soil survey in greece - esdac...1989). the so-constructed map was checked and corrected in the...

EUROPEAN SOIL BUREAU RESEARCH REPORT NO. 6

Soil Survey in Greece. Yassoglou 83

Soil Survey in Greece

N. YassoglouLaboratory of Soils and Agricultural Chemistry, Agricultural Universityof Athens, Athens, GREECE

IntroductionSoil survey in Greece was initiated in the 1930s.Over the ensuing years it has followed severalstages of development. Programmes have beeninterrupted several times and restarted by differentagencies, such that there has never been acontinuous programme likely to result in thecomplete mapping of the country. Soilclassification and mapping designation schemeshave varied. Classification schemes used haveincluded the Russian system (Glinka 1927), the1938 USA system (Thorp and Baldwin, 1938), theFrench system (Aubert and Duchaufour, 1956),Soil Taxonomy (Soil Survey Staff, 1975) and theFAO system (FAO/UNESCO, 1990).

Soil mapping is carried out by a number oforganisations in Greece and at a number ofdifferent scales. Soil maps at reconnaissance scalehave been produced for various parts of thecountry, mainly to provide a scientific basis foragricultural development at a regional scale. Aseries of maps at a detailed scale has beenproduced by the Soil Reclamation Service inCupertino together with the Soil Laboratories ofthe Ministry of Agriculture. These maps weremainly of arable bottomlands and the units wereadapted to provide information suitable fordrainage and irrigation advice. The Forest Servicehas been undertaking land mapping of the hillyand mountainous areas of the country at a 1:50,000scale. Such maps are used to plan the sustainabledevelopment of non-agricultural lands.

Summaries of the mapping progress for the periodto 1989 are to be found in Aggelides andTheocharopoulos (1991) and for the period to1994 in Yassoglou (1996). Progress in the last tenyears (to 1998) is described below.

Present Status of SoilMapping

Small scale mappingA soil association map at 1:500,000 scale has beenprepared for the whole country. Its mapping unitshave been designated on the basis of geology,geomorphology, physiography, vegetation zoneand land cover. An algorithm was developed foroverlaying the parameters (Yassoglou and Kollias,1989). The so-constructed map was checked andcorrected in the field. A 1:1,000,000 map,prepared by uniting similar units from the1:500,000 map, has been incorporated in theEuropean Soil Bureau Database.

Reconnaissance and semi-detailed mappingThe areas mapped at semi-detailed andreconnaissance scales (1:50,000 to 1:300,000)amount to roughly 4 million hectares or about 31%of the total country. Much work is required tobring them to currently acceptable standardsbecause of the different methodologies andclassification systems used over the years. Thenumber of profiles analysed is not exactly knownbut is estimated to amount to a few hundred.Figure 1 shows the areas within which this type ofsoil mapping has been conducted.

Land mappingThe Greek Forest Service has been conductingland mapping based on the site parameters:geology, physiography, vegetation, degree ofhuman interference, soil depth, soil erosion, aspectand slope. The mapping units are definedparametrically and drawn on to 1:50,000 mapsusing parametric overlaying (Nakos, 1983). Eachmap is checked and corrected in the field.


Soil Survey in Greece. Yassoglou84

Figure 1: Areas within which reconnaissance soil surveys have been conducted.

In the course of the mapping programme, morethan 2000 profiles have been described, sampled,analysed and classified according to the SoilTaxonomy and FAO systems. These data are nowstored in computerised databases.

The total area mapped is estimated to be more than10 million hectares, almost 100 percent of the hillyand mountainous lands and 75% of the total areaof the country. Land mapping is not strictly soilmapping but it is a useful reference for theconstruction of soil maps in the hilly and

mountainous areas of the country. The land mapsare valuable for developing sustainable land useschemes in the uplands.

