societies and empires of...
TRANSCRIPT
Societies and Empiresof Africa, 800–1500
During the Middle Ages, important developments took place
in Africa. A thriving trade in salt, gold, and other products
supported the rise of a number of powerful city-states and
kingdoms. As the map at the right shows, some of these
kingdoms became empires. Examine the map and use it to
answer the questions below.
1. What empires developed in West Africa during this period?
2. What factors might have caused three empires to arise inthe same area?
3. How were the locations of Timbuktu and Kilwa different?
4. How would that difference have influenced trade?
Connect History and Geography
800Empire of Ghanathrives on trade.
1000Hausa city-statesbegin to emerge.
For more information about African empires . . .
CLASSZONE.COM
The Yoruba people of West Africaconsider twins lucky. This woodentwin image wears a beaded jacketthat has a twin on each shoulder.
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In 1324, Mansa Musa leftMali for the hajj to Mecca.On the trip, he gave awayenormous amounts of gold.
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Mali, 1200s to 1400s
Ghana, 800s to 1000s
Hausa city-states, 1200s to 1500s
Songhai, 1400s to 1500s
Africa, 800–1500
1076 MuslimAlmoravidsconquer Ghana.
1100Ife established as aYoruba kingdom.
1235Sundiata foundsMali Empire.
1324 Mali kingMansa Musa goeson hajj to Mecca.
1464Sunni Ali beginsSonghai Empire.
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Interact with History
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What makes trade items valuable?
The camel was the only animal that could go without water long enough to cross the
Sahara.
To survive the tripacross the Sahara,traders stopped atoases for water.However, it was500 miles toTimbuktu from the nearest oasis!The journey wasvery hard.
This cloth was shippedacross the MediterraneanSea to North Africa. Thenit began the long journeyto Timbuktu.
Workers in theSahara enduredhardship to minethis salt. In a hotclimate, salt helpsthe human body to retain water. Saltwas scarce in thegold-mining region. These beautiful cowrie
shells came all the wayfrom East Africa. Theywere used as money.
The king oftendemanded these goldnuggets as taxes. Thebag contained golddust, which the traderused as money.
EXAMINING the ISSUES
• Does an item have to be a luxury to beextremely valuable?
• How do scarcity, usefulness, and trans-portation cost affect an item’s value?
• Do all items have the same value to allpeople?
As you discuss these questions in class, thinkabout what you have learned about othertrading peoples, such as the Phoenicians andthe Europeans.
As you read about trade in the various regionsof Africa, notice what steps rulers took tocontrol trade moving through their territory.
You are a trader who has traveled from a NorthAfrican seaport south across the Sahara. You
have arrived at the great trading center ofTimbuktu. Among your trade items are manu-factured goods and salt. In Timbuktu, you willmeet with traders from the gold-mining regions
to the south. You want to receive as much gold aspossible for your trade items. The traders from thesouth want to receive as much salt and as manymanufactured goods as they can in exchange fortheir gold. Together you must come to an agree-ment about what various trade items are worth.
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SETTING THE STAGE Throughout history, different groups of Africans have founddifferent ways to organize themselves to meet their political, economic, and socialneeds. In the varied regions of Africa, climate and topography, or landforms, influ-enced how each community developed. Some people built desert empires united byreligion. Others near the coast created political systems based on extended familyties. Still others lived in the rain forest and formed close-knit family groups to sup-port themselves by hunting and gathering. Section 1 examines these three types ofAfrican societies. In addition, many African groups developed kingdoms and city-states—which are discussed in Sections 2 and 3.
Hunting-Gathering SocietiesHunting-gathering societies—the oldest form of social organizationin the world—began in Africa. Hunting-gathering societies still existin Africa today, though they form an extremely small percentage ofthe population. Scattered throughout Africa, these groups speaktheir own languages and often use distinctive hunting techniques.However, they all rely on hunting and gathering for survival. Bystudying these groups, scholars learn clues about how hunter-gatherers may have lived in the past. However, no hunter-gathererstoday live precisely as prehistoric peoples did.
Forest Dwellers The Efe (AY•fay) are just one of several hunting-gathering societies in Africa. They make their home in the IturiForest in the Democratic Republic of Congo (formerly Zaire). Liketheir ancestors, the modern-day Efe live in small groups of no morethan 50 members, all of whom are related. Each family occupies itsown grass-and-brush shelter within a camp, but their homes arerarely permanent. Their search for food causes them to be somewhatnomadic. As a result, the Efe collect few possessions and move tonew camps as they use up the resources in the surrounding area.
In the Efe society, women are the gatherers. They walk throughthe forest searching for roots, yams, mushrooms, and wild seeds.Efe men and older boys do all the hunting. Sometimes they gatherin groups to hunt small antelope called duikers. At other times,hunters go solo and use poison-tipped arrows to kill mammals suchas monkeys. On some occasions, Efe men collect wild honey, aprized delicacy of the forest. Unlike prehistoric hunter-gatherers,the Efe add to their diet by trading honey, wild game, and otherforest products for crops grown by farmers in nearby villages.
Social Structure A respected older male, such as a father,uncle, or father-in-law, typically serves as group leader.
A. Possible AnswerA larger group woulduse up an area’sresources too quicklyand have to movemore often.THINK THROUGH HISTORYA. DrawingConclusionsConsidering the waythe Efe live, whymight they need tolimit their groups to50 members or less?
North and CentralAfrican Societies
1TERMS & NAMES
• lineage• stateless
societies• patrilineal• matrilineal• Maghrib• Almoravids• AlmohadsMAIN IDEA
North and central Africa developedhunting-gathering societies, statelesssocieties, and Muslim states.
WHY IT MATTERS NOW
Modern African nations often must findways to include these various peoplesand traditions in one society.
Hunter-Gatherers
The girl shown below is a memberof the Efe people. Today the Efeand other hunter-gatherers live intropical rain forests in severalAfrican nations. However, theymake up less than 1 percent of thepopulation of Africa.
Hunter-gatherers also exist onother continents. The Inuit of NorthAmerica have traditionally fishedand hunted. Today, some usemodern equipment such as riflesand snowmobiles. However, manyhave abandoned hunting to look forwage-paying work.
Modern society has disruptedthe hunting-gathering culture of theAborigines of Australia. They sufferhigh rates of poverty, disease, andunemployment. Today, Aboriginesmake up less than 2 percent ofAustralia’s population.
CONNECT to TODAY
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Selected African Societies,800–1500
0–500 feet500–2,000 feetOver 2,000 feetStateless societyMuslim stateHunter-gatherers
Although members of the group listen to and value this man’s opinion, he does notgive orders or act as chief. Each family within the band makes its own decisionsand is free to come and go. Group members settle arguments through long discus-sions. If conflicts cannot be settled by talking, a group member may decide tomove to a different hunting band. Daily life for the Efe is not governed by formal,written laws. However, they do have logical guidelines that determine how mem-bers share food and possessions.
Stateless SocietiesAs in other parts of the world, family organization is central to African society. Inmany African societies, families are organized in groups called lineages. Themembers of a lineage (LIHN•ee•ihj) believe they are descendants of a com-mon ancestor. Besides its living members, a lineage includes past generations(spirits of ancestors) and future generations (children not yet born). Within a lin-eage, members feel strong loyalties to one another.
