Social PsychologySocial Psychology

Other people and usOther people and us

Major ThemesMajor Themes

Human beings are fundamentally Human beings are fundamentally social by naturesocial by nature

Humans are shaped by and shape Humans are shaped by and shape the society and culture in which they the society and culture in which they livelive

Each person has, as a survival tool, Each person has, as a survival tool, the ability to formulate stereotypesthe ability to formulate stereotypes

Who are you?Who are you?What social factors have influenced What social factors have influenced you to become who you are?you to become who you are?Do you feel that you are more alike Do you feel that you are more alike or different than or different than – A) someone your age from your A) someone your age from your

cultural/ethnic background who grew up cultural/ethnic background who grew up in your ancestral country of origin?in your ancestral country of origin?

– B) someone your age from a different B) someone your age from a different cultural/ethnic background who grew up cultural/ethnic background who grew up on your block?on your block?

Social PsychologySocial Psychology

Thoughts about othersThoughts about others

Feelings toward othersFeelings toward others

Actions toward othersActions toward others

Key TermsKey TermsAttribution—principles used to judge Attribution—principles used to judge the causes of events and our own the causes of events and our own and others’ behaviorand others’ behaviorFundamental attribution error—Fundamental attribution error—misjudging the causes of others’ misjudging the causes of others’ behavior because of overestimating behavior because of overestimating internal personal factors and internal personal factors and underestimating external situational underestimating external situational influenceinfluence

Key TermsKey TermsSaliency bias—tendency to focus on Saliency bias—tendency to focus on the most noticeable factors when the most noticeable factors when explaining the causes of behaviorsexplaining the causes of behaviorsSelf-serving bias—taking credit for Self-serving bias—taking credit for our successes and externalizing our our successes and externalizing our failuresfailuresAttitude—learned predisposition to Attitude—learned predisposition to respond cognitively, affectively, and respond cognitively, affectively, and behaviorally to a particular objectbehaviorally to a particular object

Cognitive Dissonance Theory and Cognitive Dissonance Theory and Confirmation BiasConfirmation Bias

Confirmation bias—we tend to accept Confirmation bias—we tend to accept data/input that confirms what we data/input that confirms what we already believe to be truealready believe to be true

Cognitive dissonance theory—we Cognitive dissonance theory—we discover inconsistencies between our discover inconsistencies between our attitudes and/or behaviors, we attitudes and/or behaviors, we experience discomfort which we try experience discomfort which we try to alleviate through attitude changesto alleviate through attitude changes

Prejudice and DiscriminationPrejudice and DiscriminationStereotype—a set of beliefs about the Stereotype—a set of beliefs about the characteristics of people in a group that is characteristics of people in a group that is generalized to all group membersgeneralized to all group membersPrejudice—a learned, generally negative, Prejudice—a learned, generally negative, attitude toward members of a group; it attitude toward members of a group; it includes thoughts (stereotypes), feelings includes thoughts (stereotypes), feelings and behavioral tendencies (possible and behavioral tendencies (possible discrimination)discrimination)Discrimination—negative behaviors Discrimination—negative behaviors directed at members of a groupdirected at members of a group

PrejudicePrejudice

A learned responseA learned response

A mental shortcutA mental shortcut– Ingroup and outgroupIngroup and outgroup

Economic and political competitionEconomic and political competition

A form of displaced aggressionA form of displaced aggression

Ingroups and OutgroupsIngroups and Outgroups

Ingroup Favoritism—Viewing Ingroup Favoritism—Viewing members of the ingroup more members of the ingroup more positively than members of an positively than members of an outgroup.outgroup.

Outgroup Homogeneity Effect—Outgroup Homogeneity Effect—Judging members of an outgroup as Judging members of an outgroup as more alike and less diverse than more alike and less diverse than members of the ingroup.members of the ingroup.

