Indian Journal of Traditional KnowledgeVol. 4(2), April 2005, pp. 190-198

Socio-cultural and ethnobotanical value of a sacred forest,Thal Ke Dhar, central Himalaya

Chandra Singh NegiDepartment of Zoology, Government Postgraduate College, Pithoragarh 262502, Uttaranchal,

E-mail: csnsacredl@rediffmail.com

Received 19 April 2004; revised 26 July 2004

The sacred groves/forests have in the recent years drawn the attention of the environmentalists due to their undisturbedconditions, which enable them to be repository of gene pools. Apart from environmental significance the sacred groves arealso indicative of the phenomenon of ethnoenvironmental management. It is a social institution which permits managementof biotic resources through people's participation. Unfortunately the social significance of the sacred groves has not beenstudied in depth and the environmental aspects are inevitably over emphasized. The present study deals with the traditionalbeliefs and social institutions surrounding the sacred forest- Thai Ke Dhar and makes an attempt to bring out the inherentenvironmental principles behind the conservation practices. In addition, the forest was assessed for its ethnobotanical valueto the local herbalists and traditional folk medicine practitioners. Pragmatic approaches combining conservation andsustainable uses are considered as are traditional values that have preserved the sacred groves in the past. Integration oftraditional values and protection mechanisms into the newly emerging cultural and religious contexts has been emphasized.

Keywords: Conservation, Ethnobotany, Sacred Forest, Sacred Plants, Taboos, Uttaranchal, Sacred Groves, Ethnomedicine,Thai Ke Dhar

IPC Int. ci.'. A61K35178; A61Pl1l2; A61Pl1l6; A61P9/02; A61Pll/10; A61P13/02; A61PI7/02; A6IP21/02;A6IP27/02; A61P291.02; A61P33/10

Sacred forests, sacred groves or traditional forestreserves are unique forest patches that have surviveddue to strong cultural forces. Rural communities oftenset aside and restrict access to wooded areasrepresenting ecological spaces that are distinctlydifferent from the rest of the surrounding agriculturalor pastoral landscapes (Fig. 1). Some sacred forestsare biologically diverse vestiges of original forests leftunaltered by human interference. Ranging in sizefrom less than one hectare to several thousandhectares, these traditional forest reserves form apatchwork of biotic islands with a high potential forthe conservation of remnant biological communities.

The rapidly growing literature on sacred areas inAsia, America, Africa describes the varied culturaland ecological functions of sacred forests. Untilrecently, these forest patches have been viewed ascultural curiosities. However, a closer look at thesecases shows that sacred forests are distinct commonproperty regimes maintained by strong institutionalauthorities and reinforced by a wide range ofsanctions that limit excessive extraction of forestproducts and wildlife. While these sacred forests orgroves are valuable, indigenous natural reservesprotected by deep cultural and historical traditions,

they also provide practical benefits to localpopulations such as river catchment protection, windbreaks, shade and useful forest products such asfirewood, fruits and medicinal plants. Sacred forestsaround the world share the common feature ofexisting independent of Government laws andregulations.

Sacred forests which have been extensively studied(principally in Asia) are generally clusters of forestvegetation that honour a deity, provide sanctuary forspirits, remind present generations of their ancestors,protect a sanctified place from exploitation. In Indiancontext it is reasonable to assume that traditionalHindu society recognized individual species asobjects of worship based on accumulated empiricalknowledge and their identified value for specificusesl

-3.Thus, Ficus religiosa Linn. and other species

of the same genus form components of a range ofecosystem types and support a variety of plant andanimal biodiversity. The sacred basil or Tulsi(Ocimum sanctum Linn.) is worshipped in alltraditional homes as a goddess and is a multipurposemedicinal plant". In the hills of Uttaranchal, Shiling(Osmanthus fragrans Lour.) (Fig. 2) rivals the sacredtree Pipal-(Ficus religiosa Linn.) in sacredness and is

NEGI : ETHNOBOTANY OF A SACRED FOREST OF UTTARANCHAL 191

Ius

Fig. 1- Sacred Forest- ThaI Ke Dhar, Pithoragarh, Uttaranchal

Fig. 2- Sacred Tree, Shiling (Osmanthus fragrans Lour.)