South of the Sahara, many African groups developed systems of governingbased on lineages. In some African societies, lineage groups took the place ofrulers. These societies, known as stateless societies, did not have a centralizedsystem of power. Instead, authority in a stateless society was balanced among lin-eages of equal power so that no one family had too much control. Most often,members of a stateless society worked through their differences to cooper-ate and share power. The Igbo (IHG•boh) people—also called Ibo—ofsouthern Nigeria lived in a stateless society as early as the ninthcentury. (Although the Igbo lived in West Africa, their politicalstructure was similar to stateless societies found in central Africa.)If a dispute arose within an Igbo village, respected elders from
When a respectedelder of the Tiv dies,his skull and thighbone are made intoan imborirungu,shown here. Theliving elders use theimborirungu to try tocommunicate withthe dead leader’ssoul.
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GEOGRAPHY SKILLBU ILDER : Interpreting Maps 1. Location Where were the Muslim states located?2. Region Why would hunter-gatherers be spread across such a
large region?
Stateless societies did not havecentralized power. Instead, power wasbalanced among lineage groups,usually within villages.
• The Tiv, in what is todayNigeria, had no formalgovernment.
• The Igbo of southern Nigeriaresolved disputes by havingelders from different lineagesmeet.
• The Nuer of the southern Sudanorganized over 250,000 peoplewithout an official ruler.
In North Africa, two groups of Muslimreformers founded empires.
• In the 11th century, theAlmoravid Dynasty controlledMauritania, Morocco, and partof Spain.
• Beginning in the mid-1100s, theAlmohad Dynasty controlledMorocco, much of the Maghrib,and part of Spain.
Muslim States
The seminomadic hunter-gathererslived by gathering wild foods andhunting animals. When theyexhausted an area’s resources, they moved on.
• The Efe lived in the IturiForest of what is now theDemocratic Republic ofCongo. They were hunter-gatherers who traded withfarming villages.
• The San (also called theBushmen) lived in most ofsouthern Africa and part of East Africa.
Hunter-Gatherers
Stateless Societies
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Societies and Empires of Africa 369
different lineages settled the problem. While this political structure served the Igbowell for many centuries, Igbos later encountered challenges from European colonizerswho expected one single leader to rule over the whole society. (See Chapter 27.)
Tracing Family Descent In African societies, the way a societytraces lineage decides inheritance rights and what groups individualsbelong to. Members of a patrilineal society trace their ancestorsthrough their fathers. Inheritance passes from father to son. When ason marries, then he, his wife, and their children remain part of hisfather’s extended family.
In a matrilineal society, children trace their ancestors throughtheir mothers. Young men from a matrilineal culture inherit land andwealth from their mother’s family. Although group memberships andinheritance rights in a matrilineal society are based on descent fromwomen, men usually hold the positions of authority.
Age-Set System In many African societies, young people formclose ties to individuals outside their lineage through the age-set sys-tem. An age set consists of young people within a region who areborn during a certain time period. Each age set passes togetherthrough clearly identified life stages, such as warrior or elder.Ceremonies mark the passage to each new stage.
Men and women have different life stages, and each stage has itsown duties and importance. Responsibilities can include working oncommunity building projects, herding cattle, or assisting in the raisingof children. Societies like the Igbo use the age-set system to teach dis-cipline, community service, and leadership skills to their young.
Muslim StatesWhile stateless societies developed south of the Sahara, Islam played a vital role in thepolitical history of North Africa. After Muhammad’s death in 632, Muslims swept acrossthe northwest part of the continent. They converted many by conquest and otherspeacefully. By 670, Muslims ruled Egypt and had entered the Maghrib, the part ofNorth Africa that is today the Mediterranean coast of Morocco, Tunisia, and Algeria.
As Islam spread, some African rulers converted to Islam. These African Muslimrulers then based their government upon Islamic law. Muslims believe that God’s lawis a higher authority than any human law. Therefore, Muslim rulers often relied onreligious scholars as government advisers.
Islamic Law In Islam, following the law is a religious obligation. Muslims do notseparate their personal life from their religious life, and Islamic law regulates almostall areas of human life. Because of this, Islamic law helped to bring order to Muslimstates. It provided the state with a set of values that shaped a common identity.
In addition to unifying individual states, law helped to unify the Muslim world. Eventhough various Muslim states might have ethnic or cultural differences, they lived undera common law. Islamic law has been such a significant force in African history that somestates—especially in North Africa—are still politically and socially influenced by it today.
Among those who converted to Islam were the Berbers. Fiercely independentdesert dwellers, the Berbers were the original inhabitants of North Africa. Until theirconquest by the Muslim Arabs in the 600s, some of these nomadic African peoplewere Christians and Jews. While they accepted Islam as their faith, many maintainedtheir Berber identities and loyalties. Two Berber groups, the Almoravids and theAlmohads, founded empires that united the Maghrib under Muslim rule.
Almoravid Reformers In the 11th century, Muslim reformers founded theAlmoravid (al•muh•RAHV•uhd) Dynasty. Its members came from a Berber group liv-
BackgroundIn matrilineal soci-eties that are alsokingdoms, the king’sheir is his sister’s son,not his own son.
BackgroundBritish colonizers mis-spelled “Igbo” as“Ibo.” That is whythere are twospellings.
THINK THROUGH HISTORYB. MakingInferences Whatadvantages might anage-set system havefor a society?B. Possible AnswersPeople belong to agroup of their peers;there is recognition ofimportant milestones;there are clear expec-tations for differentstages of life; everyage group has impor-tance.
Negotiating Conflict
In a stateless society, the power tonegotiate conflicts shifts fromgeneration to generation ascircumstances demand.
Look at the diagram of twolineages above. If d is in conflictwith f, then c will side with hisbrother d and e will side with hisbrother f. Therefore, the parents—1 and 2—will meet to negotiate.
If f is in conflict with g, bothentire lineages will take sides inthe dispute. Therefore, themembers of the oldest survivinggeneration—A and B—must meetto negotiate.
Daily LifeA
c d e f g h i j
1 2 3 4
B
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THINK THROUGH HISTORYC. RecognizingEffects What wasthe main effect ofAlmohad rule on theMaghrib?C. Answer It unifiedthe region throughIslamic teaching.
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ing in the western Sahara in what is today Mauritania. The movementbegan after a devout Berber Muslim made a hajj, or pilgrimage, toMecca. On his journey home, he convinced a Muslim scholar fromMorocco named Abd Allah Ibn Yasin to return with him to teach hispeople about Islam. Ibn Yasin’s teachings soon attracted followers, andhe founded a strict religious brotherhood, known as the Almoravids.According to one theory about the name’s origin, the group lived in aribat, or fortified monastery. They were therefore called the “people ofthe ribat”—al-Murabitun, which eventually became “Almoravid.”
In the 1050s, Ibn Yasin led the Almoravids in an effort to spreadIslam through conquest. Although Ibn Yasin died in battle in 1059,the Almoravids went on to take Morocco and found Marrakech. Itbecame their capital. They overran the West African empire ofGhana by 1076. The Almoravids also captured parts of southernSpain, where they were called Moors.
Almohads Take Over In the mid-1100s, the Almohads(AL•moh•HADZ), another group of Berber Muslim reformers, wrestedpower from the Almoravids. The Almohads began as a militant reli-gious movement in the Atlas Mountains of Morocco. (In Arabic, theAlmohads are known as al-Muwahhidun, meaning “those who affirmthe unity of God.”)
The Almohads followed the teachings of Ibn Tumart. After a pil-grimage to Mecca, Ibn Tumart denounced the later Almoravid rulersfor moving away from the traditional practice of Islam. He urged hisfollowers to strictly obey the teachings of the Qur’an and Islamic law.The Almohads, led by Abd al-Mumin, fought to oust the Almoravidsand remain true to traditional Islamic beliefs.