AttractionAttraction

Physical Attractiveness (symmetry)Physical Attractiveness (symmetry)

ProximityProximity

SimilaritySimilarity

LoveLove

ErosEros—erotic love/romantic love—erotic love/romantic love

PhiliaPhilia—fraternal love (love between —fraternal love (love between friends or siblings)friends or siblings)

AgapeAgape—unconditional love —unconditional love (companionate love)(companionate love)

Social InfluenceSocial Influence

Conformity—Changing behavior as a Conformity—Changing behavior as a result of real or imagined group result of real or imagined group pressurepressure

Obedience—Following direct Obedience—Following direct commands, usually from an authority commands, usually from an authority figurefigure

ConformityConformityNormative social influence—Conforming to Normative social influence—Conforming to group pressure out of a need for group pressure out of a need for acceptance or approvalacceptance or approval

Informational social influence—Conforming Informational social influence—Conforming to group pressure out of a need for to group pressure out of a need for direction and informationdirection and information

Reference Groups—People we conform to Reference Groups—People we conform to or go along with, because we like and or go along with, because we like and admire them and want to be like themadmire them and want to be like them

Obedience FactorsObedience Factors

Power of authorityPower of authority

Distance between the teacher and Distance between the teacher and learner (i.e., in the “shock learner (i.e., in the “shock experiment”)experiment”)

Assignment of responsibilityAssignment of responsibility

Modeling/imitationModeling/imitation

Group MembershipGroup Membership

Roles in groupsRoles in groups

Deindividuation—Increased arousal Deindividuation—Increased arousal and reduced self-consciousness, and reduced self-consciousness, inhibition, and personal responsibility inhibition, and personal responsibility that sometimes occurs in a group, that sometimes occurs in a group, particularly when the members feel particularly when the members feel anonymousanonymous

Group Decision MakingGroup Decision Making

Group polarization—Group’s Group polarization—Group’s movement toward either riskier or movement toward either riskier or more conservative behavior, more conservative behavior, depending on the members’ initial depending on the members’ initial dominant tendencydominant tendency– A form of “confirmation bias”A form of “confirmation bias”– As the ends of the spectrum get As the ends of the spectrum get

redefined, so does the “center”redefined, so does the “center”

Group Decision MakingGroup Decision Making

Groupthink—Faulty decision making Groupthink—Faulty decision making that occurs when a highly cohesive that occurs when a highly cohesive group strives for agreement and group strives for agreement and avoids inconsistent informationavoids inconsistent information– Newly married couplesNewly married couples– Iraq warIraq war

AggressionAggression

Biological factorsBiological factors– InstinctInstinct– GenesGenes– The brain and nervous systemThe brain and nervous system– Substance abuse and other mental Substance abuse and other mental

disordersdisorders– Hormones and neurotransmittersHormones and neurotransmitters

AggressionAggression

Psychological factorsPsychological factors– Aversive stimuliAversive stimuli– Culture and learningCulture and learning– Media and video gamesMedia and video games

Controlling AggressionControlling Aggression

CatharsisCatharsis

Incompatible responsesIncompatible responses

Improve social and communication Improve social and communication skillsskills

AltruismAltruism

Actions designed to help others with Actions designed to help others with no obvious benefit to the helperno obvious benefit to the helper– Egoistic model—Helping that is Egoistic model—Helping that is

motivated by anticipated gain—later motivated by anticipated gain—later reciprocation, increased self-esteem, or reciprocation, increased self-esteem, or avoidance of guilty and distressavoidance of guilty and distress

– Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis—Helping Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis—Helping because of empathy for someone in because of empathy for someone in needneed

AltruismAltruism

Helping breaks down in a crowd Helping breaks down in a crowd largely due to:largely due to:

Diffusion of responsibility—Assuming Diffusion of responsibility—Assuming someone else will take action (or someone else will take action (or responsibility)responsibility)

Unlearning prejudice and Unlearning prejudice and discriminationdiscrimination

CooperationCooperation

Superordinate goalsSuperordinate goals

Increased contactIncreased contact

Cognitive retrainingCognitive retraining

Cognitive dissonanceCognitive dissonance