Detailed Soil MappingDetailed soil mapping has so far been confined tolow lying agricultural lands and the surroundinghills. The field sheets on which the soil boundariesare originally drawn are at a scale ranging from1:5,000 to 1:15,000. The published map scalesrange from 1:5,000 to 1:20,000.



The soils are grouped into taxonomic unitsaccording to a combined taxonomic andparametric system. They are first classified to thelevel of Great Soil Group according to SoilTaxonomy (Soil Survey Staff, 1975 andsubsequent modifications) and then furthersubdivided according to a number of soilparameters. The parameters used are those thatplay key roles in the performance and managementof the soil, such as landscape characteristics,drainage, texture of each soil horizon, slope,evidence of erosion, abundance of carbonates, andspecific limitations which, if present, stronglyaffect soil performance. The symbol of themapping unit includes coded taxonomic, soil andlandscape notations.

The map is drawn in the field by the soil surveyoron an aerial photograph or on a large-scaletopographic map. Profiles are sampled andanalysed and stored in databases. The area so farmapped in detail covers approximately 600,000hectares, corresponding to about 30 per cent of thehigh quality agricultural land and 4.6 per cent ofthe whole country. The areas mapped according tostandard soil survey procedures are located withinthe boundaries sketched in Figure 2.

Several non-standardised soil surveys, with scopelimited to the needs of irrigation projects, coverabout 2 million hectares of the agricultural lands.The mapping units of these surveys do not meetthe standard requirements, the data collected areincomplete and they have not been recorded inelectronic databases. However, they could providesome valuable information. This type of mappinghas now been replaced by standard soil surveys.

The rate of detailed mapping has slowed in recentyears because of a lack of an ongoing strategy fornational mapping. At present soils are mapped onrequest by local authorities to meet the needs forinformation to plan irrigation, environmentalmanagement, agricultural management and landplanning.

DatabasesSoil databases exist in a number of institutions,where topological and semantic data are stored(Theocharopoulos et al., 1992; Kollias andMalliris, 1990). Soil profile data included are area,horizon designation and depth, textural class (sand,silt, clay), cation exchange capacity, exchangeablecations, organic matter, pH, carbonates, totalnitrogen, electrical conductivity, bulk density,soluble salts, sodium saturation. Water infiltration,permeability and bulk density are occasionallyrecorded.

These databases reside at the followinginstitutions:

1. Soil Mapping and Classification Institute inLarissa. The GIS systems in use areARC/INFO and LASER-SCAN

2. Agricultural University of Athens, where dataare stored in ARC/INFO.

3. Soils Institute of Athens using the ORACLEsystem.

4. Agronomy Department of the University ofThessaloniki, using ARC/INFO.

5. Institute of Mediterranean Forest Ecosystemsand Wood Technology in Athens, where onlysemantic data are stored in the database.

The weak points of the Greek soil databases arethat they are not interlinked and data are not freelyavailable to the public. It has been proposed thatall available data are gathered and stored by theSoil Mapping Institute in Larissa which wouldbecome the reference point for all national soilinformation.

Soil MonitoringAt present little systematic soil monitoring existsin Greece. Some monitoring is being conducted bythe Institute of Mediterranean Forest Ecosystemsin Athens as part of a research project funded bythe European Union.

Use of the Soil DatabasesThe usefulness of soil data has not been recognisedin the past to the degree that it deserved. This hasbeen due mainly to lack of knowledge on the partof users on how to apply soil information andinadequate teaching of soils in curricula ofagronomists and foresters. Another reason hasbeen the fact that soil survey reports were in thehands of a small number of governmental servicesand prospective customers were unaware of theirexistence and usefulness. However, there arerecent signs of a much better appreciation of soildata by local authorities and communities. Themain uses made of the soil databases in Greece aredescribed in the sections below.