By 1148 the Almohads controlled most of Morocco and endedAlmoravid rule. The new Muslim reformers kept Marrakech as theircapital. By the end of the 12th century, they had conquered much ofsouthern Spain. In Africa, their territory stretched from Marrakechto Tripoli and Tunis on the Mediterranean. The Almohad Dynastygradually declined and broke up into individual Muslim dynasties.While the Almohad Dynasty lasted just over 100 years, it united theMaghrib under one rule for the first time.
Stronger empires were about to emerge to the south of theAlmohad Empire. Societies in West Africa—discussed in Section 2—created magnificent empires that boasted tremendous economic andpolitical power and strong links to international trade routes.
BackgroundMorocco is in north-west Africa. In A.D. 46,Rome made it aprovince. UnderRoman rule, manyMoroccans becameChristian. Muslimstook over the area inthe 700s.
2. TAKING NOTES
Using a web diagram like the onebelow, list characteristics of state-less societies.
How might these characteristicshave helped stateless societies toendure for many centuries?
3. COMPARING
In what ways are hunting-gathering societies and statelesssocieties similar?
THINK ABOUT• family structures• social structures• methods of handling conflict
4. THEME ACTIVITY
Religious and EthicalSystems Working with a part-ner, prepare a time line showingthe impact of Islam on NorthAfrica. Include significant eventsfor the period described in thissection.
1. TERMS & NAMES
Identify• lineage• stateless societies• patrilineal• matrilineal• Maghrib• Almoravids• Almohads
Section Assessment1
Marrakech
Located in west central Morocco,Marrakech was once the capital ofboth the Almoravid and theAlmohad dynasties. During theheight of its prosperity in the 1400s,the city’s location on the edge of theSahara made it an important tradecenter. It was filled with bustlingmarkets like the present-day woolmarket shown above.
Marrakech also became animportant Islamic religious center. Itattracted scholars and thinkers fromthroughout the Islamic world. Today,with a population of over 600,000,Marrakech is Morocco’s third largestcity and once again a hub of trade.As in the past, Marrakech is famousfor its fine leather work and carpets.
SPOTLIGHTON
stateless societies
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Societies and Empires of Africa 371
SETTING THE STAGE While the Almohads and Almoravids were building empires inNorth Africa, three powerful empires flourished in West Africa. These ancient Africanempires arose in the Sahel—the savanna region just south of the Sahara. They grewstrong through the controlling of trade.
Ghana: Land of GoldBy A.D. 200, trade across the Sahara had existed for centuries. However, this traderemained infrequent and irregular because of the harsh desert conditions. Most packanimals—oxen, donkeys, and horses—could not travel very far in the hot, dry Saharawithout rest or water. Then in the third century A.D., Berber nomads began usingcamels. The camel could plod steadily over much longer distances, covering asmuch as 60 miles in a day. In addition, it could travel up to ten days withoutwater, twice as long as most pack animals. With the camel, nomadsblazed new routes across the desert and trade increased.
The trade routes crossed the savanna through the regionfarmed by the Soninke (soh•NIHN•keh) people. The Soninkepeople called their ruler ghana, or war chief. Muslim tradersbegan to use the word to refer to the Soninke region. By the700s, Soninke rulers of the kingdom of Ghana were growing richfrom taxing the goods that traders carried through their territory.
Gold-Salt Trade The two most important trade items were gold andsalt. Gold came from a forest region south of the savanna between the Niger(NY•juhr) and Senegal (SEHN•ih•GAWL) rivers. Miners dug gold from shafts as deep as100 feet or sifted it from fast-moving streams. Some sources estimate that until about1350, at least two-thirds of the world’s supply of gold came from West Africa. Althoughrich in gold, West Africa’s savanna and forests lacked salt, a material essential to humanlife. The Sahara contained deposits of salt. In fact, in the Saharan village of Taghaza,workers built their houses from salt blocks because it was the only material available.
Arab and Berber traders crossed the desert with camel caravans loaded down withsalt. They also carried cloth, weapons, and manufactured goods from ports on theMediterranean. After a long journey, they reached the market towns of the savanna.Meanwhile, African traders brought gold north from the forest regions.
Merchants met in trading cities, where they exchanged goods under the watchfuleye of the king’s tax collector. In addition to taxing trade, royal officials made sure thatall traders weighed goods fairly and did business according to law. Royal guards alsoprovided protection from bandits.
Empire of Ghana In his royal palace, the king stored gold nuggets and slabs of salt(collected as taxes). Only the king had the right to own gold nuggets, although golddust freely circulated in the marketplace. By this means, the king limited the supply ofgold and kept its price from falling. Ghana’s African ruler acted as a religious leader,
BackgroundSalt helps the humanbody retain water inhot weather. It alsopreserves food so thatit does not spoil soquickly.
THINK THROUGH HISTORYA. RecognizingEffects What werepositive and negativeeffects of the king’scontrol of trade?A. AnswerPositive—weighedgoods fairly, did busi-ness according to law,kept price of gold up;Negative—taxedtraders for goods.
West African Empiresand Civilizations
2TERMS & NAMES
• Ghana• Mali• Sundiata• Mansa Musa• Ibn Battuta• Songhai• Hausa• Yoruba• Benin
MAIN IDEA
West Africa contained severalpowerful empires and states, includingGhana, Mali, and Songhai.
WHY IT MATTERS NOW
These empires demonstrate therichness of African culture beforeEuropean colonization.
Miners in a forestregion of WestAfrica dug up goldnuggets like this.The king of Ghanapassed a law thatall nuggets shouldbe given to him.
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BackgroundAnimism is the beliefthat spirits—residingin animals, plants,and natural forces—play an important rolein regulating daily life.
chief judge, and military commander. He headed a large bureaucracyand could call up a huge army. In 1067, a Muslim geographer andscholar named al-Bakri wrote a description of Ghana’s royal court:
A V O I C E F R O M T H E P A S TThe king adorns himself . . . wearing necklaces and bracelets. . . . Thecourt of appeal is held in a domed pavilion around which stand tenhorses with gold embroidered trappings. Behind the king stand tenpages holding shields and swords decorated with gold, and on hisright are the sons of the subordinate [lower] kings of his country, allwearing splendid garments and with their hair mixed with gold.AL-BAKRI, quoted in Africa in the Days of Exploration
By the year 800, Ghana had become an empire. Because Ghana’sking controlled trade and commanded a large army, he could
demand taxes and gifts from the chiefs of surrounding lands. As long as the chiefsmade their payments, the king left them in peace to rule their own people.
Islamic Influences While Islam spread through North Africa by conquest, south ofthe Sahara, Islam spread through trade. Muslim merchants and teachers settled in thestates south of the Sahara and introduced their faith there.
Eventually, Ghana’s rulers converted to Islam. By the 11th century, Muslim adviserswere helping the king run his kingdom. While Ghana’s African rulers and many mem-bers of the court accepted Islam, many people in the empire clung to their animisticbeliefs and practices. Much of the population never converted. Those who did keptmany of their former beliefs, which they observed along with Islam. Among the upperclass, Islam’s growth encouraged the spread of literacy. To study the Qur’an, converts toIslam had to learn to read and write Arabic.
BackgroundAl-Bakri claimed thatGhana’s army was200,000 strong. Somemodern scholarsbelieve that figurewas exaggerated.
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GEOGRAPHY SKILLBU ILDER : Interpreting Maps 1. Region Compare the regions occupied by the Ghana, Mali, and Songhai
empires in terms of size and location.2. Human-Environment Interaction How did the environment both
contribute resources to and cause problems for traders?
At Fez, the tradersbuy goods broughtacross theMediterranean.
At Taghaza,they take onsalt andmore water.
They load up withwater at Sijilmasa. Itwill take 25 days toreach Taghaza.
