Social Cognitive PerspectiveSocial Cognitive PerspectiveOverlap and Integration Overlap and Integration

Final Words on Personality Final Words on Personality TheoriesTheories

General Psych 2General Psych 2Module 42Module 42

February 17, 2004February 17, 2004 Class #7Class #7

Social-Cognitive Social-Cognitive PerspectivePerspective

► Applies psychological principles of learning, Applies psychological principles of learning, cognition, and social behaviorcognition, and social behavior Reciprocal determinismReciprocal determinism

►Bandura (1986) felt that personal Bandura (1986) felt that personal factors and environmental factors were factors and environmental factors were constantly interacting to produce constantly interacting to produce behaviorbehavior

The Social-Cognitive Perspective: The Social-Cognitive Perspective: Conceptualizing Behavioral ProblemsConceptualizing Behavioral Problems

►Locus of Control (Rotter, 1954)Locus of Control (Rotter, 1954) How much control do you have over your How much control do you have over your

life?life?►Learned helplessness (Seligman, Learned helplessness (Seligman,

1970s)1970s) Uncontrollable eventsUncontrollable events

Locus of ControlLocus of Control►External Locus of ControlExternal Locus of Control

These individuals feel that chance of These individuals feel that chance of outside forces determine their fateoutside forces determine their fate

►Internal Locus of ControlInternal Locus of Control These individuals believe that to a great These individuals believe that to a great

extent they can control their own destinyextent they can control their own destiny

Locus of ControlLocus of Control► Rotter (1966)Rotter (1966) and other similar studies found strong and other similar studies found strong

support for the hypothesis that individuals who support for the hypothesis that individuals who have a strong belief that they can control their own have a strong belief that they can control their own destinies are likely to:destinies are likely to: Be more aware of environmental factors that Be more aware of environmental factors that

may influence future behaviormay influence future behavior Take steps to improve environmental conditionsTake steps to improve environmental conditions Place greater value on skill or achievement Place greater value on skill or achievement

reinforcementreinforcement Be resistive to conformity and other subtle Be resistive to conformity and other subtle

attempts to influence their behaviorattempts to influence their behavior

Locus of ControlLocus of Control Enjoy better healthEnjoy better health Feel less depressedFeel less depressed Do better in schoolDo better in school Act more independentlyAct more independently Cope with stress betterCope with stress better

Seligman (1975)Seligman (1975)► Next, they put the conditioned dogs into a type of Next, they put the conditioned dogs into a type of

box, consisting of a low fence dividing the box into box, consisting of a low fence dividing the box into two compartmentstwo compartments The dogs could easily see over the fence, and The dogs could easily see over the fence, and

jump over if it wishesjump over if it wishes So they rang the bell…surprisingly, nothing So they rang the bell…surprisingly, nothing

happened! happened! They were expecting the dogs to jump over the They were expecting the dogs to jump over the

fencefence► Then, they decided to shock the conditioned dogs, Then, they decided to shock the conditioned dogs,

and again nothing happened! The dogs just and again nothing happened! The dogs just pathetically laid there! pathetically laid there!

Seligman (1975)Seligman (1975)►When they put new dogs into the box, When they put new dogs into the box,

who never experienced inescapable who never experienced inescapable shock, the dog, as expected, immediately shock, the dog, as expected, immediately jumped over the fence to the other side…jumped over the fence to the other side…

►Apparently, what the conditioned dogs Apparently, what the conditioned dogs learned in the hammock, was that trying learned in the hammock, was that trying to escape from the shocks is futile…to escape from the shocks is futile… These dogs learned to be helpless! These dogs learned to be helpless!

Learned Helplessness as an explanation Learned Helplessness as an explanation for depression…for depression…

►Today the theory of learned Today the theory of learned helplessness has been extended to helplessness has been extended to human behavior, providing a model for human behavior, providing a model for explaining mental disorders such as explaining mental disorders such as depression, a state characterized by a depression, a state characterized by a lack of affect and feeling…lack of affect and feeling…

Learned Helplessness as an explanation Learned Helplessness as an explanation for depression…for depression…

►Depressed people became that way because Depressed people became that way because they learned to be helpless…they learned to be helpless… Depressed people learned that whatever they Depressed people learned that whatever they

did, is futiledid, is futile During the course of their lives, depressed During the course of their lives, depressed

people apparently learned that they have no people apparently learned that they have no controlcontrol►Example: Some factory workers, nursing home Example: Some factory workers, nursing home

patients, college students, etc.patients, college students, etc.

