participant

changesarealsoexpectedduringsignificantevents,likeHurricaneMaria.Mosthuertos

notedadecreaseinvolunteersafterthehurricane.Mostpeoplehadotherthingstoworry

aboutafterthehurricaneandmanypeoplealsohadtomove.Volunteershiphasn’t

recoveredafterthehurricane,makingalreadyscarevolunteersscarcer.

SignificanceofWhatisGrown

ThebulkofwhatisgrowninhuertosurbanosinSanJuanareproductsthatare

typicallyusedinPuertoRicancuisine.Onewomannotedthatinthefutureshewishesto

implementamoreparticipatorysenseofgrowing,andgatherinputfrompeoplethat

frequentthehuerto.Afewwomenalsonotedthattheyalsogrowmedicinalplantsintheir

huertos.Mayraalsoaddedthathergoalwastoutilizespaceatthehuertosheworkedatto

encouragepeopletogrowproduceandstartasmallbusiness.

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WhotheSpaceBelongsto

Oneinterestingfindingisthatperhapswhothecommunityperceivesthespace

belongstomayaffectcommunityinvolvement.Forexample,Antoniamentionedthatshe

hadlittletonohelpfromthecommunity.Shealsoaddedthatmanypeoplecallitherhuerto

(Antonia’shuerto).Inaddition,thehuertoislockedtothecommunityandsheistheonly

onewithakey.Ericasupportedthiswhenshementionedaschoolhuertothatceasesto

existduetoschoolclosuresafterHurricaneMaria.Shestatedthatthecommunityaround

theschoolnevertookownershipofthehuerto.Despitebeinginvitedtotakepartinhuerto

activities,thecommunitymembersneverreallyparticipated.Thiswasamajorhurdlethat

Mayaidentifiedduringhertimeasmanageratahuerto.Atthehuertoshemanaged,the

localuniversity“heldthekeys”.Communitymembershadestablishedthatshehada

perceivedownershipsinceonlysheheldthekeyandbecausetheuniversityhiredherto

managethehuerto.Sheaddedthatcommunitymembersmightthink,“esdelauniversidady

yotengoderechoenestehorario(thisistheuniversity’sandIhavetherighttouseitduring

thistimeframe”).Inaddition,shestatesthatshethinksthatcommunitymembersdon’tfeel

likethehuertoistheirsorevenasksfortheirowndesignatedspacetoplantproductsas

theywish.Incontrast,atthehuertoYolandaworksattherearemanypeoplethathave

keys.Yolandaaddsthatpeopledoasktohavetheirownplotofland.Womenalso

expressedthattheywouldliketobeabletohiresomeonefromthecommunitytobein

chargeofthehuerto,butsofarnoonehasthefundingforit.

SignificanceofSharedSpace

Huertosaremuchmorethanjustaplacewherepeoplecanacquirefreshproduce.

Forexample,inAntonia’sneighborhood,thehuertobecameaplacethathelpedimprove

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thereputationoftheneighborhood.Similarly,thehuertothatMayaandNoemiworkedat

alsoreplacedanabandonedlot.Thehuertonotonlybecomesabeautifulgreenareabut

alsoaproductivearea.Inaddition,peoplewanttomakesureitispresentableandwell-

maintained.DuringmyinterviewwithNoemi,communitymemberscameoverandasked

herwhenthehuertowasgoingtobeopenagain(theytookamonthbreak)becausethe

weedsneededtobepulled.Noemialsoaddedthatthehuertoisanimportantsocial

gatheringspotwherechildrencelebratetheirbirthdaysandcommunitymembers

celebrateholidays.Inaddition,thehuertobecameanimportantgatheringplaceafter

HurricaneMaria.Communitymemberswouldmeettheretogathernecessarygoodslike

waterorchargetheirphones,butitalsobecameaplacewherepeoplecouldexchange

knowledge.ThehuertothatYvetteworksatwassituatedinbetweenhigh-income

apartmentsandlow-incomeapartmentsandYvetteexpressedthatthehuertohasbecomea

neutralarea,whereeveryonecanenjoythesharedspace.

