soch111 history of healing · · 2016-11-02soch111 –history of healing session 25 psychology,...
TRANSCRIPT
SOCH111 – History of Healing
www.endeavour.edu.au
Session 25
Psychology, the Mind and
Emotions
Department of Social
Sciences
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 2
Session Aims
o To describe the history of psychology
o To contextualise the healing
relationship
o To develop an understanding of Mind
Body
o To define mindfulness
o To understand the relationship between
spirituality and healing
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 3
Historical Ideas of the Mind
Plato (427 – 347 BCE)
o Wrote about human nature,
the mind and the soul
o Two inter-related worlds of
being and becoming
o The unknown can be
accessed through the mind
(reason)
o Archetypal forms
o The soul has significance
beyond the body By English: Copy of Silanion - Marie-Lan
Nguyen (User:Jastrow) 2009, CC BY 2.5,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.p
hp?curid=7831217
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Renè Descartes (1596 – 1650)
o Insisted on logic to find truth
o Emphasised subjectivity – one’s
own thoughts and experiences are
primary
o Consciousness is central to being
• “I think, therefore I am.”
o Believed that unconscious mental
states do not exist
o Mind and the body are separate
substances
Historical Ideas of the Mind
By After Frans Hals (1582/1583–
1666) - Public Domain,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/
w/index.php?curid=2774313
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Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)
o Categories that form the basic
structure of the mind are universal
o The self is the transcendental ego
o Every aspect of the experienced
world has its place in a larger
purpose
o The world is not limited to
knowledge
o Reality exists beyond what we can
sense
• Unconscious mental states
Historical Ideas of the Mind
By Anonymous -
/History/Carnegie/kant/portrait.
html, Public Domain,
https://commons.wikimedia.org
/w/index.php?curid=897016
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Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)
“Founder of psychoanalysis”
o Austrian neurologist
o Developed theory that humans
have an unconscious
• Unconscious desires and
experiences
o Published theories of the mind
(Ego, Id and Superego)
o Acceptance of the existence of
unconscious mental states and
processes
Historical Ideas of the Mind
By Max Halberstadt - Public Domain,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/ind
ex.php?curid=5234443
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Carl Jung (1875 – 1961)
o Swiss psychiatrist/psychotherapist
o Founded “Analytic Psychology”
o Development through confrontation
with unconscious
o Primary goal - achieve individuation
o Collective unconscious
o Deepest layer of the unconscious
expressed in dreams
o Archetypes - persona, animus,
anima, shadow
Historical Ideas of the Mind
By unknown, upload by Adrian Michael -
Ortsmuseum Zollikon, Public Domain,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.
php?curid=35027304
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Consciousness
o One’s ability to know
and perceive
o More than awareness
of our mental state
o Dynamic integration of
information
o Most commonly
described in subjective
terms
• “what it is like”By Robert Fludd - Public Domain,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/i
ndex.php?curid=699073
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 9
Philosophy of Mind
Dualism
o Conscious mind is
non-physical
o Can conceive of
our conscious state
without the body
o Link to belief in
immortality
o Free will
Materialism (physicalism)
o The mind is the brain
o Consciousness is
caused by neural
activity
o Mind and matter
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 10
Revision Questions
o Name three historical philosophers who theorised
on the nature of the mind.
o Compare the historical ideas of mind to the history
of European medical thought covered earlier in the
semester.
Other food for thought:o Which perspective do you align with on the
philosophy of mind: dualism or materialism?
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 11
History of Psychology
Psyche – “soul”; logos – “the study of”
1879 Germany – A “new” independent science
emerged from philosophy and physiology
o Wilhelm Wundt – established first formal research
centre in psychology
o Wundt believed:
• Psychology was a study of consciousness
• The mind should be investigated with scientific
methods (like the sciences of chemistry or physics)
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 12
Wilhelm Wundt
“Physiology informs us
about those life
phenomena that we
perceive by our external
senses. In psychology, the
person looks upon himself
as from within and tries to
explain the inter-relations
of those processes that
this internal observation
discloses.” (Weiten, 2011)
By Unknown - Weltrundschau zu Reclams
Universum 1902, Public Domain,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.ph
p?curid=10652603
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Structuralism – 1890s Edward Titchener
o The task of psychology is to
analyse consciousness into its
basic elements and investigate
how they are related
o Identify fundamental components
of conscious experience
o Introspection – careful self-
observation of one’s own
conscious experience to build
understanding of the mind’s
structure By anonymous/unknown –
Public Domain,
https://commons.wikimedia.org
/w/index.php?curid=19124204
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Functionalism – 1890sWilliam James (1842 – 1910)
o Psychology should investigate the
function or purpose of
consciousness, rather than its
structure
o Believed that consciousness was
an important characteristic for
humans
o Consciousness is a flow of thought
– stream of consciousness
o Functionalists interested in how
people adapt behaviour By Notman Studios - Houghton Library,
Harvard University, Public Domain,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.