Martin Seligman’s “Positive Psychology”Martin Seligman’s “Positive Psychology”

► Seligman feels that the field of Psychology has for the Seligman feels that the field of Psychology has for the most part become a science and practice of healingmost part become a science and practice of healing It concentrates on repairing damage within a disease model It concentrates on repairing damage within a disease model

of human functioningof human functioning He feels that this almost exclusive attention to pathology He feels that this almost exclusive attention to pathology

neglects the flourishing individual and thriving communityneglects the flourishing individual and thriving community► As the 1998 President of the American Psychological As the 1998 President of the American Psychological

Association, at 159,000 members the largest Association, at 159,000 members the largest organization of scientists in the world, Seligman organization of scientists in the world, Seligman proposed changing the focus of the science and the proposed changing the focus of the science and the profession from repairing the worst things in life to profession from repairing the worst things in life to understanding and building the qualities that make understanding and building the qualities that make life worth livinglife worth living

Seligman (1998)Seligman (1998)►He calls this new orientation “Positive He calls this new orientation “Positive

Psychology”… Psychology”… At the subjective level, the field is about positive At the subjective level, the field is about positive

experience: well being, optimism, etc.experience: well being, optimism, etc. At the individual level it is about the character At the individual level it is about the character

strengths—Love, vocation, courage, aesthetic strengths—Love, vocation, courage, aesthetic sensibility, leadership, perseverance, forgiveness, sensibility, leadership, perseverance, forgiveness, originality, future-mindedness, and geniusoriginality, future-mindedness, and genius

At the community level it is about the civic virtues At the community level it is about the civic virtues and the institutions that move individuals toward and the institutions that move individuals toward better citizenship: responsibility, parenting, better citizenship: responsibility, parenting, altruism, civility, moderation, tolerance, and work altruism, civility, moderation, tolerance, and work ethic ethic

Positive PsychologyPositive Psychology

► Sounds like a Sounds like a bit like bit like Rogerian Rogerian views…Ellis views…Ellis probably isn’t probably isn’t too thrilled too thrilled with it…with it…

Psychoanalysis and Cognitive Psychoanalysis and Cognitive ProcessesProcesses

►The Cognitive UnconsciousThe Cognitive Unconscious Erdelyi (1985)Erdelyi (1985) Reber (1967)Reber (1967)

How can you have a “cognitive How can you have a “cognitive unconscious”???unconscious”???

►Here’s the deal…Here’s the deal… Freud felt that we had these repressed Freud felt that we had these repressed

memories in the unconscious memories in the unconscious Cognitive psychologists have for most of Cognitive psychologists have for most of

the past century or so said no our the past century or so said no our behaviors are dictated by conscious behaviors are dictated by conscious processingprocessing►But there is a contemporary viewpoint that But there is a contemporary viewpoint that

seems to be including the involvement of seems to be including the involvement of unconscious processes in cognitionunconscious processes in cognition

Erdelyi (1985)Erdelyi (1985)►A cognitive psychologist currently at A cognitive psychologist currently at

Brooklyn College talks about different Brooklyn College talks about different ways in which we process information…ways in which we process information… Attentive processesAttentive processes

►ControlledControlled process (effortful) process (effortful) Preattentive processesPreattentive processes

►AutomaticAutomatic process (effortless) process (effortless)

Erdelyi (1985)Erdelyi (1985)► He feels that similar to Freud’s idea that there is He feels that similar to Freud’s idea that there is

a process that keeps threats out of awareness, a process that keeps threats out of awareness, the preattentive process takes over when there the preattentive process takes over when there is an excess of information for us to learn and is an excess of information for us to learn and this too puts information into our unawarenessthis too puts information into our unawareness

► The information becomes unbearable…too The information becomes unbearable…too much too handle…it goes into your much too handle…it goes into your unawarenessunawareness And you thought you just didn’t learn itAnd you thought you just didn’t learn it Well maybe you didWell maybe you did

The Cognitive UnconsciousThe Cognitive Unconscious►Okay, so then if we have this material Okay, so then if we have this material

going into this memory or learning going into this memory or learning area in our unawareness which area in our unawareness which corresponds to Freudian ideas…then corresponds to Freudian ideas…then how do we get to it?how do we get to it?

►Can we get to it?Can we get to it?►Can we even be sure there is such a Can we even be sure there is such a

place?place?