SupportofGovernmentandHurricaneMaria

ResponsetoHurricaneMaria

AfterHurricaneMaria,manyhuertosfacedthetoughtaskofrebuildingand

rehabilitatingtheirhuertos.AccordingtoMarisa,beforethehurricanetherewere15

huertosthatsheknewofinSanJuan;afterthehurricaneonly7remained.Thisisbecauseof

themanychallengeshuertosfacedtoreconstruct.Ifhuertoswereheavilyimpactedanddid

nothaveastrongsupportnetworkitisalotoflaborforafewfolkstodo,especiallyifthey

alsoneedtoworryabouttheimpactthehurricanehadontheirownpersonallivesAfew

womenmentionedthatalmosttwoandahalfyearsafterHurricaneMariatheirhuertos

werestillnotfullyrecovered.Manywomenidentifiedtheirowncommunitiesasasourceof

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helptohelpcleanupthehuertos.Ericaaddedthatmostcommunitieswelcomedhelpfrom

outsiders,likeuniversitygroups,whichwereidentifiedbymanywomenasamainsource

ofhelpaswell.However,Ericaalsoaddedthattheabilityofahuertotorecoverwas

dependentonthecommunity,insomecommunitiesthehuertosweren’tapriority.

Furthermore,Marisaexpressedthathuertoswithstrongleadershavebeenabletobounce

back.

Strongleadershipisoneofthereasonsthehuertosofthewomeninterviewedinthis

researchwereabletorecover;becausetheywereimportanttothewomenwhomanaged

themorvolunteeredatthem.Forexample,Antoniahadlittletonohelpincleaningupher

huertoafterthehurricaneandsheaddedthatitwasmostlyherandtheformercommunity

presidentthatrecoveredthehuerto.However,shealsonotedthatherhuertowasn’tvery

impacted.

Ericailluminatedhowthelackofcommunityhelpcouldnegativelyimpactthe

recoveryofhuertos.Whenshewenttogocheckonhuertosafterthehurricane,Ericasawa

communityinwhichtherewasahuertothathadbeenflourishingwasdestroyedandhad

beenusedasaplaceforpeopletodumptheirtrash.Theoriginalmanagersofthehuerto

hadtomoveduetothehurricaneandnooneinthecommunityhadtriedtopreservethe

huerto.Evenifcommunitieshadaflourishinghuerto,thepersonalimpactofthehurricane

tothemanagercouldcausethathuertotonolongerexist.

Furthermore,manywomenexpressedthatHurricaneMariawasalessonlearnedto

themselvesandmanypeopleonhowvulnerabletheywerenotonlytonaturebutalsoin

regardtofoodavailabilityontheisland.Mayasaid“…alarealidadquePuertoRicoesuna

isla,ysinovienenbarcas,sinovienenada,vahaberhambre(...PuertoRicoisanislandand

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iftherearenoshipscomingin,thereisnothingandtherewillbehunger)”.Victoriafurther

addedthatthissenseofvulnerabilityalsoledmanypeopletolearnaboutsolidarityand

autonomy,throughhelpingoneanotherafterthehurricaneandalsorealizingthatPuerto

Ricogrowsverylittleofthefoodactuallyconsumedontheisland.Shebelievesthatmore

peoplearenowawareofthelackoflocalagriculturalproduction.

DuetothedisastrousimpactsthatHurricaneMariahadontheirhuertos,some

womenaretakingprecautionarymeasuresintheeventofanotherhurricane.Forexample,

Noemiisworkingoninstallingarainwaterfiltrationdevicethatwouldmakerainwater

potableforthekidsthatspendtimeatthehuerto.Shealsoidentifiedthatthiswouldbe

usefulintheeventofahurricaneandiftherearenowaterbottlesavailable.Inaddition,she

isalsowritingacontingencyplanintheeventofahurricaneandhowthehuertomust

prepare,sheaddedthatthepurposeisforthehuertotobemoreresilientinthefuture.