Although the literature is replete with generalreferences to ethnobotany for the country as a whole,efforts to document specific details of this knowledgehave been limited. The present paper contributes to thegrowing literature on sacred forests and concludes withan assessment for the policy makers to consider whileattempting to protect these biologically diverse areas.

192 INDIAN J TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE, VOL 4, No.2, APRIL 2005

now restricted to the premises of the temples only.Other species may not be worshipped in a religioussense but are part of socio cultural traditions. Thesocially valued multipurpose Quercus species of theGarhwal and Kumaon Himalayas are vital fodder andfuel wood species and serve several important roles inthe functioning of the mountain forest ecosystems.

The concept of the sacred grove in India has it'sroots in antiquity, even before the era of the Vedaswhich presents the only recorded remains of thethoughts of the ancient Aryans who migrated into thesub-continent. In their migration from the steppes ofcentral Asia through Balkh in Khorassan to the Indiansub-continent; the ancient Vedic people assimilatednew environmental values and the concept of thesacred grove forms the value system of the originalinhabitants. Though many traditional societies value alarge number of plant species from the wild for avariety of reasons such as food, medicines, sacrednessattached to floral species in India is perhaps a morerecent aspect of post-Vedic Hindu rituals. Thus theexisting concept of sacred groves at the landscapes orecosystem level of the original pre-Vedic inhabitantsof India was interpreted by the migrants of the Vedicage down to the level of particular species.

Traditional cultures are disappearing at anincreasing rate. Although considerable research workis being done, a lot of important information andindigenous knowledge base have already been lost asknowledge held with older generation could not betransmitted to younger generations and remainsunrecorded.'. With the disappearance of manytraditional customs and the death of those whoenforced them, a lot of extremely valuableinformation have been/will be lost forever.

Religious beliefs and rituals are very much intimatelyrelated to the management of the ecosystems"!'. InHimalayan context, the very existence of human beinggreatly relies upon his harmonious relationship withnatural forms. The association of religion withecosystem management is interwoven in the symbolicnetwork of the Himalayan communities. To a largeextent the indigenous ideology of the people is rooted inreligion. Sanctioning mechanisms are also religious intradition bound societies. Deviation from establishedpractices might be locally interpreted as the arousal ofsupernatural anger. Therefore, attempts to disregardreligious factors in programs of change may bethwarted by the people because religion gives meaningto various actions they carry out. For these reasonsalone the subject of "Culture and Conservation" hasnow become important.

Study areaThe present study site (Fig. 3,4), the Thai Ke Dhar

(Dhar in local term means the ridge) forest is locatedat a distance of about 8 km from Pithoragarh in theKumaon region of the western Himalayas. DistrictPithoragarh lies between North latitude 29°21/1 and30°, 48/1, 30' and East longitude 79°, 48/1, 10' and81°,5/1,55'. The area falls in an altitudinal range of250-8000 m. Having varied topography and strikingclimate, this region harbours a variety of sub-tropical,temperate and alpine vegetation. It is estimated thatno less than 200 species are of medicinal valuewhereas more than 663 species of plants have director indirect food-value. Of the total forest area ofPithoragarh district, which is about 86, 710.3 ha, theThai Ke Dhar forest located in the North-West to theEast and South direction, covers l315.60 ha. Theforest extends from the base of the Deodar village(1700-m altitude) to the top of the hill (2489-maltitude). The hill is easily divisible into North andSouth aspects. The north aspect is having gentleslopes while steep slopes characterize the southernportion.