Reber (1967)Reber (1967)►Reber started this research with a few Reber started this research with a few

grad assistants at Brooklyn Collegegrad assistants at Brooklyn College►But nobody paid much attention to his But nobody paid much attention to his

numerous studies for about 15-20 yearsnumerous studies for about 15-20 years► It was relatively isolated research and It was relatively isolated research and

seldom cited by othersseldom cited by others►Not so today – one of the thriving parts Not so today – one of the thriving parts

of cognitive psychology of cognitive psychology

Implicit Learning:Implicit Learning:An Unconscious LearningAn Unconscious Learning

►Reber (1967) –Reber (1967) – coined the term implicit coined the term implicit learninglearning Learning that appears to occur Learning that appears to occur withoutwithout

awareness or intention to learn and often awareness or intention to learn and often cannot be described in words what has been cannot be described in words what has been learned.learned.

““Cognitive unconscious”Cognitive unconscious”

►Explicit Learning – consciously controlled Explicit Learning – consciously controlled learning (deliberate form of learning)learning (deliberate form of learning)

Implicit Learning:Implicit Learning:An Unconscious LearningAn Unconscious Learning

► Howard and Howard (1992): Howard and Howard (1992): serial-reaction-serial-reaction-time task (implicit learning)time task (implicit learning)

► On a computer screen there are 16 different On a computer screen there are 16 different locations – as soon as a box lights up, the subject locations – as soon as a box lights up, the subject pushes the button corresponding to that location pushes the button corresponding to that location – the faster you hit the button the better.– the faster you hit the button the better.

► Subjects are Subjects are notnot told that the sequence repeats told that the sequence repeats and think its one long trial of and think its one long trial of 320320 trials. In trials. In reality, its reality, its 2020 separate repeating trials of separate repeating trials of 1616 buttons. Same sequence each time. buttons. Same sequence each time. 

► Experiment 1: college studentsExperiment 1: college students► Experiment 2: elderly subjectsExperiment 2: elderly subjects

Howard and Howard (1992)Howard and Howard (1992)► Basically, learning would be occurring only if Basically, learning would be occurring only if

we see faster reaction times across trials.we see faster reaction times across trials. In both experiments that’s exactly what happens.In both experiments that’s exactly what happens. As if they were anticipating the sequencesAs if they were anticipating the sequences When told later that there was a sequence they When told later that there was a sequence they

seemed surprised.seemed surprised. Didn’t think there was one and couldn’t even guess Didn’t think there was one and couldn’t even guess

the sequence’s next position at better than chance the sequence’s next position at better than chance levels.levels.

What do you think about this experiment? What do you think about this experiment? Any other explanations? Any other explanations?

Implicit Learning: Implicit Learning: Learning that lacks Learning that lacks

perception?perception?►Reber (1980)Reber (1980)

Learning of complex tasks is enhanced more Learning of complex tasks is enhanced more by implicit learning than explicit learningby implicit learning than explicit learning

Too many variables involved – too much to Too many variables involved – too much to remember. In explicit learning, we consciously remember. In explicit learning, we consciously select only the key variablesselect only the key variables

In implicit learning, we are unselective and In implicit learning, we are unselective and pay attention to all variables.pay attention to all variables.

Few attentional resources are neededFew attentional resources are needed So then, why is non-verbalizable?So then, why is non-verbalizable?

Implicit Learning: Expert Implicit Learning: Expert Knowledge?Knowledge?

►McGeorge and Burton (1990)McGeorge and Burton (1990) Implicit learning allows us to skip stepsImplicit learning allows us to skip steps Everything becomes automaticEverything becomes automatic We become expertsWe become experts

►Examples:Examples: Chess playersChess players Football QB’sFootball QB’s Riding a bikeRiding a bike

Implicit Learning: Mindless Implicit Learning: Mindless LearningLearning

► Interestingly, its not based on logic…Interestingly, its not based on logic… Reber says when we are observed making Reber says when we are observed making

choices and solving problems of choices and solving problems of complexity we are irrational complexity we are irrational

►Rational and logical elements are Rational and logical elements are missing yet we do better… missing yet we do better… Why??? Why???

Personality Psychology…Personality Psychology…►What we tried to do over the last four What we tried to do over the last four

classes is to try to explain behavior classes is to try to explain behavior from personality theorists whose from personality theorists whose viewpoints were varied…viewpoints were varied… That’s an understatementThat’s an understatement

Some final words…which view is best???Some final words…which view is best???