Yvetteaddedthatthehuertoshevolunteeredathascompletelychangedafterthe

hurricane.Afterthehurricaneshesaidtheydidn’tthinktheywouldbeabletobounceback.

However,everyonesatdownanddesignedwhattheywantedinthe“newhuerto”.For

example,theyhavebuilttablesthataretallenoughsothatplantsdon’tflood.Lindaadded

thatatthehuertoshemanageswhentheyreplacedstufftheythoughtabouttheeaseof

beingabletomovetheitemsomewherewhereitwouldnotgotdamaged.However,these

precautionsarenotbeingtakenbyeveryone.Antoniasaidthatsheisnotdoinganything

differentafterHurricaneMariaandhasnottakenanyprecautionsincaseofanother

hurricane.Thismightbebecauseherhuertowasn’tasnegativelyimpactedasothers.The

reconstructionofeachhuertoisdependentonthedamagethatwasreceivedand

volunteersandmanagersrealizingthedamagethatthehuertomayacquireiftheydon’t

52

act.Furthermorethestrategieswomenusedtoprotectthehuertofromfurthershowcases

theirinnovationandcreativity.

SupportofGovernment

Mostofthewomeninterviewedexpressedthattheyhadverylittlesupportfromthe

governmentintermsoffunding.Afewmentionedthatgovernmentofficialshadgoneto

theirhuertostohaveatour,butthatwasabouttheextentoftheirsupport.Duetothislack

ofsupportbeforeHurricaneMaria,nonehadreceivedsupportfromthegovernmentafter

thehurricanetorebuildandcleanthehuertos.WomeninterviewedbelievethatthePuerto

Ricangovernmentismuchmoreinterestedinsupportingagriculturalprojectsthatare

largerinscopeandscale.Manywomenexpressedthattheyhadreceivedfundingthrough

theprivatesector,donations,andrevenuefromtheirsales.Carinaexpressedthatthese

entitiesfillinthevoidthatthegovernmentshouldfulfill.Furthermore,Marisaaddedthat

thereispotentialforlocalmunicipalgovernmentstofurthersupporthuertosiftheState

governmentdoesnot.

Discussion

Here,Ipresentthefindingswithinagreaterdiscussionofdependencytheoryand

standpointtheory.Ifocusonvulnerability,labor,dependencyandresiliency.Leaningon

scholars,Ihavechosentounpackonlyafewofthemostresonantfindings.Thesewere

sentimentsthatmeantalottothewomenandcorrespondtomyownexperienceasa

LatinalivinginPuertoRicoandvisitinggrocerystoresandlearningfromthewomen’s

experiences.

53

First,thewomeninterviewedsaidthatthemajorityoftheirparticipantswere

children,youngadults,orseniors.Theyalsospokethatthehuertoisaspotwherethereis

anintergenerationalknowledgeexchange,whereolderpeoplecanletyoungerpeople

knowaboutagriculturalpracticesusedinthecountrysideyearsago.Indevelopment

projects,childrenandtheelderlyareoftensomeofthemostignoredgroups.Thisleadsto

vulnerabilityamongtheelderly,especiallyintermsoffoodinsecurity.Youngchildrenand

adultsoftendonotthinkofagricultureasafeasiblecareerchoiceduetoalotofstigmas

aroundagriculturallabor(Bennell,2010inEissler&Brennan,2015).However,inPuerto

Rico,thesefindingsindicatethatmovementstogrowmorefoodinPuertoRicoareledby

youngerpeopleandmosthuertoshavesomesortofeducationaloutreachprogramtoteach

childrenaboutagriculture.MoreworkneedstobedoneinPuertoRicotoprovide

agriculturallearningopportunitiestostudents,especiallyinurbanareas.