MethodologyInformation as to the socio-religious role of the

sacred forest were gathered through a preliminarysurvey which were mostly conducted among the elderlyfolks of the village between the age groups of 45-75.Care was taken to involve each and every familybelonging to all the castes. The villagers wereinterviewed about the use of the plants (gathered fromthe forest) for different purposes (viz. medicinal, fodder,food and so forth). When recording the names of plants,forest visits were made with the informant foridentification of the specific plants. The 'inventory'involved collection of plant specimens and theninterviewing the informants for names and uses.Traditional healers (Vaids) were consulted tosubstantiate the information gathered from the villagers.However, women formed the larger portion of thoseinterviewed (above 76%), men were either reluctant tobe interviewed or did not possess the information. The

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NEGI: ETHNOBOTANY OF A SACRED FOREST OF UTIARANCHAL 193

Fig. 3-Location Map of Pithoragarh District, UttaranchaJ

!/jForest Boundary 1,71 Road

[J Watersheds 0 Settlements

I~I Streams ~ Temple

Fig.4-Sacred Forest of Thai Ke Dhar

department. In the adjoining village, Badabe whichhas its own small sacred grove, there is a small sacredstream (the origin of which is the main sacred forestlying above), the water of which is believed topossess miraculous powers of healing incurablewounds and skin lesions/afflictions. At present, thevillagers in totality, seldom venture into the forestexcept on the occasion of festivals nor do theyprocure anything from the forest. However, it isdifficult to assess whether it's because of the religiousnorms or because of the Reserve Forest Act whichprohibits them from procuring anything from theforest.

Deterioration in faith has taken place over the lastdecades. Younger generation does not perceive anyuse of it, apart from the congregation during thefestivals and is quite unaware of the myth or historybehind the grove and thus most (if not all) of theinformation were gathered from the village elders.The major factor behind the deterioration intraditional faith specifically among the youngergeneration is that they have been influenced bymodem cultural values and habits modeled by thenearby urban center. Complete apathy shown by theelders towards decimation of knowledgelinformationto the younger generation as regards the use orimportance of the sacred grove/forest could be yetanother reason. Rituals and taboos have softened overthe years. This can be gauged from the fact that nowin most of the sacred groves including that of Thai KeDhar certain castes are allowed to enter the foresteven though they are still not allowed to enter thetemple precincts.

Ecologically valuable species which perform thefunction of keystone species in an ecosystem andcontribute to the maintenance and enhancement ofdiversity, are also species that are socially valued bylocal communities for cultural or religious reasons,e.g. Quercus spp. which help in improving soilfertility through efficient nutrient cycling and inconserving soil moisture, partly through humus buildup in the soil and partly through a deep system ofroots with biomass uniformly distributed through thesoil profile. Consequently, they contribute to the richframework of biodiversity in the local ecosystem.

194 INDIAN J TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE, VOL 4, No.2, APRIL 2005

villagers were asked to provide the local names of theplants, palts of the plant used, methods of preparationand administration and whether the plants were usedsingly or in combination with other plants. Most plantswere identified in the field itself. Herbarium specimensof the same were collected and subsequently identifiedin the Department of Botany, D S B Campus College,Kumaon University, Nainital, Uttaranchal.

Socio-religious aspectsOne of the conservation practices includes religious

taboos against the taking of certain species. Taboosare social norms which regulate human behaviortowards resource use. They prohibit or restrict peoplefrom either killing or eating wild animals and fromtouching specific plants and animals, or using any oftheir products. Thus, the use of plants for cooking oras fuel wood, masks, food, and traditional medicinesare influenced by taboos. Taboos also help to unitepeople and instill traditional discipline on members ofthe community to promote communal ownership ofresources to protect the traditional culture.

Fetching fodder or fuel from this forest is notallowed; people firmly believe that if someone hurts thetrees, the forest fairies or the Archeries will be angered.One is required not to disturb forests, cut trees and killwild animals without seeking permission from theAcharie, The rule of Mrigoli, which prohibits hunting ofdeer in flock, gives added protection to the wildlife,apart from the regulatory mechanisms enforced throughtaboos and fear of Acharie. The deer having whitemarks on their heads are believed to be reincarnatedforms of Rishis or great souls and thus are not killed.Again during the breeding season the female deer arenot killed. All these factors obviously reduce thechances of hunting of deer. People strictly abide bythese rules for the fear of deity's wrath and as a result,one can easily locate wildlife in the sacred forest, eventhough it is of a rare occurrence in the adjoining region.