►Dr. Freud with his psychosexual stages Dr. Freud with his psychosexual stages and unconscious conflicts and desires and unconscious conflicts and desires where nothing is an accident…if where nothing is an accident…if nothing else he set the table…but nothing else he set the table…but don’t argue with him you might not be don’t argue with him you might not be invited back…just ask Carl Jung…or invited back…just ask Carl Jung…or Alfred Adler…or Sandor Ferenczi or Alfred Adler…or Sandor Ferenczi or anybody else for that matter anybody else for that matter

The women in here didn’t know it The women in here didn’t know it but…but…

►You still have this repressed desire to You still have this repressed desire to be with your father and that’s why you be with your father and that’s why you look for a guy like himlook for a guy like him Not to mention you still have this Not to mention you still have this

repressed “penis-envy”…repressed “penis-envy”… And Freud doesn’t think you are as moral And Freud doesn’t think you are as moral

as your male counterpartsas your male counterparts

What envy do guys have?What envy do guys have?►Karen Horney says that we have Karen Horney says that we have

womb-envywomb-envy She’s probably joking but feels Freud’s She’s probably joking but feels Freud’s

view is equally laughable view is equally laughable

Some final words…which view is best???Some final words…which view is best???

►Allport got “freaked out” by Freud’s Allport got “freaked out” by Freud’s silence then thought Freud was silence then thought Freud was sometimes way off base because he sometimes way off base because he plunged too deep plunged too deep

►Allport felt this might cause you to miss Allport felt this might cause you to miss something that was right in front of something that was right in front of you…so we don’t always have to look you…so we don’t always have to look for something that’s buried because it for something that’s buried because it might not be might not be

Some final words…which view is best???Some final words…which view is best???

►But do Allport and his trait perspective But do Allport and his trait perspective colleagues really explain behavior or colleagues really explain behavior or are they just describing it?are they just describing it?

►Freud would say they fall short as Freud would say they fall short as psychologistspsychologists

Fat people are jolly???Fat people are jolly???►That’s what Sheldon suggests and that That’s what Sheldon suggests and that

skinny people are studiousskinny people are studious He believes that our body types give us He believes that our body types give us

our personalityour personality

Some final words…which view is Some final words…which view is best???best???

►Eysenck thinks that introverts are Eysenck thinks that introverts are overly aroused individuals and overly aroused individuals and extraverts are under aroused…extraverts are under aroused…

Some final words…which view is best???Some final words…which view is best???

► Carl Rogers “Mr. Nice Guy” brings his Carl Rogers “Mr. Nice Guy” brings his religious background into the mix…religious background into the mix…something Freud says we shouldn’t dosomething Freud says we shouldn’t do But I got the feeling that Roger’s ideas But I got the feeling that Roger’s ideas

were accepted well by our classwere accepted well by our class He talks about love, caring, and looks on He talks about love, caring, and looks on

the positive side of lifethe positive side of life He says Freud was wrong to think of man He says Freud was wrong to think of man

as having this capacity for evil…as having this capacity for evil…

Some final words…which view is best???Some final words…which view is best???

►Albert Ellis says “psychology is a Albert Ellis says “psychology is a science so lets keep religion out of it” science so lets keep religion out of it” and “you don’t have to like your and “you don’t have to like your client” to help him or herclient” to help him or her He’s going to “make mincemeat” out of He’s going to “make mincemeat” out of

incorrect beliefs and faulty thinkingincorrect beliefs and faulty thinking And he probably doesn’t care if he makes And he probably doesn’t care if he makes

them cry…them cry…

Some final words…which view is best???Some final words…which view is best???

►Seligman seems ready to support Seligman seems ready to support Rogers and would like for us to change Rogers and would like for us to change the “disease model” that’s been the “disease model” that’s been around since Freud around since Freud But not everybody has been jumping on But not everybody has been jumping on

this bandwagonthis bandwagon

Some final words…which view is Some final words…which view is best???best???

►Some try to integrate ideas… Erdelyi Some try to integrate ideas… Erdelyi and Reber talk about a cognitive and Reber talk about a cognitive unconscious…unconscious…

Some final words…which view is Some final words…which view is best???best???

►Well, which view really is best???Well, which view really is best??? William James, an early psychologist, said William James, an early psychologist, said

that depends on you – the one that’s best that depends on you – the one that’s best is the one you think is bestis the one you think is best

So lets take a vote…So lets take a vote…