Myfindingsindicatethatadecreasenumberinvolunteerswillresultinhuerto

managers,allwomen,havingtoworklongerandmorehoursatthehuerto.Lookingatthis

throughafeministlens,thesefindingsshowthatinanefforttoprovidetheirfamilieswith

fresherandhealthierfood,womenhavetotakeonadditionalworkontopoftheirother

responsibilities.Similarly,SomCastellano(2016)foundthatwomeninvolvedin

AlternativeFoodNetworksdomorephysicallaborinprovidingfoodfortheirfamilies.In

addition,shealsofoundthatwomenwithlowerincomesexertmorephysicallaborthan

thoseofhigherincomesinacquiringfood(SomCastellano,2016).WomeninPuertoRico

expressedthaturbanagricultureisawayforthemtoprovidethemselves,family,and

communitymemberswithdelicious,healthy,andaffordablefoodinawaythatdoesnot

harmtheenvironment.Inthiswaythesewomenarecontributingtothewell-beingofthose

54

insidetheirhomesandtheoverallcommunity,city,andarchipelago(SomCastellano,

2016).InGenderStudies,weoftentalkabouttheSecondShiftthatwomenwork,inwhich

womenleavetheirpaidlaborjobandcomehometocontinuetofeedtheirfamilies,clean,

andtakecareofchildren(Hochschild,1989).However,wemustnowalsoconsiderthe

thirdshiftoflabormanywomeninlower-incomecountriesdo:thelaborthatwomendoto

providetheirfamilieswithfoodorbetter-qualityfood(SomCastellano,2016).When

workinginthehuerto,womenarealsoawareofthebenefitstotheoverallsocietyand

environmentthattheiractionsgenerate.Weknowtheseexperiencestobetruebecauseare

thelivedexperiencesofthesewomenandtheyarethemostknowledgeableonthese

experiences.InPuertoRico,thisactionofprovidingandgrowingtheirownfoodfor

themselvesisamechanismforwomentobemoreautonomousfromtheUSinfiltratedfood

system.ThiswouldalsoperhapsmovePuertoRicofrombeinga“peripherycountry”in

relationtotheUnitedStates.

Intheinterviews,manywomenalludedtoandtalkedabouttheoveralldependency

thatthePuertoRicanfoodsystemhasonimportedfood,mostlyfromtheUnitedStates.

ThiscorroborateswhatGunder-Frankdescribedastherelationshipbetweenthecoreand

peripherycountry.However,inthecaseofPuertoRicoandtheUnitedStates,theperiphery

country(PuertoRico)isprovidingmanufacturedgoodsinexchangeforfoodandother

necessities,fromthecorecountry(theUnitedStates).ThismightbearesultoftheUnited

StateshistoricallyalreadyusingPuertoRicoforitssugarcaneandtobaccoindustryandthe

economicdevelopmentapproachesinthe1950sthatshiftedtheeconomyfromagriculture

tomanufacturing.

55

Wecanalsousethisframeofperipheryandcorecountriestoexamineotherissues

thatcomeupintheinterviews,liketheoverallchangeinlocaldietsinPuertoRico.Many

womenexpressedthatintheircommunitiesitwaseasiertoobtainfoodfromfastfood

restaurantsorpreparedmealsfromthegrocerystore.Theperiphery/corerelationship

withtheUSalsobroughtinacolonialdiet.PopulatingPuertoRicowithfastfood

restaurantsbasedintheUnitedStates,increasestherevenuefortheserestaurants.As

PuertoRicansconsumefastfoodmore,theirhealthmaybeimpactedinnegativeways.This

similarlyreflectstheeffectthattheconquistadores’dietthateventuallyledtothedeathof

theTaino’sacrosstheCaribbean(Cook,2002inGarcía-Polanco&RodríguezCruz,2019).

Thus,theperipheryandcoreframework,describedbydependencyscholarssupportsthat

notonlydoesithaveanadverseeffectfortheperipheryeconomybutalsomayhavean

adverseeffectonthehealthofpeoplelivingintheperipherycountry.And,inthisstudy,

thewomeninterviewedreinforcedthistheorywiththeirownlivedexperiences.

