Sociological ResearchAn Introduction

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Sociological Research TopicsSociologists:

– Study the influence that society has on people’s attitudes and behavior

– Seek to understand ways in which people interact and shape society

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Sociology and Common SenseSociologists do not accept something as fact

because “everyone knows it” Findings are tested by researchers,

analyzed in relation to other data, and evaluated with sociological theory

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The scientific method includes selecting a researchable problem, reviewing the literature, formulating a hypothesis, creating an operational definition, choosing a research design, collecting the data, analyzing the data, and stating conclusions.

It is important that sociologists observe the ethics of their discipline in carrying out research. They have an obligation to protect their research subjects from risk and harm and to protect these subjects’ rights and dignity.

Sociological Research An Introduction

Types of research

1.1. ApplicationApplication Pure ResearchPure Research Basic research(also called pure research or fundamental Basic research(also called pure research or fundamental

research)is a systematic study directed toward greater knowledge research)is a systematic study directed toward greater knowledge or understanding of the fundamental aspects of phenomena or understanding of the fundamental aspects of phenomena without specific application or product in mindwithout specific application or product in mind..

Applied ResearchApplied Research it involve practical application of science,deal with practical it involve practical application of science,deal with practical

problems.problems.

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Types of research2. By Objective Explortaory Research In this research problem are not clear. It is done in search of

new indicator.   Example:  When you try out an operational definition, you are doing exploratory research

Descriptive Research Research that describes what is, describing, recording,

analyzing, and interpreting conditions that exist. Used as a means of discovering new meaning, describing what exits, determining the frequency with which something occurs, and categorizing information.

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Types of Research Explanatory Research Here the researcher begins with ideas about the

possible causes of a social phenomenon.   Examples:   Harrell's study of pedestrian

behavior and North's study of music and on-hold waiting.

Correlational Research it discover the relationship between two or more

aspects of situation. Example: what is the impact of an advertising

campaign on the sale of the product 7

Types of Research

3: Inquiry Mode Qualitative unstructured approach to the inquiry is called

qualitative. It deals with soft data, in the form impressions, words, symbols etc.

Example: happiness ,sadness, love etc. Quantative structured approach to the inquiry. it deals with hard data

which is in digit form. example: age, income, education etc.

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Good Research• objectives should be clear• Research question properly phrased. Scope, importance

and of the study should clearly define• Strong relevent literature review.• Methodology should be reliable or valid• Data collection, coding, analyzing and interpreting done

with care• Ability to generlize homogeneous population• Facts are fairly presented to the reader• Research should cover the objective

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Methods of social Research

1. Observation2. Questionnaire3. Interview4. Social surveys

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Observation

 observational research (or field research) is a social research technique that involves the direct observation of phenomena in their natural setting.

Types of observation1. Non controlled, participant observation observer became the member of group under study 2 . Non controlled non participant observation3. Systematic controlled Observation

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Advantages of Participant Observation Research

• The advantages probably seem obvious to  you. Certainly, participant observation research allows one to gain information one wouldn't have otherwise had access to.

• Secondly, behaviors remain relatively natural, thereby giving the measurements highexternal validity.

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Disadvantages of Participant Observation Research

• There are a variety of disadvantages. First, the people being observed have no opportunity to provide informed consent to be a participant in the research. This is a serious ethical consideration that should not be taken lightly.

• Second, the researcher loses objectivity. How can a researcher be a participant in the observation and remain completely neutral? It's impossible. You'll form opinions and change your behavior accordingly.

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Survey Research● A survey is a research method in which subjects respond to a series

of statements or questions in a questionnaire or an interview..-Surveys are directed at populations, the people who are the

focus of research. - Usually we study a sample, a part of a population that represents

the whole. Random sampling is commonly used to be sure that the sample is actually representative of the entire population.

- Surveys may involve questionnaires,.- Questionnaires may be closed-ended or open-ended. - Surveys may also take the form of interviews, a series of

questions administered in person by a researcher to respondents.

● This technique uses statistical methods to analyze data

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● Questions: A Word or Two Makes All the Difference. How researchers word questions affects how the public responds.

● Sampling issues.- Lois Benjamin used interviews and snowball sampling to study one hundred elite African Americans. Benjamin concluded that, despite the improving social standing of African Americans, black people in the United States still experience racial hostility.- Kinsey and his successors and the Mercury Magazine political predictions- Election polling and prediction

Aspects of Survey research

3:Questionnaire method

A questionnaire is a series of written questions a researcher presents to subjects

According to Wallace and Wallace “A questionnaire is a means of gathering information

by having the respondents fill in answers to printed questions”

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Types of questionnaire1. Structured questionnaire2. Unstructured questionnaire Structured questionnaire question are prepared in advance not at the spot. it has two types close ended question different multiple answers given open ended question(inventive) respondents own viewpoint,relationships,attitude

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Types of questionnaire

Unstructured questionnaire This is like open ended question. it is used to obtain view

point, opinions,attitudes and show relationship and interconnections between data.