They trade the saltand other goods forgold at Timbuktu.They also load up onwater and food forthe return journey.
A European drew this sketch of Timbuktu inthe early 1800s, long after its economic powerhad declined. However, the mosque from the1300s is still visible in the background.
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Societies and Empires of Africa 373
In 1076 the Muslim Almoravids of North Africa completed their conquest ofGhana. Although the Almoravids eventually withdrew from Ghana, the war had badlydisrupted the gold-salt trade. Ghana never regained its power.
Empire of MaliBy 1235 the kingdom of Mali had emerged. Its founders were Mande-speaking peo-ple, who lived south of Ghana. Like Ghana’s, Mali’s wealth was built on gold. AsGhana remained weak, people who had been under its control began to act indepen-dently. In addition, miners foundnew gold deposits farther east. Thiscaused the most important traderoutes to shift eastward, whichmade a new group of people—thepeople of Mali—wealthy. It alsoallowed them to seize power.
Sundiata Conquers an EmpireMali’s first great leader, Sundiata(sun•JAHT•ah), came to power bycrushing a cruel, unpopular leader.Then, in the words of a Mande oraltradition, “the world knew no othermaster but Sundiata.” Sundiatabecame Mali’s mansa, or emperor.Through a series of military victo-ries, he took over the kingdom ofGhana and the trading cities ofKumbi and Walata. A period ofpeace and prosperity followed.
Sundiata proved to be as great aleader in peace as he had been inwar. He put able administrators incharge of Mali’s finances, defense,and foreign affairs. From his new capital at Niani, he promoted agriculture andreestablished the gold-salt trade. Niani became an important center of commerce andtrade. People began to call Sundiata’s empire Mali, meaning “where the king lives.”
Mansa Musa Expands Mali Sundiata died in 1255. Influenced by Arab traders,some of Mali’s next rulers became Muslims. These African Muslim rulers builtmosques, attended public prayers, and supported the preaching of Muslim holy men.The most famous of them was Mansa Musa (MAHN•sah moo•SAH),who may have been Sundiata’s grandnephew.
Like Sundiata, Mansa Musa was a skilled military leader who exer-cised royal control over the gold-salt trade and put down every rebel-lion. His 100,000-man army kept order and protected Mali from attack.Under Mansa Musa, the empire expanded to roughly twice the size ofthe empire of Ghana. To govern his far-reaching empire, he divided it intoprovinces and appointed governors, who ruled fairly and efficiently.
A devout Muslim, Mansa Musa went on a hajj to Mecca from 1324 to1325. When he returned, Mansa Musa ordered the building of newmosques at the trading cities of Timbuktu (TIHM•buhk•TOO) and Gao.Timbuktu became one of the most important cities of the empire. Itattracted Muslim judges, doctors, religious leaders, and scholars from far andwide to its mosques and universities.
This is a Spanishmapmaker’s idea ofhow Mansa Musalooked.
THINK THROUGH HISTORYB. AnalyzingCauses Why wouldthe disruption of tradedestroy Ghana’spower?B. PossibleAnswer BecauseGhana’s power wasbased on wealthgained from control-ling trade.
BackgroundBetween Sundiataand Mansa Musa,Mali experienced tur-moil—five differentrulers in only 30years!
Sundiata
?–1255
Sundiata came from the kingdom ofKangaba near the present-day Mali-Guinea border. According to oraltradition, he was one of 12 royalbrothers who were heirs to thethrone of Kangaba.
When Sumanguru, ruler of aneighboring state, overran Kangabain the early 1200s, he wanted toeliminate rivals, so he murdered allof Sundiata’s brothers. He sparedSundiata, who was sickly andseemed unlikely to survive.However, as Sundiata grew up, hegained strength and became apopular leader of many warriors. In1235, Sundiata’s army defeatedSumanguru and his troops.
Although a Muslim, Sundiataalso performed traditional Africanreligious ceremonies as emperor.This helped him unify his empire.
Mansa Musa
?–1332
The strongest of Sundiata’ssuccessors, Mansa Musa was adevout Muslim. On his hajj, MansaMusa stopped in Cairo, Egypt. Fivehundred slaves, each carrying astaff of gold, arrived first. They werefollowed by 80 camels, eachcarrying 300 pounds of gold dust.Hundreds of other camels broughtsupplies. Thousands of servants andofficials completed the procession.
An Egyptian official wrote:This man Mansa Musa spreadupon Cairo the flood of hisgenerosity: there was noperson, officer of the court, orholder of any office of theSultanate who did not receivea sum of gold from him.
Mansa Musa gave away so muchgold that the value of this preciousmetal declined in Egypt for 12 years.
■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■
■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■HISTORY MAKERS
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THINK THROUGH HISTORYC. MakingInferences Whymight the people whohad been conqueredby Mali want to breakaway?C. PossibleAnswers Becausethey resented beingcontrolled by Mali;because they wantedto take over trade forthemselves.
Travels of Ibn Battuta In 1352, one of Mansa Musa’s successors prepared toreceive a traveler and historian named Ibn Battuta (IHB•uhn ba•TOO•tah). A nativeof Tangier in North Africa, Ibn Battuta had traveled for 27 years, visiting most of thecountries in the Islamic world.
After leaving the royal palace, Ibn Battuta visited Timbuktu and other cities inMali. He found he could travel without fear of crime. As a devout Muslim, he praisedthe people for their study of the Qur’an, but criticized them for not strictly practicingIslam’s moral code. However, Mali’s justice system also impressed him:
A V O I C E F R O M T H E P A S TThey are seldom unjust, and have a greater abhorrence of injustice than any other peo-ple. Their sultan shows no mercy to anyone who is guilty of the least act of it. There iscomplete security in their country. Neither traveler nor inhabitant in it has anything tofear from robbers.IBN BATTUTA, quoted in Africa in the Days of Exploration
Ibn Battuta left Mali in 1353. Within 50 years, the once-powerful empire began toweaken. Most of Mansa Musa’s successors lacked his ability to govern well. In addi-tion, the gold trade that was one basis of Mali’s wealth again shifted eastward as newgoldfields were developed.
Empire of SonghaiAs Mali declined in the 1400s, people who had been under its control began to breakaway. Among them were the Songhai (SAWNG•HY) to the east. They built up anarmy, extended their territory to the large bend in the Niger River near Gao, and
gained control of the all-important trade routes. Gao was the capital of their empire.
Sunni Ali, a Conquering Hero The Songhai had two extraordi-nary rulers. One was Sunni Ali, who built a vast empire by militaryconquest. Sunni Ali’s rule began in 1464 and lasted almost 30 years.
Sunni Ali built a professional army that had a riverboat fleet ofwar canoes and a mobile fighting force on horseback. He forged theSonghai empire through his skill as a military commander and hisaggressive leadership. In 1468, Sunni Ali achieved his first major mil-itary triumph. He captured the city of Timbuktu, which had been animportant part of Mali’s empire.
Five years later, he took Djenné, also a trade city that had a univer-sity. To take Djenné, Sunni Ali besieged the city for seven years beforeit fell in 1473. Sunni Ali sealed the takeover of Djenné by marrying itsqueen.
Askia Muhammad Governs Well After Sunni Ali’s death in 1492,his son succeeded him as ruler. Almost at once, he faced a majorrevolt by Muslims who were angry that he did not practice their reli-
gion faithfully. The leader of the revolt was a devoutMuslim named Askia Muhammad. He drove SunniAli’s son from power and replaced him.
Islam in West Africa
South of the Sahara, many convertsto Islam also kept their Africanbeliefs. They found ways to includetheir traditional rituals and customsinto their new religion.