Wecanalsousetheframeworkofperiphery/coretounderstanddynamicswithin

thesamecountry.Forexample,theroleofmenandwomeninagricultureishistorically

verygendered.Whenpeoplethinkofafarmer,theimagethatcomestomindistypicallya

man.However,manywomeninterviewedinPuertoRiconotedthatitwasverycommonfor

womeninthepasttohavesmallareasintheirbackyardsdedicatedtogrowingtheirown

herbs,spices,andmedicinalplants.Womenstatedthatthispracticewasslightlyless

commontodayduetospaceissues,butsomewomendidfindthespacetoatleastgrow

medicinalplants.Thewomeninterviewedsharedthatintheirexperiencesthatwomen

wereveryinvolvedinurbanagricultureinPuertoRico,leadingmetobelievethatthis

mightalsobethecaseinruralareasofPuertoRico.Asasociety,wetendtothinkthatthe

56

extentofagriculturaltaskswomencontributeinarelimitedtopreparingandcookingare

food,thusplacingthemintheperiphery.However,womeninterviewedexpressedthatthey

workedinallaspectsofthehuertoincludingpreparingtheland,harvesting,selling,etc.,in

additiontoalotofadministrativeworkthatisdonetocoordinatevolunteers,acquiretools,

recruitpeople,andmanymore.

Inherwork,EsterBoserup(1970),foundthattherolethatwomenplayin

agricultureisunderestimatedandunaccountedfor.ThisremainstrueinPuertoRicotothis

day.Theriskofdoingthisisthatpolicymakerswillnotbeabletopassappropriatepolicies

forurbanagricultureandperhapsagricultureingeneralwithoutbeingawareofthe

genderednature.Thus,theperiphery/coreframeworkcanbeusedtodeterminewho

wouldbethemostaffectedbycertainpoliciesandwhatthosepoliciesneedtoaddress.

Furthermore,wecanalsousethisframeworkwhenspeakingoftherelationshipbetween

ruralandurbanagriculture.Weoftenassumethatruralfarmsaretheonlyonescapableof

providingfoodtopeople,thusunderestimatingthepotentialofurbanagriculture.Urban

andruralagriculturecanworkinasymbioticwayinwhichruralareascanprovidesome

necessitiessuchasmeatandgrainsthatmightnotbeaseasytogrowinanurbanarea,and

urbanareascangrowfruitsandvegetables.Thisway,theydonotcompetewithone

anotherbutcomplementoneanother.Thedependencytheoryframeworkofcoreand

peripherycountriesnotonlyworkstoassessinequalitiesbetweencountriesbutalsohelps

assessrelationshipswithincountries.

Atthetimethattheinterviewstookplace,mosthuertoswerebarelyrecovering

fromHurricaneMaria.Manywereonlyrecentlyreachingtheirnormalproductionand

schedules.Beforethehurricane,manywomenexpressedthattheyreceivedverylittle

57

supportfromthegovernmentandthissentimentremainedthesameafterthehurricane.

ThissentimentreflectsJuran’s(2012)findingthatafterdisastersaccesstoaidand

rehabilitationresourcesarenotasreadilyavailabletowomenastheyaretomen.