Advantages of questionnaire• Practical• cost effective way• Any person can be carry validity and reliability• easily quantified • Can be analysed more 'scientifically

Types of questionnaire

• The disadvantages of questionnaires• Is argued to be inadequate to understand some forms of

information - i.e. changes of emotions, behaviour, feelings etc.

• limited amount of information without explanation• Lacks validity• There is no way to tell how truthful a respondent is being• People may read differently into each question

4:Interview

Interview is conservation with a purpose and, therefore, is more than a mere oral exchange of information.”Gopal”

Types of Interview The Non directive Interview The Directive interview The Focused interview The Repeated interview The Depth Interview

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Types of interview Non directive- unstructured interview interviewer does not follow a system or a list of

predetermined question. It is more flexible or open ended.

Directive or structured interview Interviewer follow set of predetermined question or a

standerdized technique. Focused interview The focus of the interview is circumscribed by relevant

theory and evidence and involves skilled facilitation of the process (in a one-on-one or group forum) using an interview guide, allowing for unanticipated views to also be uncovered and explored 21

Types of interview The Repeated interview It is useful in the attempts to trace the specific

developments of social or psychological process. The depth Interview It is a detail interview that has long process. It uses

projective technique.

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The Scientific Method

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Steps in the conduct of Scientific Sociological Research

1. Select a topic guided by sociological perspective and curiosity.• Frequently guided by the source of funding for the research.

2. Define the problem in considerable detail, specifying exactly what you want to learn.

3. Review the literature to use what is already known about the topic. As a guide, and to generate ideas as to what questions to ask.

4. Formulate your hypothesis, describing how you expect your variables to be related.

• Your variables need to be operationalized.5. Choose a research method, which we will discuss in a few

minutes.6. Collect your data paying attention to the validity.7. Analyze your data.8. Disseminate by publishing or speaking at professional meetings,

your findings.

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►Formulating the Hypothesis

Steps in the ResearchProcess

– Hypothesis: testable statement about relationship between two or more variables

– Variable: measurable trait or characteristic subject to change under different conditions• Independent variable: variable

hypothesized to cause or influence another• Dependent variable: variable subject to the

influence of another variable

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►Formulating the Hypothesis

Steps in the ResearchProcess

– Causal logic: relationship between a condition or variable and a particular consequence, with one event leading to the other

– Correlation: exists when a change in one variable coincides with a change in another

Correlation does not necessarily indicate causation

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The utility of MeasurementFor a measurement to be useful, it must be reliable and valid.

• Reliability refers to consistency in measurement.

• Validity means precision in measuring exactly what one intends to measure.

There are two types of measurementNominal: expresses the essence of an idea in words Operational: expresses the essence of an idea in terms that

can be measured.

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Collecting and Analyzing Data►Ensuring Validity and Reliability

– Validity: degree to which a measure or scale truly reflects the phenomenon under study

– Reliability: extent to which a measure produces consistent results

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Collecting and Analyzing DataSelecting the Sample

– Sample: selection from a larger population that is statistically representative of that population

– Random sample: when every member of an entire population has the same chance of being selected

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The Basic Concepts of the Social Scientific Method

Concepts, variables, and measurement.

1. Concepts are mental constructs that represent some part of the world, inevitably in a simplified form.

2. Variables are concepts whose value changes from case to case, Constants do not change value.

3. Measurement is the process of determining the value of a variable in a specific case.

4. Statistical measures are frequently used to describe populations as a whole.

a) This requires that researchers operationalize variables, which mean specifying exactly what one is to measure in assigning a value to a variable

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Cause and effect is a relationship in which change in one variable causes change in another.

• The independent variable is the variable that causes the change.

• The dependent variable is the variable that changes.• Cause-and-effect relationships allow us to predict how one

pattern of behavior will produce another.• Correlation exists when two (or more) variables change

together.• Spurious correlation means an apparent, although false,

association between two (or more) variables caused by some other variable.

• Spurious correlations can be discovered through scientific control, the ability to neutralize the effect of one variable in order to assess relationships among other variables.

Relationships among variables

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Developing the Conclusion●Supporting Hypotheses

– Sociological studies do not always generate data that support the original hypothesis

– Controlling for Other Factors• Control variable: factor that is held

constant to test the relative impact of an independent variable

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Finally….• The interplay of theory and method.

– Inductive logical thought is reasoning that builds specific observations into general theory.

– Deductive logical thought is reasoning that transforms general ideas into specific hypotheses suitable for scientific testing.

– Most sociological research uses both types of logical thought. • People Lie with Statistics? The best way not to fall prey

to statistical manipulation is to understand how people can mislead with statistics:

• People select their data.• People interpret their data.

• People use graphs to “spin” the truth• If you don’t understand this you WILL be fooled!