Women are strongly prohibited from entering theforest due to the belief that they are impure. If for somereasons a woman mistakenly comes near the temple,she has to part with her jewellery in the form of bangles,ear rings, etc. In the hill societies, the women folk carryout most of the work, including that of fuel-wood andfodder collection. Thus, restricting them from collectingthe same from the sacred forest which often lies veryclose to the precincts of the villages serves very purposeof the institution of sacred forest.

The forest comes within the reserve forest andhence is directly under the control of state forest

Ethnobotanical aspectsThe information related to composition of medicine

prepared for curing different ailments was obtainedfrom the traditional healers. The plants were collectedfrom the places of their occurrence and were

Table l-Ethnobotany of some important plants of Thal ke dhar forest

S.No. Botanical Name Local Family Habit Food! Parts Medicinal value Other usesName Fodder used

Berberis aristata DC. Kirmor Berberidaceae Shrub Fodder Roots Root decoction used in The dried berries edible.Fruits diarrhoea, jaundice, skin disease

and fever.2 Coria ria nepalensis WalL Makola Coriariaceae Shrub Fodder/ Leaves Fruits edible, Wood as fue!.

Food Fruit ZtT1

3 Cotoneaster affinis Lind!. Ruins Rosaceae Shrub Fodder Leave Leaves as medicine Wood is used for making 8var.bacillaris Schneid. walking stick and agricultural

~implements . ::c4 Benthamidia capitata Hara Bhamora Cornaceae Tree Fodder Leaves Bark decoction used to clean Z

Seed dogs in their allergy. 0t:CBark 0

5 Comus oblonga Wall. Kasmol Cornaceae Tree Fodder Leaves Wood for pulleys, shuttle,-l>

fruits bobbins, mallet heads and for Z-<gun powder, charcoal. 0

6 Cupressus torulosa O.Oon. Surai Cupressaceae Tree Leaves Timber for house building 'Tl

7 Daphne papyracea WaIL Baruwa Thymeleaceae Tree Fodder Stem The plant is diuretic, expectorant, The bark is used for making >CIl

Bark purgative and is also used for paper, dyeing wool and cotton, >flowers fever and gastric disorder. flowers offered in temple. o

;;08 Eleagnus umbellate Thunb. Gyali Eleagnaceae Shrub Food Fruits The fruit is edible. tTl

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9 Jasminum humile Linn. Pilichameli Oleaceae Shrub Fodder Root Root in ring worm Root yields a yellow dye,'Tl0

Flowers flower~ yield aromatic oil.;;0tTl

10 Lindera pulcherrima Lauraceae Tree Fodder Leavies Leaf extract applied on injury to Wood is used for building work CIl-l

Benth. alley pain - 0II Lonicera Qninquelocularis Bhatkukra Loganiaceae Shrub Fodder Leaves Branches are used for making 'Tl

c::Hardw. Stem walking stick, wood used as :j

Bark fueL >12 Lyonia ovalifolia Drude Angyar Ericaceae Tree Fodder Leaves Leaf and flower in skin allergy, A good fire resistant and soil ;;0

>Flowers also used as insecticide. binder. Wood for turnery Zwork. o

13 Mahonia napaulensis DC. Kaniya Berberidaceae Shrub Food Fruit Berries are eaten and considered Used as fuel.::c>

Roots as diuretic r14 Myrsine africana Linn. Ghani Myrsinaceae Shrub Fodder Fruits Fruit used as antihelmintics The villagers use it for making

/banwan Leaves given in ringworm and tapeworm broom. The plants gum edibleinfection, useful in dropsy and and used for making adhesive.colic pain.