php?curid=16250941
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Psychoanalysis
Sigmund Freud (1856 – 1939)
o Early 1900s – development of psychoanalytic theory
o Theory of unconscious determinants of behaviour to
explain personality, motivation and mental disorders
o Unconscious contains thoughts, memories, desires
that are below the surface of conscious awareness
but which exert great influence over behaviour
o Primitive urges
o Widely known by 1920
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 16
Behaviourism
John B Watson (1878-1958)
o Early 1900s – development of
behaviourism
o Theory based on premise that
scientific psychology should only
study observable behaviour
o Proposed that psychology abandon
consciousness and focus only on
behaviours than can be observed
o Behaviour: any observable
response or activity by an organism
o Nature vs nurture – behaviour is
governed by environment
By Unknown (pre-1923 photo) Public Domain,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?
curid=21212553
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HumanismCarl Rogers (1902 – 1987) and
Abraham Maslow (1908 – 1970)
o 1950s – opposition to behaviourism
and psychoanalytic theory lead to
the development of humanism
o Theoretical orientation that
emphasises the unique qualities of
humans (esp. freedom, potential for
growth)
o Optimistic view of human nature
o Humans are fundamentally different
from other animals
Fair use, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?curid=8639050
Fair use, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?curid=34062949
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Cognitive Psychology
o 1950s & 1960s – renewed interest in
consciousness and physiology
o Cognitive psychology – study of mental
processes to understand behaviour
o Advanced understanding of cognitive
development, memory, language and problem
solving
o Piaget, Miller, Chomsky
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 19
Evolutionary Psychology
o Knowledge and principles from evolutionary
biology are applied in research on the structure
of the human mind
o Behavioural patterns seen in a species are
considered products of evolution
o Examines behavioural processes in terms of
their adaptive value to different environmental
circumstances over generations
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 20
Positive Psychology
o Uses theory and research
to better understand the
positive, adaptive, creative
and fulfilling aspects of
human existence
o Martin Seligman (~1997)
o 3 primary areas of interest:
• Positive subjective
emotions
• Positive individual traits
• Positive institutions and
communities
By Tesseract2 - CC BY-SA 3.0,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/i
ndex.php?curid=12360046
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Integral Psychology
Ken Wilber - 1990s
o Cross-cultural Consciousness
theory identifies five main
components of psychology
• Developmental levels of
consciousness
• Developmental lines of
consciousness
• States of consciousness
• The self
• The Four Quadrants
(culture/worldview,
neurophysiology, cognitive
science, social systems)
By Kanzeon Zen Center - [1],
CC BY 2.0,
https://commons.wikimedia.org
/w/index.php?curid=3586506
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Wilber’s Four Quadrants
http://www.integr
alhealthresource
s.com/integral-
health-2/the-
four-quadrants/
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Perspective and
Period
Principal
Contributors
Subject Matter Basic Premise
Behavioural (1913
– present)
John Watson
Ivan Pavlov
B.F. Skinner
Effects of
environment on
the overt
behaviour of
humans and
animals
Only observable
events (stimulus-
response) can be
studied
scientifically.
Psychoanalytic
(1900 – present)
Sigmund Freud
Carl Jung
Alfred Adler
Unconscious
determinants of
behaviour
Unconscious
motives and
experiences in
early childhood
govern personality
and mental
disorders.
Overview of Western Theoretical Perspectives
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 24
Perspective and
Period
Principal
Contributors
Subject Matter Basic Premise
Humanistic
(1950s – present)
Carl Rogers
Abraham Maslow
Unique aspects of
human
experience
Humans are free,
rational beings
with the potential
for personal
growth. They are
fundamentally
different from
animals.
Cognitive (1950s
– present)
Jean Piaget
Noam Chomsky
Herbert Simon
Thoughts: mental
processes
Human behaviour
can only be fully
understood by
examining how
people acquire,
store and process
information.