The status of women in WestAfrican societies demonstrates howlocal custom altered Muslimpractice. In many 15th-centuryMuslim societies, women seldom lefttheir homes. When they did, theyveiled their faces. Muslim women inWest Africa, however, did not wearveils. They also mingled freely withmen in public—which shockedvisiting Muslim religious leaders.
Cultural blending also affectedarchitecture. West Africans usedlocal techniques to build the mosqueat Kawara, shown below. Theysculpted it beautifully from mud.
Daily Life
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During his 35-year rule, Askia Muhammad proved to be an excellent administrator.He set up an efficient tax system and chose able officials. Adding to the centralizedgovernment created by Sunni Ali, he appointed officials to serve as ministers of thetreasury, army, navy, and agriculture. Under his rule, the well-governed empire thrived.
Despite its wealth and learning, the Songhai Empire lacked modern weapons. In1591, a Moroccan fighting force of several thousand men equipped with gunpowderand cannons crossed the Sahara and invaded Songhai. The Moroccan troops quicklydefeated the Songhai warriors, who were armed only with swords and spears. The col-lapse of the Songhai Empire ended a 1,000-year period in which powerful kingdomsand empires ruled the central region of West Africa.
Other Peoples of West AfricaWhile empires rose and fell in some parts of West Africa, in other areas city-states devel-oped. As in Ghana, Mali, and Songhai, Muslim traditions influenced some of these city-states. Other city-states held to their traditional African beliefs.
Hausa City-States Compete The Hausa (HOW•suh) were a groupof people named after the language they spoke. The city-states of theHausa people first emerged between the years 1000 and 1200 in thesavanna area east of Mali and Songhai in what is today northernNigeria. Songhai briefly ruled the Hausa city-states, but they soonregained their independence. In such city-states as Kano, Katsina, andZazzau (later Zaria), local rulers built walled cities for their capitals.These cities had populations of 50,000 or more. From their capitals,Hausa rulers governed the farming villages outside the city walls.
Each ruler depended on the crops of the farmers and on a thrivingtrade in salt, grain, and cotton cloth made by urban weavers. Becausethey were located on trade routes that linked other West African stateswith the Mediterranean, Kano and Katsina became major tradingstates. They profited greatly from supplying the needs of caravans.Kano was noted for its woven and dyed cloth and for its leather goods.
Zazzau, the southernmost state, conducted a vigorous trade inenslaved persons. Zazzau’s traders raided an area south of the city andsold their captives to traders in other Hausa states. These traders soldthem to other North or West African societies in exchange for horses,harnesses, and guns. The Hausa kept some enslaved workers to buildand repair city walls and grow food for the cities.
All the Hausa city-states had similar forms of government. Rulersheld great power over their subjects, but ministers and other officials acted to check thispower. For protection from outside enemies and from each other, each city-state raisedan army of mounted horsemen. Although rulers often schemed and fought to gain con-trol over their neighbors, none succeeded for long. The constant fighting among city-states prevented any one of them from building a Hausa empire.
Yoruba Kings and Artists Like the Hausa, the Yoruba(YAWR•uh•buh) people all spoke a common language. Originally theYoruba-speaking people belonged to a number of small city-states inthe forests on the southern edge of the savanna in what is todayBenin and southwestern Nigeria. In these communities most peoplefarmed. Over time, some of these smaller communities joinedtogether under strong leaders. This led to the formation of severallocalized Yoruba kingdoms.
Considered divine, Yoruba kings served as the most important reli-gious and political leaders in their kingdoms. All Yoruba chiefs tracedtheir descent from the first ruler of Ife (EE•fay). According to legend,
BackgroundThe Chinese inventedgunpowder in the 9th century. About1304, Arabs devel-oped the first gun,which shot arrows.
This modern Hausa village inNigeria has manytraditionally con-structed mudbuildings.
THINK THROUGH HISTORYD. AnalyzingCauses In your ownwords, restate themain reason that theHausa did not developan empire.D. Answer Theydeveloped severalcity-states of roughlyequal power andfought constantly;none was able todominate the others.
Queen Amina’s Reign
In the 1500s, the Hausa city-state ofZazzau (later called Zaria) wasgoverned by Queen Amina. Shewas remembered as the“headdress among the turbans.”Her rule was distinguished for itsmilitary conquests.
The Kano Chronicle, a history of the city-state of Kano, records:
At this time Zaria, under QueenAmina, conquered all thetowns as far as Kawararafa andNupe. Every town paid tributeto her. . . . Her conquestsextended over 34 years.
Queen Amina’s commitment toher Muslim faith also led her toencourage Muslim scholars,judges, and religious leaders fromreligious centers at Kano andTimbuktu to come to Zazzau.
SPOTLIGHTON
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HISTORY THROUGH ART: Sculpture
Benin SculptureAccording to tradition, Yoruba artists taught their techniques to
artists in nearby Benin. One of the primary functions of the artists ofBenin was to please the ruler by recording his history or displaying hispower. Adorning the palace walls were brass plaques commemoratingthe ruler’s great achievements. Brass heads showed the ruler and hisfamily as idealized figures.
376 Chapter 15
Queen MotherBenin is perhaps most
famous for royal headssuch as this one. In Benin,
the queen mother held agreat deal of power.
To symbolize that,she wore a woven
crown called a“chicken’s beak.”
Brass LeopardThis snarling leopard is a symbol ofthe king’s royal power. It is also awater vessel used on ceremonialoccasions. Water was poured into thehollow vessel through a hole on top of thehead. When the vessel was tilted, waterpoured out through the nostrils.
Bronze BoxThis box is shaped like a section of the palace. On the center tower are a bird, which symbolizes disaster, and a python.Standing on the ridge of theroof are two Portuguesesoldiers holding guns.
Drawing Conclusions Whatdoes each of these sculpturesreveal about who had power inBenin? What can you concludeabout changes that might havebeen happening in Benin?
SEE SKILLBUILDER HANDBOOK, PAGE R17
Comparing How do peopletoday try to demonstrate theirpower to others—through art orthrough some other way? Explain.
Connect to Today
Connect to History
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Societies and Empires of Africa 377
the creator sent this first ruler down to earth at Ife, where he founded the firstYoruba state. His many sons became the heads of other Yoruba kingdoms. AllYoruba chiefs regarded the king of Ife as their highest spiritual authority. Todemonstrate his power, each king surrounded himself with a large royalcourt and soldier-bodyguards. However, a secret society of religious andpolitical leaders limited the king’s rule by reviewing the decisions he made.
Ife and Oyo were the two largest Yoruba kingdoms. Ife, developedby 1100, was the most powerful Yoruba kingdom until the late 1600s,when Oyo became more prosperous. As large urban centers, both Ifeand Oyo had high walls surrounding them. With fertile soil and amplerainfall, most rural farms in the surrounding areas produced surplus food,which was sent to the cities. This enabled city dwellers to becometraders and craftspeople.
The Ife produced gifted artists who carved in wood andivory. They produced terra cotta sculptures and cast in bronze,brass, and copper. Some scholars believe that the rulers sup-ported artists, who may have lived at court. Many clay and metalcasts portray Ife rulers in an idealistic way.
Kingdom of Benin To the south and west of Ife, near the delta ofthe Niger River, lay the kingdom of Benin (buh•NIHN). Like the Yorubapeople of Ife and Oyo, its people made their homes in the forest. Thefirst kings of Benin date from the 1300s. Like the Yoruba kings, the oba,or ruler, of Benin based his right to rule on claims of descent from thefirst king of Ife.