15 Persea duthiei Kostem, Gardar Lauraceae Tree Food Fruits The plant extract shows Fruits are edible. Wood is usedLeaves antibacterial activity. as fuel,

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Table l-Ethnobotany of some important plants of Thai ke dhar forest-Contd

S.No. Botanical Name Local Family Habit Food! Parts Medicinal value Other usesName Fodder used

16 Pinus roxburghii Sarg. Kulain Pinaceae Tree Resin Resin of plant applied to sprains Used widely as fuel && septic wounds construction work.

17 Pyrus pashia Buch. -Ham. Mehal Rosaceae Tree Food! Leaves - It is used for making walkingexD.Don Fodder Fruits stick,& building work. Fruit is

edible. Z18 Pyracantha crenulata Ghingharu Rosaceae Shrub Food! Root Root extract boiled with water & Wood is for making tools & 0Roem. Fodder Fruits bathed to cure body pain walking stick. S;

19 Qu.,!rcus leucotrichophora Banj Fagaceae Tree Fodder Leaves Used for agricultural Z'-A.Carnne implements. -l

20 Querens floribunda Lind!. Tilonj Fagaceae Tree Fodder Leaves - Used as firewood. ;:Q:>21 Quercus lanata Sm. Rianj Fagaceae Tree Fodder Leaves ~ Used for agricultural implements 0

& as firewood. a22 Rhododendron arboreum Brunj Ericaceae Tree Food! Leaves Paste of leaves is useful in Leaves are used as vegetable. 0

ZSm. Fodder flowers wounds & cut, also used for cold Flowers used for making juice, :>

& cough. used for fuel & charcoal, also for t""~building, tool handles & toys, Z

boxes, etc. 023 Rubus biflorus Buch. - Kala hisalu Rosaceae Shrub Food!· Leaves Fruit is edible. ~

t""Ham. ex D.Don Fodder fruits m

024 Rubus ellipticus Sm. Hinsar/ Rosaceae Shrub Food! Leaves Root juice cures stomachache Fruit is edible. oHisalu Fodder fruits .trl

Roots <025 Rubus niveus Thunb. Gowriphal Rosaceae Shrub Food! Fruit Root juice used in colic pain, Fruit is edible, r-

Fodder Leaves canned leaves for relaxing uterus ~Root muscles, given in painful periods Z

~in women. .N26 Rubus paniculatus Sm. Kalaanchhu Rosaceae Climber Food! Leaves Fruit is edible :>

Fodder Fruits "tI;:Q27 Sarcococca hookeriana Sukat sing Buxaceae Shrub Fodder Leaves Leaves used in the treatment of -t""

Rehd. Ex Wilson fever, rheumatism, reduce blood N0

pressure 0U\

28 Spiraea canescens D.Don Takoi Rosaceae Shrub Fruit Used for making dye.Leaves

29 Symplocos chinensis Chin Lodh Styraceae Tree Fodder Leaves Yellow dye is obtained fromMoore Bark bark and the leaves

30 Symplocos ramosissima Lodra Styraceae Shrub Fodder Bark Bark extract used in eye disease. Bark and leaves give yellow dye,Wall. ex G.Don Seed used as mordant with madar,

Leaves seed oil as iIluminant, wood forbend work & carving.

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NEGI: ETHNOBOTANY OF A SACRED FOREST OF UTTARANCHAL

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preserved in the herbarium. Information pertaining totheir medicinal value, habitat and use in particularailments were gathered. Different people were foundto offer different uses of a single species and alsodifferent treatments for the same ailment. The datafrom different villages were compared with each otherand conclusions derived. The reports of earlierworkers supplemented the information gatheredduring the field work. House to house survey wasconducted and specifically elderly folks wereconsulted as it was found that present generation notonly lacked the knowledge but was also indifferenttowards the same.

