Lecture-2

Sociology as Social Science In this chapter you will examine the nature

and the focus of sociology. A brief overview of sociology's early years and current theoretical

perspectives are also presented.

Why Sociology a Science?Like all scientists, sociologists follow five basic

principles forestablishing and explaining facts:

Sociology relies on evidence. It demands proof.Sociology minimizes error and bias by following

many techniques. Sociology is a public venture. Open discussion and

examination of research gives sociology a self-correcting mechanism.

Sociology is concerned with generalizations. Sociology seeks to relate facts to one another and to

underlying principles in order to produce theory;

█Sociology– Systematic study of

social behavior inhuman groups

What is Sociology?

Definition of Sociology

Sociology is the science that studies human society and social behavior.

Sociology is concerned with the study of human society. (Giddens)

Why Study Sociology?Awareness of the cultural differences

Assessing the effects of the policies

Self-enlightenment/understanding yourself

Making everyday decisions

Career preparation

Promise of SociologySociology can make people aware of the different ways in

which social arrangements shape their lives.Sociology permits the user to examine the assumptions

underlying conventional wisdom Sociology permits the identification of problems that the

public has not yet recognized Sociologists can design and evaluate alternative solutions

to social problems Sociology can help people better understand their own

experiences, problems, and prospects.

The Sociological Imagination

Awareness of relationship between an individual and the wider society.(C. Wright Mills)

Public issues or history & private issue or biographyTroubles are private problems in an individual’s

life.Issues affect large numbers of peopleIssues shape the context within which troubles

arise. Social issues arise when large numbers of people

experience problems rooted in the social structure of society.

Sociology and Common Sense

Common sense is the knowledge people gain about the world through their everyday experience.

On occasion, sociological findings and common sense do overlap, but often, sociology challenges popular wisdom.

Common sense holds that ‘seeing is believing’. Sociologists found that the reverse is also true: what we believe often determines what we see; our perceptions are filtered through the lens of our previous experiences, attitudes, and beliefs.

Problems with common senseLimited experienceBiasnessLack of evidence

Subjectivity and objectivity

Subjective: An attitude toward a situation in which cultural/personal variations are permitted to affect observation & judgment.

Objective: An attitude toward a situation in which cultural/group evaluations and personal bias/interest are absent/controlled/reduced to minimum.

Origins of Sociology

French RevolutionIndustrial Revolution 17th and 18th centuries

.

Among the classical founders of sociology, five figures are particularly important;

Auguste ComteHerbert SpencerKarl MarxEmile DurkheimMax Weber

Development of Sociology:

Auguste Comte (French) 1798–1857Coined term sociology in 1839 to apply to

science of human behaviorFather of Sociology. . He believed that all societies must progress

through certain fixed historical stages of development.

His approach to the study of social progress is called ‘positivism’.

Auguste Comte (Laws of three stages)

Theological: Belief in GodMetaphysical: from supernatural to naturalPositivism: Belief in science.

The Development of SociologyEarly Thinkers

Harriet Martineau 1802–1876 Translated works of Comte Emphasized impact economy, law, trade, health,

and population could have on social problems Believed that sociologists should act on their

conviction in a way that will benefit society

Herbert Spencer (English) 1820–1903

Father of ‘Social Darwinism’ Applied concept of evolution to explain how

societies “evolve” over timeSocial Darwinist–i.e. promoter of the Darwinian

concept of survival of the fittest to the social world depicted society as a system, a whole made up of interrelated parts.

Idea of "Social Darwinism," held that societies are like living organisms that evolve over time, eventually reaching a state of perfection

Spencer, the father of social Darwinism, argued that societies evolve from lower to higher forms. The most capable survives while the least fit dies out. (survival of the fittest)

Karl Marx 1818–1883 (German)

Father of Communism. "Das Capital, Communist Manifesto."

Emphasized importance of economy and of conflict in society

He saw factory as the center of conflict and between exploiters (Bourgeoisie/Capitalist class) and exploited

( Proletariat/Working class) Emphasized on group identification and association as

an indicator of status. Marx’s theory of class struggle shows a theory of social

change.

Surplus Value TheoryMajor Contribution: Class Struggle,

Surplus Value and alienation theorySurplus Value theory: Actual Cost of Product = Cost of Raw

Materials+ labor wagesPrice of the product = cost of raw

materials+ Wages+ ProfitPrice of the product- actual cost of

product = Surplus ValueMore exploitation, more surplus value,

more investment.

Emile Durkheim (France)1858–1917Pioneered work on suicideInsisted behavior must be understood within larger

social contextMentioned that industrialized societies may suffer

from anomie – loss of direction Major Contribution: Social Facts and Division of

Labour Social facts are the ways of acting , thinking or

feeling that are external to human being, state of the economy, religion.