In the 1400s, the oba named Ewuare made Benin into a major WestAfrican state. He did so by building a powerful army. He used it to control an areathat by 1500 stretched from the Niger River delta in the east to what is today Lagos,Nigeria. Ewuare also strengthened Benin City by building walls around it. Inside thecity, broad streets were lined by neat rows of houses.
The huge palace contained many courtyards and works of art. Artists working for the oba created magnificent brass heads of the royal family and copper figurines.Brass plaques on the walls and columns of the royal palace of the oba showed legends,historical scenes, and the great deeds of the oba and his nobles. According to tradi-tion, Benin artists learned their craft from an Ife artist brought to Benin by the oba to teach them.
In the 1480s, Portuguese trading ships began to sail into Benin’s port at Gwatto.The Portuguese traded with Benin merchants for pepper, leopard skins, ivory, andenslaved persons. This began several centuries of European interference in Africa—during which they enslaved Africans and seized African territory for colonies. Mean-while, East Africans—discussed in Section 3—prospered from trade and developedthriving cities and empires.
Vocabularyterra cotta: areddish-brown clay,hard ceramic.
Although carvedsometime withinthe last twocenturies, thismother and child is done in a tradi-tional Yoruba style.
2. TAKING NOTES
Compare the Mali Empire and theSonghai Empire using a Venndiagram like the one below.
3. DRAWING CONCLUSIONS
Which of the two—the Yorubapeople or the people of Benin—had more influence on the other?Explain.
THINK ABOUT• when the kingdoms flourished• political traditions of each• artistic traditions of each
4. ANALYZING THEMES
Economics What do you thinkwas the most effective methodGhana used to regulate itseconomy? Explain.
THINK ABOUT• trade routes• ownership of gold• taxes
1. TERMS & NAMES
Identify• Ghana• Mali• Sundiata• Mansa Musa• Ibn Battuta• Songhai• Hausa• Yoruba• Benin
Section Assessment2
Mali
both
Songhai
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SETTING THE STAGE As early as the third century, the kingdom of Aksum had takenpart in an extensive trade network. From its Red Sea port, Aksum traded with Arabia,Persia, India, and Rome. In the 600s, Muslim forces gained control of Arabia, the Red
Sea, and North Africa. The Muslims cut off the Aksumites from theirport. The Aksumites moved their capital south from Aksum to Roha(later called Lalibela) shortly before 1100. In the meantime, othercities on the east coast were thriving on Indian Ocean trade.
East Coast Trade CitiesBy 1100, waves of Bantu-speaking people had migrated across cen-tral Africa to the east coast. There they established farming and fish-ing villages. At the same time, traders took advantage of themonsoons to make their way across the Indian Ocean to East Africa.Slowly, the existing coastal villages grew into bustling seaports, builton trade between East African merchants and traders from Arabia,Persia, and India. As trade increased, many Muslim Arab andPersian traders settled in these port cities. Arabic blended with theBantu language to create the Swahili (swah•HEE•lee) language.
Persian traders moved south from the Horn of Africa—a triangu-lar peninsula near Arabia. They brought Asian manufactured goodsto Africa and African raw materials to Asia. In the coastal markets,Arab traders sold porcelain bowls from China and jewels and cottoncloth from India. They bought African ivory, gold, tortoiseshell,ambergris, leopard skins, and rhinoceros horns to carry to Arabia.
By 1300, more than 35 trading cities dotted the coast fromMogadishu in the north to Kilwa and Sofala in the south. Like the empires of WestAfrica, these seaports grew wealthy by controlling all incoming and outgoing trade. Somecities also manufactured trade goods for export. For example, weavers in Mogadishu andSofala made cloth. Workers in Mombasa and Malindi made iron tools.
BackgroundMore Bantu-speakingpeople moved souththan east. Eventually,they settled much ofsouthern Africa.
Vocabularyambergris: a grayish-white substance fromthe intestines ofsperm whales, usedto make perfume.
Eastern City-States andSouthern Empires
3TERMS & NAMES
• Swahili• Great Zimbabwe• Mutapa
MAIN IDEA
From 1000 to 1500, East African city-states and southern African empiresgained wealth and power through trade.
WHY IT MATTERS NOW
The country of Zimbabwe and citiessuch as Mogadishu and Mombasa havetheir roots in this time period.
378
Swahili
Over the centuries, contactsbetween two peoples—Bantuspeakers and Arabs—led to thecreation of a new people and a newlanguage. Many Arab tradersmarried African women. In time,people of mixed Arab and Africanancestry came to be called Swahili.The word comes from an Arabicterm meaning “people of the coast”and refers to the East African coast.
Although Swahili peoples do notshare a single culture, they dospeak a common language. Swahiliis a Bantu language with manywords borrowed from Arabic.Today, Swahili is spoken by about30 million people—about half of allpeople who speak a Bantulanguage. In Tanzania and Kenya,Swahili is the official language.
GlobalImpact
Trade Goods
• savanna region
• shells of hawksbill sea turtles
• mines in southern Africa
• tusks from elephants in savanna region
• leopard skins
• tortoiseshell
• gold
• ivory
Point of Origin Products MadeRaw Materials
• saddles
• combs
• coins, jewelry
• carved chess pieces and sword hilts
SKILLBU ILDER : Interpreting Charts1. Which raw materials came from the savanna region?2. Rank the raw materials in order of value, and explain your decision.
In some parts ofAfrica, cowrieshells were usedfor currency. Thecowrie is a seasnail that lives inthe Indian Ocean.Its shell isbeautifully colored.
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Societies and Empires of Africa 379
The City-State of Kilwa In1331, Ibn Battuta visited Kilwa. Hecalled it one of the most beautifulcities in the world. He admired theluxurious way that its Muslim rulersand merchants lived. The richestfamilies lived in fine houses of coraland stone. They slept in beds inlaidwith ivory and their meals wereserved on Chinese porcelain.Wealthy Muslim women wore silkrobes and gold and silver bracelets.
Kilwa grew rich because it wasas far south on the coast as a shipfrom India could sail in one mon-soon season. Therefore, tradegoods from southerly regions hadto funnel into Kilwa, so Asian mer-chants could buy them.
In addition, in the late 1200sKilwa had seized the port of Sofala,which was a trading center for goldmined inland. By controlling Sofala,Kilwa was able to control the over-seas trade of gold from southernAfrica. This made Kilwa the wealthi-est, most powerful coastal city-state.
Portuguese Conquest In 1488,the first Portuguese ships rounded the southern tip of Africa and sailed north, looking fora sea route to India. They wanted to gain profits from the Asian trade in spices, per-fumes, and silks. When the Portuguese saw the wealth of the East African city-states,they decided to conquer those cities and take over the trade themselves.
Using their heavy ships’ guns, the Portuguese took Sofala, Kilwa, and Mombasa. Theyburned parts of Kilwa and built forts on the sites of Kilwa and Mombasa. The Portugueseremained a presence on the East African coast for the next two centuries.
Islamic InfluencesAs in West Africa, Muslim traders introduced Islam to the East African coast, and thegrowth of commerce caused it to spread. Even the smallest towns had a mosque for thefaithful. A Muslim sultan, or ruler, governed most cities. In addition, most governmentofficials and wealthy merchants were Muslims.
