Social Development in India

1255: The Politics of IndiaEmily Clough and Roberto Foa

Social Development

•Elements of a high quality of life that aren’t captured by GDP growth

•Equity and distribution (issues of inequality; who is included and who is excluded from benefits of growth)

•Provision of public services (education, health, infrastructure)

Inequality and Income Distribution

3 Stories of Inequality and Economic Growth

Story What happens? Who wins?

Story What happens? Who wins?

Story 1: “A Rising Tide Lifts All Boats”

Economy: growsInequality: remains

stable Poverty: reduced at the same rate rich people get

richer.

3 Stories of Inequality and Economic Growth

Story What happens? Who wins?

Story 1: “A Rising Tide Lifts All Boats”

Economy: growsInequality: remains

stable Poverty: reduced at the same rate rich people get

richer

Economically: everyone wins

Politically: hierarchy stays the same

3 Stories of Inequality and Economic Growth

Story What happens? Who wins?

Story 1: “A Rising Tide Lifts All Boats”

Economy: growsInequality: remains

stable Poverty: reduced at the same rate rich people get

richer

Economically: everyone wins

Politically: hierarchy stays the same

Story II: “A Rising Tide Lifts All Boats,

But Some More Than Others”

Economy: growsInequality: grows Poverty: somewhat

reduced, but at a slower rate than income

increases among the rich

Economically: everyone wins to some degree, but rich

benefit more than poorPolitically: disparities

increase

3 Stories of Inequality and Economic Growth

Story What happens? Who wins?

Story 1: “A Rising Tide Lifts All Boats”

Economy: growsInequality: remains

stable Poverty: reduced at the same rate rich people get

richer

Economically: everyone wins

Politically: hierarchy stays the same

Story II: “A Rising Tide Lifts All Boats,

But Some More Than Others”

Economy: growsInequality: grows Poverty: somewhat

reduced, but at a slower rate than income

increases among the rich

Economically: everyone wins to some degree, but rich

benefit more than poorPolitically: disparities

increase

Story III: “A Rising Tide Lifts Only Some Boats”

Economy: growsInequality: grows

Poverty: not significantly reduced

Economically: richer people win

Politically: disparities increase

3 Stories of Inequality and Economic Growth

Story What happens? Who wins?

Story 1: “A Rising Tide Lifts All Boats”

Economy: growsInequality: remains

stable Poverty: reduced at the same rate rich people get

richer

Economically: everyone wins

Politically: hierarchy stays the same

Story II: “A Rising Tide Lifts All Boats,

But Some More Than Others”

Economy: growsInequality: grows Poverty: somewhat

reduced, but at a slower rate than income

increases among the rich

Economically: everyone wins to some degree, but rich

benefit more than poorPolitically: disparities

increase

Story III: “A Rising Tide Lifts Only Some Boats”

Economy: growsInequality: grows

Poverty: not significantly reduced

Economically: richer people win

Politically: disparities increase

India lies somewhere between Story II and Story III

3 Stories of Inequality and Economic Growth

Why has inequality increased?

•Growth beneficiaries:

• Income increases associated with economic growth may accrue to some sectors more than others (capitalist class vs. working class, industry & service sectors vs. agriculture)

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Why has inequality increased?

Why has inequality increased?•Growth beneficiaries:

• Income increases associated with economic growth may accrue to some sectors more than others (capitalist class vs. working class, industry & service sectors vs. agriculture)

•Pro-business politics:

• Favoring interests of elite business class

• Failure to prioritize redistribution

Education in India

Education and Social Development

•Economic mobility

•Social mobility

•Political empowerment

•Economic growth?

Educational outcomes in

India

Deficiencies in India’s Education System

•Accessibility (upper-primary)

•Quality of facilities and teaching supplies

•Teacher presence and quality

•Second track schooling

•Private school alternatives for wealthy

Deficiencies in India’s Education System

•Accessibility (upper-primary)

•Quality of facilities and teaching supplies

•Teacher presence and quality

•Second track schooling

•Private school alternatives for wealthy

Deficiencies in India’s Education System

•Accessibility (upper-primary)

•Quality of facilities and teaching supplies

•Teacher presence and quality

•Second track schooling

•Private school alternatives for wealthy

Deficiencies in India’s Education System

•Accessibility (upper-primary)

•Quality of facilities and teaching supplies

•Teacher presence and quality

•Second track schooling

•Private school alternatives for wealthy

Deficiencies in India’s Education System

•Accessibility (upper-primary)

•Quality of facilities and teaching supplies

•Teacher presence and quality

•Second track schooling

•Private school alternatives for wealthy

Deficiencies in India’s Education System

A Two-Part Puzzle: Supply and Demand

•Educational Supply: The State

•Educational Demand: Parents and Children

Educational Supply: The State•Rhetorical commitments on the part of

politicians

•No corresponding facilities or expenditure

•Declining public expenditure on education: 4.4% in 1989 3.6% at end of 1990’s

•Political capture of the budget

• Failure to provide upper primary schools (accessibility)

•Top-down accountability failure because of entrenched interests

Educational Demand: Parents and Children•Myths:

• Lack of interest or demand

• Almost all surveyed parents in educationally backward regions said they consider it “important” for a child to be educated -- 98% for boys and 89% for girls)

•Child labor is preventing kids from going to school

• The majority of children who are not in school are not working all the time. Some are doing nothing; others are working part-time. It seems that child labor is not the main reason children do not attend school.

•Reality: “The Discouragement Effect” (Dreze & Sen)

The “Discouragement Effect” and Bottom-Up Accountability

•The Discouragement Effect:

•Sending kids to school is costly

•School quality is low so not worth the cost

•Child interest inhibited by dull curricula, social and gender discrimination

•Bottom-up accountability

•Can be very effective

•Difficult to organize

Policy Recommendations (Dreze & Sen)

• Educational improvement as a shared responsibility between state and parents

• Foster greater social mobilization among parents to increase bottom-up accountability

• Use parents as local agents of the state

• Education as a “fundamental right” of a child

• “Rights” language affects the sense of who is entitled to what, which affects democratic demands

• Compulsory education to prevent irresponsible parents from keeping child from school

Gender Inequality and Women’s Agency

Female lag in education

•School attendance

•Literacy

Explaining the gender lag in education

•Gender division of labor

•Economic incentives for long-term investment on the part of girl’s family

•Norms of “marrying up” puts ceiling on female education

Female-to-Male Population Ratio

• Declining:

• 0.97 in 1901

• 0.93 in 1991

• One of the lowest FMRs in the world

• Female survival disadvantage in childhood exists, and seems to be getting worse

• Nutrition and care discrimination against girls

• Sex-selective abortion leads to lower female-male ratios at birth

Which parts of the population are driving the FMR decline?

•Lower-caste communities

•Economic class

•Wealthier regions

•Lack of female agency

Women’s Agency

•Protect daughters from discrimination

•Other social benefits, e.g. lower infant mortality; limiting fertility

Policy Recommendations (Dreze & Sen)

•We need women’s movements and feminist activism

•Greater attention must be paid to women’s issues in policymaking