A total of 36 plant species belonging to 20 familieshaving medicinal as well as multiple other uses wereidentified and enumerated (Table 1). The familyRosaceae was represented by the maximum 8 specieswhich was 40% of the total while 7 other familieswere represented by two or more species. Out of the36 species studied shrubs had the major representationand were represented by 19 species which again wasmore than 50% of the total. This was followed by treespecies, represented by 14 species. In majority of thespecies more than one part was used for medicinalpurposes. Among 28 species more than two parts ofthe plants were in use for their medicinal properties.While leaves constituted the major portion mmedicine flowers had no representation at all. Inaddition to the medicinal uses majority of thesurveyed species of plants had more than dual use i.e .either they were being used as fodder plants or assupplements to food. At least 20 species were beingused as fodder species, while 10 species were beingused both as a fodder and as food supplements.

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Discussion and ConclusionEcological life support system was preserved

because sustainable forms of land use such asterracing, stable shifting cultivation and moderatepastorals were usually practiced. Religious beliefs andcustomary rules that made it sustainable governed thecollection of wild animals and plants. Geneticdiversity was maintained as a result of the lowpressure exercised over natural system and by theimposition of religious taboos or through theexistence of sacred groves although not necessarilyalways intended as conservation instruments theserules were generally effective m maintainingpopulation in equilibrium with the environment.

Local community's knowledge in the use of plantresources is very important for conservation efforts

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Government Post Graduate College, Pithoragarh,Uttaranchal for his perennial help and encouragement.

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Plants Used in Rituals and Psycho-medicinal Practices,lohsard, II & 12 (1988) 103.

2 Burman J J R, The Dynamics of Sacred Groves, 1 Human Ecol,6 (4), (1995),245.

3 Sensarma P, The Sacred and Religious Plants in theTantrasarah, Ethnobotany, 7 (1995) 51.

4 Ramakrishnan PS, Conserving the Sacred: from Species toLandscapes, Ambio, 4 (1996) 11.

5 Maikhuri R K, Nautiyal S, Rao K S, Chandrasekhar K,Gavali R & Saxena K G, Analysis and Resolution ofProtected Area People Conflicts in Nanda Devi BiosphereReserve, India, Environmental Conservation, 27( I) (2000)43.

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7 Rappaport, R A, Pigs for Ancestors, (Yale University Press,New Haven), 1984.

8 Malhotra K C & Mark P, Forest Regeneration ThroughCommunity Protection, (Forest Department, West Bengal),1989.

9 Sinha R K, Ecosystem Preservation Through Faith andTradition in India, 1 Human Ecol, 2 (1) (1995) 21.

10 Kumbhojkar M S & Kulkarni D K, Environmental Impacts ofSacred Groves: In Western Ghats of Maharastra, Sci Cult, 64(1998) 205.

11 Sinha B & Maikhuri R K, Conservation Through 'Socio-cultural Religious Practice' in Garhwal Himalaya: A Case Studyof Hariyali Sacred Site, in: Conserving the Sacred forBiodiversity Management, Ramakrishnan P S, Saxena K G &Chandrasckhara U M (ed), (Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. Pvt.Ltd., New Delhi), 1998.

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198 INDIAN J TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE, VOL 4, No.2, APRIL 2005

directed at protecting medicinal plants. Folk medicinepractitioners tend to have extensive knowledge of theecology and use of the local flora. However, as manylocal cultures are increasingly threatened the need todocument their knowledge of plants for medicinal andother uses becomes more urgent. Sacred groves orforests could offer one possibility for the conservationof plants of medicinal significance as they are themost vigorously protected forest patches 12.

Since very little is known about the speciescomposition and medicinal uses of plants withinsacred groves or forests, it is important that suchinformation be collected and measures be taken toprovide a frame work for the conservation of plants ofmedicinal value in these sacred groves/forests. Thereare many rare and endangered plant species whosesurvival depends on the protection of existing forests.However, observations by herbalists that some plantsare now becoming rare in their surroundings suggestthat local extirpation is already taking place. Theconservation of sacred forests hinges on thenegotiation of new partnerships between the state andlocal communities. Secular and sacred values can bemerged together to assure the future of sacred forestpatches.

AcknowledgementThe author gratefully acknowledges the financial

help received from Director, G B Pant Institute ofHimalayan Environment and Development, Kosi-Katarmal, Almora, Uttaranchal and to the Principal,