Inaddition,whenahuertoislostordamagedforalongperiodoftime,that

communityhaslostasourceofaffordableandfreshfruitsandvegetables.Thisis

particularlyimportantinPuertoRicowhere33%ofthepopulationisfoodinsecure,and

whereitcanbeexpectedthatinlow-incomeareasthispercentageismuchhigher

(Santiago-Torresetal.,2019).Inaddition,communitiesloseacommunitygatheringarea

thatisimportantforchildrenandadultstospendtimetogether.Thesehuertoscanbe

importantareasafterdisastersforpeopletoexchangeinformationandgatherneeded

materials,similartowhatNoemisharedinherinterview.Usingstandpointtheoryto

inquireabouttheeffectthatHurricaneMariahadonthesehuertosmadeitpossibleto

centerthenarrativeofwomenandtheirexperiences.Manytimes,mediareportsfocuson

onecollectivenarrative,howeverpeopleofdifferentgender,ethnicity,andother

socioeconomicindicatorswillbeimpactedbyadisasterdifferently.“Afailuretoaddress

genderwillreducetheefficacyofadisasterresponseinaddressingtheneedsoftheentire

affectedpopulation”writesAyeshaAhmad.Shealsoaddsthatdisasterscanbecasestudies

thatleadtosignificantdevelopmentstowardssocialchange(Ahmad,2018).InPuertoRico

forexample,weknowthatmanypeopleontheislandhaverecognizedtheneedtogrow

morefoodontheislandandbecomelessdependentonimportedfoods.Manypeopleare

moreawareandaremakingeffortstobuylocallygrownproduce.Furthermore,Ahmad

concludesthatresponsetodisastersmustbecateredtothatspecificcommunityand

58

accountforgender“astheorganizingprincipleofdisasterasacontinuousresponse”

(2018).

Oneoftheoverarchingthemesinthisresearchwastheoverallresiliencyofwomen.

Manywomencontinuetoworkatthehuertosdespitehavinglittletonosupportfromthe

governmentandlimitedsupportfromvolunteers.Theydomorelabor,takeonathird-shift,

tomakesurethatthehuertosrunefficiently.Thisresiliencywasevermorepresentafter

HurricaneMaria,whentheyworkedtocleanandrebuildtheirhuertos.Thisresiliencycan

beinterpretedasbeingabletoovercomeachallenge,howeveritisalsoimportantto

interpretintermsofthegivensituation.Itisclearthatthesehuertosareimportanttothese

communitiesbecauseevenafteramajorcatastrophicevent,likeHurricaneMaria,women

choosetorebuildandcleanuptheirhuertos.However,cautionmustbeexercisedwhen

describingpeopleasresilient.TracieL.Jackson,DirectoroftheLouisianaJusticeInstitute,

expressed“Stopcallingmeresilient.Becauseeverytimeyousay,“Ohthey’reresilientthat

meansyoucandosomethingelsetome.Iamnotresilient.”(statedaboutHurricane

Katrinain2005).Furthermore,resiliencyisrootedinovercomingadversityandweshould

becognizantinthatadversity,whatcausesthatadversity,andhowwecanworkto

diminishthatadversityinthefuture.Justbecausesomeoneisdescribedasresilientdoesn’t

meanthattheyshouldn’thavetoolsandpolicyintheirfavortorecoverfasterfroman

eventsuchasahurricane.

Conclusion

Toexpandthereachandscopeofurbanagriculture,thereneedstobegreater

governmentalandcommunitysupportforurbanagriculture.Inaddition,thereneedstobe

59

greatercollaborationamongsturbanfarmsinSanJuan.Duringmytimethere,Ididn’tget

theimpressionthattherewasmuchcollaborationamongstthehuertos.Theyknewofone

anotherandwouldmentioncertainhuertosandtheyhadparticipatedinCalixta-Ortiz’s

researchonhuertosinSanJuan,howevertherewasn’tacohesivegroup.Oneoftheideas

thatwasmentionedtomebyEricaandMarisawasthecreationofacollectiveofurban

farms,inwhicheachfarmspecializedinonethingandtheotherscouldusethatknowledge.

Forexample,onewouldspecializeincompost,preparingseedlings,etc.Furthermore,this

couldbeagreatstartforcreatingastrongurbanagriculturecommunityinSanJuan,where

huertoswouldhavealargerreachbeyondtheircommunities.Inaddition,byforminga

collectivetheywouldhavegreaterinfluencewithpolicymakers.Ifit’sjustoneurban

farmergoingtospeaktoapolicymakeritmightnothaveagreatimpact,howeverifit’s

nineortenfromdistinctcommunitiesitmightmakeadifference.