Overview of Western Theoretical Perspectives
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 25
Overview of Western Theoretical Perspectives
Perspective and
Period
Principal
Contributors
Subject Matter Basic Premise
Evolutionary
(1980s – present)
David Buss
Martin Daly
Margo Wilson
Leda Cosmides
John Tooby
Evolutionary
bases of
behaviour in
humans and
animals
Behaviour
patterns evolved
to solve adaptive
problems.
Positive
Psychology (1997
– present)
Martin Seligman
Mihaly
Csikzentmihalyi
Chirstopher
Peterson
Barbara
Fredrickson
Building positive
qualities
Psychology has
been excessively
focused on
pathology,
weakness and
damage.
(Weiten, 2011)
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 26
Revision Questions
o Compare the different major approaches to
psychology from the 1950’s to present. How are
they similar/different?
o Which of the approaches to psychology is most
compelling to you, and why?
Other food for thought:o What do you think psychology contributes to the
healing of illness, whether it be physical, mental or
emotional?
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 27
The Healing Relationship
“The rise and fall of different healing systems…is
contingent in large part on the changing nature of
the medical encounter. To understand the patterns
of this relationship, one must look beyond
physician’s organisations and motives which affect
but do not encompass the fluid historical
connection between healer and patient.”
~ Rosemary Taylor, 1984, in Di Stefano ~
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 28
The Doctor and Patient
o Doctors of the Hippocratic era turned away from
superstition towards rational medicine
o Scientific method may have distanced physicians
from human interaction and an understanding of the
nature of being
o Possible doctor-patient relationships
• Activity – passivity (patient acted upon by doctor)
• Guidance cooperation (physician leads patient
through diagnosis and treatment)
• Mutual participation (equality relationship)
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 29
Healing Partnerships
o Relational model of
care - mutuality
o Presumes partnership
and equality
o Recognises common
humanity between
practitioner and client
o The relationship is a
journey towards a goal
o Allows for a return to
the art of healing
By Jty33 - Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/ind
ex.php?curid=25405611
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History: Connecting Mind and Body
o Present in ancient civilisations
o 4,000+ years ago: Chinese
linked illness with emotions
o Hippocrates: healing requires
whole knowledge
o 600 CE India: Astangahradaya
Sustrasthana texts
o 1900s Freud: connection
between mental illness and
physical bodily effects By Unknown - Nepal, Public Domain,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/inde
x.php?curid=6447661
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 31
Descartes and Darwin
o Descartes: Body = matter; mind
= spirit
o Darwin: nervous system and
immune system were one
Koch and Virchow
o Koch: germs cause disease
o Virchow: germs play a role, but
other factors are involved
Cannon and Selye
o Cannon: showed that glands in
the body respond to stress
o Selye: fight – or – flight
History: Connecting Mind and Body
Public Domain,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/
w/index.php?curid=1918592
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 32
Linking the Brain and the
Immune System
o 1964: Psychoneuroimmunology referred to as
a new science (Solomon and Moos)
o 1977: researchers showed that the immune
system released a chemical that caused a
change in the firing of hypothalamic neurons
o 1980s: immunologists began research into
links between brain, nervous system and
immune system
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 33
Mind Body Connection
o Psychoneuroimmunology
(PNI): the link between
the mind, brain, nervous
system, immune system,
endocrine system
o Many illnesses are
influenced by how we
think and feel
o Integral relationship
between the body, mind
and our psychological
experience
By Institute for preventive medicine (Own work) [CC BY-SA 3.0
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0)], via Wikimedia
Commons
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 34
Mind Body Techniques
Technique Technique
Biofeedback Hypnosis
Yoga Guided Imagery
Meditation Breath work
Music Therapy Mindfulness
Tai chi Qigong
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 35
Mindfulness
o A form of self-awareness
training
o A state of being attentive in the
present, accepting things for
what they are (non-judgment)
o Developed for use in treatment
of depression (regulation and
relapse)
o Mindfulness-based stress
reduction
o Uses practices such as yoga,
meditation and breathing
By ผู้สร้างสรรค์ผลงาน/สง่ข้อมลูเก็บในคลงัข้อมลูเสรีวิกิมีเดียคอมมอนส์ - เทวประภาส มากคล้าย - Captured by uploader.,