Islamic Law In 1331, Ibn Battuta visited the East African city of Mogadishu. Hedescribed how Muslim religious leaders and government officials decided legal matters:
A V O I C E F R O M T H E P A S TThe Shaikh [sultan] takes his place in his hall of audience and sends for the Qadi [judge].He takes his place on the Shaikh’s left and then the lawyers come in and the chief ofthem sit in front of the Shaikh. . . . Then food is brought and . . . those who are in theaudience chamber eat in the presence of the Shaikh. . . . After this the Shaikh retires tohis private apartments and the Qadi, the wazirs [government ministers] . . . and . . . chiefamirs [military commanders] sit to hear causes and complaints. Questions of religiouslaw are decided by the Qadi, other cases are judged by the . . . wazirs and amirs. If a caserequires the views of the [Shaikh], it is put in writing for him. He sends back an imme-diate reply.IBN BATTUTA, Travels of Ibn Battuta
THINK THROUGH HISTORYA. AnalyzingCauses What werethe two main reasonsKilwa became sowealthy?A. Answer Its favor-able location causedtrade to funnel intothe city; It controlledSofala and its goldtrade.
B. Answer The Qadijudged religiouscases; the wazirs andamirs judged nonreli-gious cases; theSultan (or Shaikh)judged cases thatwere speciallyreferred to him.THINK THROUGH HISTORYB. SummarizingName the four typesof people whodecided legal mattersand what type ofcases they judged.
0 1,000 Miles
0 2,000 Kilometers
40°E
80°E
Tropic of Cancer
Tropic of Capricorn
Equator 0° I N D I A N O C E A N
Nile
R.
Limpop
o R.
Red
Sea
Gulf of Aden
CongoR
.Z a mbezi R.
L. Victoria
ArabianSea
Sofala
Kilwa
Zimbabwe
Aksum Aden
Zeila
Dhofar
Mogadishu
Calicut
Muscat
Mombasa
Malindi
Lalibela
JiddaS A H A R A
A F R I C A
Zanzibar I.
Mad
agas
car
INDIA
ARABIA
EGYPT
East African Trade, 1000
Land routeSea route
Winter monsoonRain forestSavannahDesert
Summer monsoon
GEOGRAPHY SKILLBU ILDER : Interpreting Maps1. Movement How far did a trader have to travel to make a round
trip from Calicut in India to Kilwa in Africa and back again?2. Human-Environment Interaction Which monsoon would a trader
rely on to sail from India to Africa?
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Most rulers, government officials, and merchants were Muslim. However, the vastmajority of people along the East African coast held on to their traditional religiousbeliefs. This was also true of the people who lived in inland villages.
Enslavement of Africans Along with luxury goods, Arab Muslim traders exportedenslaved persons from the East African coast. Traders sent Africans acquired throughkidnapping and raids to markets in Arabia, Persia, and Iraq. The wealthy in thesecountries often bought enslaved persons to do burdensome domestic tasks. Muslimtraders shipped enslaved Africans across the Indian Ocean to India, where Indianrulers employed them as soldiers. Enslaved Africans also worked on docks and shipsat Muslim-controlled ports and as household servants in China.
Although traders had been enslaving East Africans and selling them overseas sinceabout the ninth century, the numbers remained small—perhaps about 1,000 a year.The trade in enslaved persons did not increase dramatically until the 1700s. At thattime, Europeans started to buy captured Africans for their colonial plantations.
Southern Africa and Great ZimbabweThe gold and ivory that helped the coastal city-states grow rich came from the interior ofsouthern Africa. In southeastern Africa the Shona people established a city called GreatZimbabwe (zihm•BAHB•way), which grew into an empire built on the gold trade.
Great Zimbabwe By 1000, the Shona people had claimed the fertile, well-wateredplateau between the Zambezi and Limpopo rivers in modern Zimbabwe. The areawas well suited to farming and cattle raising. Its location also had economic advan-tages. Great Zimbabwe stood near an important trade route linking the inland gold-fields with the coastal trading city of Sofala. Sometime after 1000, Great Zimbabwegained control of these trade routes. From the 1200s through the 1400s, it becamethe capital of a thriving state. Its leaders taxed the traders who traveled these routes.They also demanded payments from less powerful chiefs. The city of Great Zimbabwewas the economic, political, and religious center of its empire.
By 1450, the city of Great Zimbabwe was abandoned. No one knows for sure why ithappened. According to one theory, cattle grazing had worn out the grasslands. Inaddition, farming had worn out the soil, and people had used up the salt and timber.The area could no longer support a large population.
Ruins of Zimbabwe Almost everything that is known about Great Zimbabwe comesfrom its impressive 60 acres of ruins. Portuguese explorers knew about the site in the
C. Possible AnswerAlthough it was wide-spread geographically,the numbers weresmall compared tothose after 1700.THINK THROUGH HISTORYC. DrawingConclusions Howextensive was thetrade in enslaved per-sons from East Africabefore 1700?
BackgroundThe Shona are agroup of Bantu-speaking peoples.
Great Zimbabwe
1000 1500
1000 GreatZimbabwe begins tocontrol trade routesover which gold iscarried.
1200 GreatZimbabwe taxestraders andbecomes wealthy.
1450 The city ofGreat Zimbabwe
is abandoned.
City of Great ZimbabweThe Shona people built this impressive city to be the center of their empire.
• It covered more than 60 acres.
• Its population was more than 10,000.
• The walls contain approximately 900,000 stone blocks. They were so well built that the blocks hold togetherwithout mortar.
This photograph shows part of the Great Enclosure and the cone-shaped tower. ➤
This picture of a personstanding next to thetower shows how veryhigh both the tower andthe enclosing walls are.
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Societies and Empires of Africa 381
1500s. Karl Mauch, a German explorer, was one of the first Europeans to physicallyrediscover the remains of these stone dwellings in 1871.
The word zimbabwe comes from a Shona phrase meaning “stone enclosure.” Theruins consist of two complexes of stone buildings that once housed the royal palace ofGreat Zimbabwe’s rulers. The Great Enclosure is a massive curving wall up to 36 feethigh and 15 feet thick. Because there was no way for soldiers to climb to the top ofthe walls, archaeologists theorize that they were not used primarily as defenses. Themassive walls were probably built to impress visitors with the strength of Zimbabweand its ruler. Inside the walls stands a cone-shaped tower. Among the ruins werefound tall figures of birds, carved from soapstone. Archaeologists believe the construc-tion of Great Zimbabwe may have taken 400 years.
Mutapa Empire According to Shona oral tradition, a man named Mutota left GreatZimbabwe about 1420 to find a new source of salt. Traveling north, he settled in a val-ley with fertile soil, good rainfall, and ample wood. There he founded a new state toreplace Great Zimbabwe. As the state grew, its leader Mutota used his army todominate the northern Shona people living in the area. Heforced them to make payments to him.
These conquered people called Mutota and his succes-sors mwene mutapa, meaning conqueror or “master pillager.”The Portuguese who arrived on the East African coast in theearly 1500s believed mwene mutapa to be a title of respectfor the ruler. The term is also the origin of the name ofthe Mutapa Empire. By the time of Mutota’s death, theMutapa Empire had conquered all of what is nowZimbabwe except the eastern portion. By 1480 Mutota’s sonMatope claimed control of the area along the ZambeziRiver to the Indian Ocean coast.
The Mutapa Empire was able to mine gold deposited innearby rivers and streams. In addition, Mutapa rulers forcedpeople in conquered areas to mine gold for them. The rulerssent gold to the coastal city-states in exchange for luxuries.Even before the death of Matope, the southern part of hisempire broke away. However, the Mutapa Dynasty continued toremain in control of the smaller empire.
In the 1500s, the Portuguese tried to conquer the empire. Whenthey failed to do so, they resorted to interfering in Mutapa politics. Theyhelped to depose one ruler and put one they could control on the throne.This was a forerunner of increasing European interference in Africa incenturies to come.
D. Possible AnswerTo get control of thegold trade.THINK THROUGH HISTORYD. MakingInferences Why doyou think thePortuguese wanted toconquer the MutapaEmpire?