Inordertohaveproperoversightofurbanagriculturethereneedstobea

collaborativeeffortinwhichthedepartmentsofagriculture,publichealth,urbanhousing,

andeconomicdevelopmenthaveinput.Inaddition,thisalsoneedstobeincollaboration

withcommunitiessothatcommunitieshaveasayonpolicythatdirectlyaffectsthem.The

genderednatureofurbanagriculturealsoneedstobeaddressedinpolicydecisionsand

projectsandifthisisnotaddresseditcouldimpedethesuccessoftheproject.Thiswould

includeassessingwhoisgoingtobeinvolvedintheproject,whattheywanttogrow,and

waystoensurethattheycanparticipate.Thebenefitsthatthesespeaceshaveforchildren

isimportantandtheneedsofchildrenshouldalsobeatthecenteroffuturepolicies.

Furthermore,moreresearchneedstobedoneonwomenandurbanagriculture,urban

agricultureinlowerincomecountries,andwomenanddisasters.Thisresearchproject

60

triedtotouchonallofthesubjects.Withoutdoingresearchonthesetopics,weare

underservingaveryimportantcommunitythathasthepotentialtocreatechangenotonly

withintheirfamiliesbutalsowithintheircommunities.

Aspeoplearoundtheworldcomeupwithsolutionstofeedthegrowingand

increasinglyurbanpopulation,wemustthinkoutsidetheboxofjustincreasingyieldsin

ruralareas.Urbanagricultureisnotgoingtofeedeveryone,itwouldbeirresponsibleto

thinkso.However,itcanprovidefreshfruitsandvegetablestovulnerablecommunitiesin

urbanareas,beasourceofincomeandeducation,andacommunitygatheringarea.

Governmentsmustincreasesupportforurbanagricultureinordertoensurethelongevity

oftheproject,inordertoavoidonlyonepersondoingmostofthelaborforthefarm.

WomeninPuertoRicoareresistingtheimportedorientedfoodsysteminPuertoRicoand

aremakingafoodsystemthathashealthier,fresher,andlocalfoodavailabletopeople

throughoutthearchipelago.

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Appendix Appendix 1: Survey Questions

• Urban farms § ¿Cuál fue su influencia para empezar una huerta urbana? § ¿Cómo reaccionó su familia o comunidad al comenzar la huerta urbana? § ¿Cuáles son las cosas que usted disfruta de la huerta urbana? § ¿Como ha cambiado su huerta con el tiempo?

o Influenced o Knowledge before farming o Deciding what to plan o Support from social network o Selling surplus o Benefits from urban farm

• Disaster/Funding § ¿Cuáles fueron sus primeros pensamientos después de ver su huerta después de

María? § ¿Como fue la respuesta de la comunidad para ayudarse uno a otro después de

María? o Damage o Government help o Effective disaster relief o Easy to locate and identify help o Programs welcome by community members o Funding for UPA

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• Food resiliency o Sufficiency, appropriate, accessible

§ ¿Como ha cambiado el tipo de comida que usted compra a través del tiempo después de involucrase en la huerta?

§ ¿Donde compra usted su comida? § ¿Cuándo ha sentido que no tiene suficiente comida para usted y su familia?

o culturally relevant o Enough Food o affordable/unaffordable o accessibility (transportation/easy to get to) o diverse diet o Who buys the food o How much money is spent o How much money was spent with urban garden

• Food soverignty/ Changes in food system § ¿Según su experiencia cómo ha cambiado la agricultura en Puerto Rico y / el

sistema de comida en los últimos años. § ¿Qué piensa usted de sembrar más productos de comida aquí en Puerto Rico?

o Food system post-Maria o Role of women

• Community Support § ¿Qué piensa usted del apoyo de la comunidad en los huertos urbanos? § cuáles son algunas cosas o costumbres que son culturalmente importantes que los

huertos preservarn que tienen la esencia de Puerto Rico? o Organization for future disasters o Preservation of cultural factors o Cultural Significance of Urban Ag Space