Social facts exercise a coercive power over individuals.

Division of Labor in Society (1893): -Mechanical solidarity: Grounded on consensus and

similarity of belief - and organic solidarity: economic interdependence

Emile Durkhiem: Mechanical and Organic Solidarity Mechanical Solidarityhomogenous populationLittle or no specializationShared Values and Beliefs traditional valuesAs a result of the dominance of a few shared values, society

can mobilise people, collective consciousness Little individual freedomThe status of the individual is determined by kinship Organic SolidarityLarger population spread out over a larger geographical

areaComplex division of labor, high job specializationIndividuals are dependent on others to perform economic

functions that they themselves can not performFunctional interdependence

Emile DurkheimMechanical Solidarity:Example- Primitive society.

Organic solidarity:Example: Urban and industrial society.

Max Weber (Germany) 1864–1920

Social Action is the force behind changePeople are moving away from the traditional beliefs to the

rational, instrumental calculations.Max Weber, argue that, in order to truly understand a

social phenomenon, the researcher should be value-free or neutral.  Personal values should have no influence on research (value-free sociology)

  Ideal Type: construct for evaluating specific cases

Micro Vs Macro Sociology

Microsociology: stresses study of small groups, often through experimental means

Macrosociology: concentrates on large-scale phenomena or entire civilization

What is a Theoretical Perspective?

Perspectives might best be viewed as models. Each perspective makes assumptions about society.

The Functionalist Perspective (Social stability)

The origins of the functionalist perspective can be traced to the work of Herbert Spencer and Emile Durkheim.

Functionalist perspective see society in terms of functions, roles and activities. To the functionalist society could be compared to living organism.

Understanding society from a functionalist perspective is to visualize society as a system where all the parts act together even though each part may be doing different things.

Functionalist PerspectiveRobert Merton

Manifest Functions: open, stated, conscious functions of institutions; these involve intended, recognized, consequences of an aspect of society

Latent Functions: unconscious or unintended functions that may reflect hidden purposes of an institution

Major Theoretical Perspectives

Dysfunction: element or process of society that may actually disrupt a social system or reduce its stability

█Functionalist Perspective

Functionalist PerspectiveIn brief, The Functionalist Perspective views society as a system where the elements are

interlinked in a stable fashion.identifies the structural characteristics and

functions and dysfunctions of institutions.distinguishes between manifest functions and

latent functions.assumes that most members of a society share a

consensus regarding their core beliefs and values.  The main weakness of Functionalism is its

tendency to downplay the importance of power and social change.

Conflict Perspective (Social change)

• Conflict perspective assumes social behavior is best understood in terms of conflict or tension between competing groups

• Conflict not necessarily violent can take the form of labor negotiation, Party politics, competition between religious groups for new members or disputes over federal

budget• Marx is a conflict theorist. • The Marxist View: Conflict not merely a class

phenomenon, but part of everyday life in all societies Emphasis on social change and redistribution of resources makes conflict theorists more “radical” and “activist” than

functionalists.

Conflict PerspectiveIn brief, The Conflict Perspectivedraws much of its inspiration from the work of

Karl Marx and argues that the structure of society and the nature of social relationships are the result of past and ongoing conflicts.

 highlights that some groups always benefit more from the social arrangements.

 eventually narrates that the structure of society reflects the efforts of those at the top maintaining their privileges at the expense of those who lack the power to oppose them.

 The main weakness of conflict theory is its failure to explain social cohesion.

The Interactionist Perspective (Social interaction)

The scope of investigation for these sociologists is very small. They are interested in the way individuals act toward, respond to, and influence one another in society.

Society occurs as a result of interaction between individuals and small groups of individuals.

Major Theoretical Perspectives

Views inequity in gender as central to all behavior and organization

Sometimes allied with conflict theory, the feminist perspective also focuses on micro-level relationships of everyday life, just as interactionists do

█Feminist Perspective

Major Theoretical Perspectives

Sociologists use all perspectivesWe gain broadest understanding of society by

drawing on all major perspectives, noting where they overlap or where they diverge

Each perspective offers unique insights into the same issue

Functionalist Conflict Interactionist

View of Stable, well-integrated Characterized by tension and Active in influencing and affectingSociety struggle between groups everyday social interaction

Level of Macrosociological analysis Macrosociological analysis of Microsocial analysis as a way ofAnalysis of large-scale patterns large-scale patterns understanding the larger phenomenaEmphasized

View of the People are socialized to People are shaped by power, People manipulate symbols andIndividual perform societal functions coercion and authority create their social worlds through

interaction

View of the Maintained through Maintained through force and Maintained by shared under-Social Order cooperation and consensus coercion standing of everyday behavior

View of Predictable, reinforcing Change takes place all the timeReflected in people’s position andSocial Change and may have positive their communication with others

consequences