BackgroundMost other walledcities were built sothat soldiers couldclimb to the top of thewalls and shootarrows at attackers.
2. TAKING NOTES
Use a chart like the one below toexplain one example of culturalinteraction brought about by tradeon the coast of East Africa.
Do you think this interaction had apositive or negative effect?Explain.
3. COMPARING
Compare the Portuguese whoarrived in East Africa with therulers of the Mutapa Empire.
THINK ABOUT• how they treated other groups of
people• what motivated their actions
4. THEME ACTIVITY
Interaction withEnvironment Create a chart,sketch, or collage thatdemonstrates how the people ofGreat Zimbabwe interacted withtheir environment, both positivelyand negatively, over time.
1. TERMS & NAMES
Identify• Swahili• Great Zimbabwe• Mutapa
Section Assessment3
This is aPortuguese portraitof one of the kingsof the MutapaEmpire.
resulting interaction
cultural group cultural group
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Societies and Empires of Africa
15Chapter Assessment
REVIEW QUESTIONS
SECTION 1 (pages 367–370)
North and Central African Societies11. How is a dispute settled in Efe society?
12. What is an age-set system?
13. How were the beginnings of the Almoravid and Almohad empires similar?
SECTION 2 (pages 371–377)
West African Empires and Civilizations14. What accounted for Ghana’s financial success?
15. Name two ways Islam spread through Africa.
16. Describe the economy of the Hausa city-states.
SECTION 3 (pages 378–381)
Eastern City-States and Southern Empires17. How did the Swahili language evolve?
18. Why was it important for Kilwa to control Sofala?
19. Who was most affected by the introduction of Islam to East Africa?
20. What was the relationship of Great Zimbabwe to the Mutapa Empire?
TERMS & NAMESBriefly explain the importance of each of the followingto the societies and empires of Africa from 800 to 1500.
Interact with History
On page 366, you looked at a situa-tion in which traders exchangedgold for salt. Now that you’ve readthe chapter, reevaluate what makestrade items valuable. How did envi-ronmental conditions affect whatitems had value in Africa? Did gov-ernment policies have any effect onvalue? Consider what you learnedabout trading states in both Westand East Africa.
1. lineage
2. stateless societies
3. patrilineal
4. matrilineal
5. Ghana
6. Mali
7. Ibn Battuta
8. Songhai
9. Swahili
10. Great Zimbabwe
Visual Summary
382 Chapter 15
• Existed as a stateless society from 9th through 19th centuries
• Elders resolved conflicts
• Muslim state from mid-1000s to mid-1100s • Founded city of Marrakech
• Muslim state from mid-1100s to mid-1200s • Unified the Maghrib under one authority for first time in history
• West African empire from 700s to 1076 • Grew wealthy and powerful by controlling gold-salt trade
• West African empire from 1235 to 1400s • Mansa Musa’s hajj made Mali’s wealth famous
• West African empire that flourished in the 1400s and 1500s
• Conquered Mali and gained control of trade routes
• West African trading kingdom strong in 1400s and 1500s
• Famous for bronze and brass works of art
• East African city-state flourished from 1200s to 1400s
• Grew wealthy from trade
• Capital of trade-based empire from 1200s until about 1450
• City abandoned, perhaps because natural resources were used up
• Founded about 1420 by man from Great Zimbabwe • Remained independent in spite of Portuguese attempts to conquer
Organization & Time Periods Significant Facts
Igbo people
Almoravids
Almohads
Ghana
Mali
Songhai
Benin
Kilwa
Mutapa Empire
Great Zimbabwe
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CHAPTER ACTIVITIES1. LIVING HISTORY: Unit Portfolio Project
Your unit portfolio project focuses onthe growth and influence of religious and ethical systems. For Chapter 15,you might use one of the following ideas.
• Write an interview with one Muslim ruler from this chapter. Discuss howIslam influenced his political decisions.
• With a small group, put on a skit enacting the story of how the creatorcaused the first Yoruba state to be established.
• Create a diagram showing which levels of East African society converted to Islam and which retained African beliefs.
2. CONNECT TO TODAY: Cooperative Learning
In this chapter, you read about how trade affected theeconomies of East African city-states. Today, much of eastern Africa still reliesheavily on trade.
Work with a team to create a map that shows what goods present-day EastAfrican nations trade and who their trading partners are.
Using the Internet or your library, research East African trade today.
• Find information on exports and imports, quantities shipped, where thegoods are going, and how they are being transported.
• Look for examples of trade maps in this textbook, in historical atlases, andon the Internet.
• Create your own map showing East African trade today.
3. INTERPRETING A TIME LINE
Revisit the unit time line on pages 228–229. Use the Chapter 15 time line tofind out when Great Zimbabwe was abandoned. Then use the other chaptertime lines to name another event that was happening about the same time.
CRITICAL THINKING1. ADAPTING TO THE DESERT
How didpeople adapt to the harsh conditions of the Sahara?Discuss traders who crossed the Sahara and peoplewho lived in the Saharan village of Taghaza.
2. AFRICAN LEADERS, 800–1500
Create a chart like the one below. For each leader, list what group of people he led and one of hissignificant achievements.
3. TRADE NETWORKS
Do you think that Africa in the year 1300 wasconnected to most of the world through trade, orwas it relatively isolated from the rest of the world?Support your answer with evidence from the chapter.
4. ANALYZING PRIMARY SOURCES
The following quotation comes from a description of Timbuktu, written by Leo Africanus, a Muslimtraveler. Read the paragraph and then answer thequestions below it.
A V O I C E F R O M T H E P A S TThe rich king of Timbuktu hath many platesand scepters of gold, some whereof weigh1,300 pounds: and he keeps a magnificent and well-furnished court. When he travellethany whither he rideth upon a camel which isled by some of his noblemen; and so he dothlikewise when he goeth forth to warfare, and all his soldiers ride upon horses. Whoeverwill speak unto this king must first fall downbefore his feet, and then taking up earthmust first sprinkle it upon his own head and shoulders.LEO AFRICANUS, A Geographical History of Africa
• Do you think Leo Africanus was impressed by theruler of Timbuktu or not? Explain your opinion.
• How did the king of Timbuktu demonstrate hisroyal status?
THEME RELIGIOUS AND ETHICAL SYSTEMS
THEME ECONOMICS
THEME INTERACTION WITH ENVIRONMENT
FOCUS ON GEOGRAPHY
Look at this map ofwestern Africa in 1997.The map shows wheresome of the ethnic groupsthat you studied in thischapter live today. Thegroups are labeled in red.
• Which is the most wide-spread ethnic group? Inwhat nations does thatgroup live?
• Which groups live inmodern Nigeria?
Connect to HistoryCompare this map withthe map on page 368.Which groups are on bothmaps? Do they live in thesame regions that theyused to inhabit?
Leader Group Significant achievement
Ibn Yasin
Ibn Tumart
Mansa Musa
Askia Muhammad
Ewuare
Mutota
Western Africa, 1997
0 500 Miles
0 1,000 Kilometers
0°
Tropic of Cancer
0° Equator
ATLANTICOCEAN
Berbers
Soninke
Yoruba
Igbo
Hausa
Tiv
Berbers
Berbers
BerbersA L G E R I A
M A L IN I G E R
C H A D
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WES
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MAURITANIA
NIGERIA
GABON
EGYPT
SUDAN
CENTRALAFRICANREPUBLIC
DEM.REP.OFCONGO(ZAIRE)
EQUATORIALGUINEA
SIERRALEONE
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L I B Y A
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CLASSZONE .COMTEST PRACTICEAdditional Test Practice,
pp. S1–S33
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