social surveys n collect large amounts of empirical data from a large cross-section of the...
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Social Surveys
Collect large amounts of empirical data from a large cross-section of the population
Questionnaires or structured interviews Computer analysis of results
Questionnaires
Questionnaires are lists of questions and are the main method used in social surveys because they can reach large numbers of people. A respondent can fill in their own (self completion) or answers can be recorded by an interviewer (structured interview) or posted
Comparative Data
Data can be directly compared – in theory
Everyone answers the same questions –
But not everyone interprets them the same
If it is a structured interviewer there may be interviewer bias
Quantitative Data
Numerical data can be subjected to stats analysis
Correlations can be discovered e.g. a link between unemployment
and crime
Operationalising Concept
To measure things they must be in a form which allows them to be measured
How can we measure religious beliefs?
We need to settle on a particular definition
Coding Answers
Answers can be classified into different categories
- like a multiple choice approach
Types of Questions
Closed Questions Where the answers are set down and
the respondent chooses one (or more) Sometimes ranking is used e.g. on a scale of 1-5 etc say how
important something is ‘Other’ is often added at the end if there
aren’t enough choices Closed questions are well suited to
factual data
Types of Questions
Open questions Simply where a space is left for
the respondent to write their own answer
This gives more freedom but is very difficult to code answers
Open questions are seen as more suitable for attitudes and values
Advantages and Disadvantages of Questionnaires
Self Completion Where the respondent
answers at leisure and posts back or has it collected
Advantages and Disadvantages of Questionnaires
Advantages Inexpensive – no interviewer to pay Large samples can be covered Fast and efficient analysis can be made Answers can be quantified Postal q’res allow a greater
geographical area to be studied No interviewer bias Fill in at leisure
Advantages and Disadvantages of Questionnaires
Disadvantages Low response Often well below 50% for postal q’res Therefore not representative Respondents might not understand the
q’s and there is no one to ask Answers may be incomplete, illegible or
incomprehensible Closed q’s can limit what respondents
want to say
Advantages and Disadvantages of Questionnaires
Structured Interviews Here the interviewer goes through
the questions and records responses
Advantages and Disadvantages of Questionnaires
Advantages
Response rate is good Interviewers can help to explain
things This can result in more
information Respondents who can’t read or
write can be included
Advantages and Disadvantages of Questionnaires
Disadvantages
More expensive – training and paying interviewers
Cost increases if the sample is spread over a large area
Interviewer bias can affect responses
Pilot Studies
These are a small scale study carried out before the main study to test the questions, the responses, train interviewers etc. Thus any problems can be ironed out at this stage before committing a lot of money to the project.
Pilot studies help to improve clarity by removing ambiguous questions
However, despite careful preparation problems can occur.
Interpreting answers
What do the answers mean? How can you tell if they are true? Consequently results may not be as
reliable as they seem Impression management may play a
part – especially if they want to be seen in a certain light
Different meanings can be attached to the same question
Consequently researchers have to know as much about the people under study as they can
Interpreting answers
Theoretical issues can affect choice of methods. Positivists tend to favour quantitative data because this enables generalisations from a lot of data. This helps to make causal relationships between factors…e.g a link between unemployment and crime.
Interpretivists are more concerned with the meanings attached to situations and therefore favour more qualitative data which gives an in-depth (and they see as more valid) understanding
Structured interviews Simply questionnaires read out by
an interviewer The same q’s are read to everyone
in the same order
Semi-structured interviews The questions are in order but the
interviewer has the right to ask the respondent to elaborate on answers
Unstructured interviews These are more like a
conversation Rather than set questions there
are a list of topics to cover Q’s are open and the respondent
has space to answer as fully as they want
Group interviews The interviewer usually meets 8-10
people at one go Focus groups are a type of group
interview where the group discusses various pre-set issues
Structured interviews - advantages Many are the same as
questionnaires Good for :facts :Comparable data :quantitative data less interviewer bias than ones
below
Structured interviews - disadvantages
Limit answers Can’t elaborate
Semi-Structured interviews - advantages
Shares ads of structured interviews
Plus interviewer can probe for more info
Adds depth to interview
Semi-Structured interviews -disadvantages
Loss of standardisation & comparability
Probes make each interview slightly different
More chance of interviewer bias than above
Group interviews - advantages
Focus groups are becoming more popular
Can produce rich qualitative data
Group interviews - disadvantages
Individuals can be influenced by the group
Individuals may feel that they haven’t had a chance to give their own view
Unstructured Interviews- advantages
Sensitive issues can be researched Interviewee is put at ease Interviewee can open up more Not restricted to pre set answers Answers can be developed further Interviewer can ask further
questions
Unstructured Interviews- advantages
Gives rich indepth data Seen as more valid Good for opinions, values and
attitudes Skilled interviewers can help
explain and draw out more info than other types of interview
Unstructured Interviews- disadvantages
Interviewer bias is more of a problem
Age, gender, ethnicity etc of interviewer may affect reponses
Social desirability – interviewees want to present themselves in a certain way
Truth – some tell lies intentionally
Unstructured Interviews- disadvantages
Some genuinely forget details Validity can be questioned Comparability is difficult with the
qualitative data produced Difficult to code and quantify data Difficult to see correlations
Non-directive Interview
When Conducting interviews the standard advice is to be non-directive i.e do not lead the respondent.
However, Becker adopted a more aggressive approach when interviewing Chicago teachers and found as a result the answers given were more frank (1971 study of racism in schools)
Participant observation Participant is when the researcher
joins the group he/she is studying. This can be overt (i.e. the
participants know) or covert (they don’t!)
Participant Observation- Gaining Entry Getting in and staying in can be difficult –
particularly with covert observation See Humphreys – Tearoom trade Patrick – Glasgow gangs Even overt observation can cause
resentment Observers are seen as nosey parkers e.g Okley took a long time to be accepted by
traveller-gypsies she studied in 1984
Participant Observation- Conducting Research
Observers need to fit in and be as inconspicuous as possible
Watching and listening are crucial but sometimes q’s must be asked – but carefully
Some observers have key informants Whyte had Doc Patrick had Tim
Participant Observation- Conducting Research
This helped them to be accepted – but affected how their informants viewed the group
Recording findings can be difficult in the field
Marsh made notes on scraps of paper in toilets and shoved them down his jeans
Many researchers have to rely on memory and write up diaries at the end of the day
Participant Observation- Advantages Validity – people are observed in their
natural settings With covert obs they act naturally Insight – is given into worlds otherwise
closed Things are witnessed which could never
be unearthed by interviews or questionnaires
Participant Observation- Advantages Things are seen through the eyes of the
participants Sometimes it is the only practical
method – particularly with crime
Participant Observation- Disadvantages Time and money – these can be a lot as
many researchers spend years in the field
Personal cost – stress and danger in some cases –e.g Patrick
Loss of objectivity – researcher can become too involved – ‘going native’
Sometimes researchers see the group on a negative light
Non- Participant Observation-
This is where an individual observes without taking part. E.g. observing children playing in the playground from a classroom window.
Non- Participant Observation-
Compared to PO Non PO has a number of advantages and disadvantages
Non-Participant Observation- Advantages Observer less likely to influence group Researchers can use more aids for
recording info as it is open
Non-Participant Observation- Disadvantages Presence of researcher can affect group The group may not act naturally Researcher can’t ask further q’s etc Therefore can’t discover the meanings
attached to events Researcher’s are more likely to impose
their own subjective interpretations on events they witness