CC BY 3.0,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php
?curid=11750153
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Mindfulness
o Be fully present, here and now
o Stop busy thoughts and drop into the present
o Be aware of the body
o Be aware of what you are thinking and feeling
o Reduces periods of stress
o Helps with acceptance and letting go
o Promotes health
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 38
The Role of Religion and
Spirituality in Healing
o All early civilisations dealt with
physical illness in spiritual or
religious terms (Mesopotamian,
Egyptian, Chinese, Indian, Greek,
Roman), as did tribal cultures
o Spiritual healing methods
included: incantations, prayer,
religious pilgrimages
o Spiritual factors have a
substantial impact on health and
immunity
By Jigesh - Own work, FAL,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=2010699
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 39
Spirituality
o “A broad concept that
encompasses values,
meaning, and purpose” (Dossey, 1989)
o The development of and
capacity for self-transcendence
o A person’s search for,
expression of, and connection
to a greater meaningful context
o Distinguished from all things by
its connection to the sacred
By Aljaz Zajc - Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.p
hp?curid=2736489
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 40
Spirituality and Health
o Health is more than physical, mental and
emotional
o Integration of mind, body, emotion and spirit in
health
o Opens the door to understanding the
connection between the mind and the body
o Enhances positive health behaviours
o Buffers stress
o Promotes health care practices
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 41
Health Indicators – Spirituality
Increased
o Well-being (Happiness,
Hope, Optimism,
Gratefulness, Coping,
Self-esteem)
o Meaning/purpose
o Sense of control
o Immune function
o Health behaviours
o Longevity
Decreased
o Suicidality
o Cholesterol
o Heart disease
o Hypertension
o Depression
o Anxiety
o Stroke
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 42
The Next Step
o Integrated approach to
healing
o Further understanding
of spirit and the human
lived psychological
experience
o Advances in further
areas of psychology as
a discipline
o Understanding the role
of the mind in healing
By Joffers951 - Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.ph
p?curid=37731068
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 43
Revision Questions
o Why would germ theory have caused medicine to
separate ideas of body and mind?
o List five health indicators that can be improved by
engaging in a spiritual tradition or practice.
Other food for thought:o Have you ever had an encounter with a healthcare
practitioner that took into account your personal
spiritual or religious beliefs? What was that like?
© Endeavour College of Natural Health www.endeavour.edu.au 44
Referenceso BBC 2014, Sigmund Freud, viewed 24 June 2016,
<http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/freud_sigmund.shtml>.
o BlackDogInstitute (nd), Mindfulness in everyday life, viewed 24 June 2016, <www.Blackdoginstitute.org.au>.
o Corey, G 2013, Theory and practice of counseling and psychotherapy, Cengage, Belmont, CA.
o Campbell, J (Ed.) 1971, The portable Jung, Penguin, New York.
o DiStefano, V 2006, Holism and complementary medicine: origins and principles, Allen & Unwin, Crows Nest, NSW.
o Dossey, L in O’Brien, M 2008, Spirituality in nursing, standing on holy ground, Jones and Bartlett, Sudbury, MA.
o Gennaro, RJ 2015, ‘Consciousness’ Internet encyclopedia of philosophy, viewed 24 June 2016,
<http://www.iep.utm.edu/consciou/>.
o Hardy, S 2015, ‘Mindfulness: enhancing physical and mental wellbeing’, Practice nursing, Vol. 5, No. 9.
o Karren, K, Smith, N, Hafen, B, & Jenkins, K 2010, Mind/body health, the effect of attitudes, emotions and
relationships, Pearson, San Francisco.
o Koenig, HG 2012, ‘Religion, spirituality and health: the research and clinical implications’, ISRN Psychiatry. Doi:
10.5402/2012/278730.
o Levin, J 2005, ‘Etiology recapitulates ontology: reflections on restoring the spiritual dimension to models of the
determinants of health’, In Consciousness and healing. Elsevier, St. Louis, MO.
o Solomon & Higgins 1997, A passion for wisdom: a very brief history of philosophy, Oxford University Press, Oxford.
o Stevens Barnum, B 2003, Spirituality in nursing, Springer, New York.
o Tarnas, R 1991, The passion of the western mind: understanding the ideas that have shaped our world view,
Random House, New York.
o Weiten, W 2011, Psychology themes and variations, 8th edn, Cengage, Belmont, CA.
o Wilber, K 2006, A summary of my psychological model (or, outline of an integral psychology), viewed 24 June 2016
<http://www.kenwilber.com/Writings/PDF/SummaryofMyPsychologicalModel_GENERAL_2000_NN.pdf>.