Land ReclamationThe primary use made of the databases is inrelation to land reclamation and improvement. Soiltopological and semantic data have significantlycontributed toward the development of intensiveirrigated agriculture in more than 60% of thevaluable Greek bottomlands



The databases have been used in the setting ofpriorities and the designing and operating ofirrigation works. Mapping units have beenclassified into irrigability classes according to thesystem developed by the US Bureau ofReclamation (1953) based on soil, topographic anddrainage deficiency levels. Irrigation networkswere constructed in soils classified as highlyirrigable. Soil data have been used in determiningthe water needs of major irrigated agriculturalcrops.

Soil data such as morphology, texture, surface andsubsurface water permeability have been used indesigning and constructing drainage systems in theflood basins of the country.

Saline and sodic soils have been reclaimed on thebasis of soil chemical, physical and morphologicaldata provided by soil studies conducted on behalfof the Soil Reclamation Service.

Crop SelectionAn important part of the detailed soil surveyreports has been land evaluation in terms of thesuitability of soil and climate for the major cropsgrown in the country.

Figure 2: Areas within which detailed soil surveys have been conducted.



Soil mapping units have been classified intorelative suitability classes on the basis of relatedmorphological, physical, chemical and climaticparameters. The procedures followed are mainlyqualitative, based on the system developed by Sys(1985). Models of quantitative evaluation havebeen applied in only a few cases (Danalatos,1993).

National and local strategies of crop selection canbe developed and implemented on the basis ofsoil-climate suitability along with consideration ofpresent and the projected economical, social andpolitical conditions prevailing in the local, nationaland international environments.

Land Quality, Degradation andEnvironmental AssessmentsSoil data have been used in the assessment of landquality and erosion risks (CORINE, 1992). Soilparameters used, along with vegetation index andclimate quality for the determination of landquality classes, were soil texture, depth, drainageand slope angle. Erosion risk was assessed fromsoil texture, soil depth, stoniness, slope angle, landcover and climatic erosivity.

Lands were classified into one of the followingclasses of potential and actual land quality anderosion risk: none, low, medium or high classes.Respective maps and tabular data have been storedin the CORINE database.

Detailed soil survey data have been used indetermining “Environmentally Sensitive Areas”(ESAs). Emphasis has been given to theassessment and mapping of soil erosion anddesertification risks. Such pilot assessments havebeen conducted in the Greek Island of Lesvos asshown in Figure 3 (Kosmas, et al., in press), inItaly and in Portugal. Soil indicators used wereparent material, texture, depth, drainage, rockfragments and slope.

The implementation of the National Action Plan toCombat Desertification, which has been recentlyprepared (Yassoglou, 1999), is expected to makeextensive use of the existing soil databases. Themain applications are likely to be in the selectionand delineation of priority areas, in the decisionsto be made on the kind and extent of interventionsand in the estimation of cost/benefit ratios. Soilsurveys have provided basic data for regionalplanning in several areas of Greece.



The Institute of Soil Mapping and Classification inLarissa has prepared a number of reports on theenvironmental impacts of various developmentprojects. The expected changes in the performanceand the effects of the construction of major publicworks on the soil environment have beenevaluated on the basis of soil maps and on therelated soil data provided by the soil surveyreports.

Application of FertilizersThe 1:1,000,000 soil database has been used forassessing the suitability of agricultural soils forfertilisation with urea (Yassoglou, 1990). Themapping units were characterised as low, mediumand highly suitable and a map has been prepared.These assessments were used to estimate theprojected quantities of urea fertiliser that Greececould consume annually.

Data contained in soil survey maps and reportshave been used in the application of site specificfertilisation. The private company «VELESTINO»has introduced this programme in combinationwith the production of blended fertilizers.

The amounts of fertilizers required are estimatedand the mode of application is prescribed for eachfarm and each major crop. The basis of this workis the morphological and physical properties ofcorresponding soil typological units, the results ofsoil tests and the requirements of the specificcrops. About 3,000 sites have been tested so farand appropriate fertilisation practices have beenprescribed in each one of them. This programmealso contributes toward better environmentalpractices, by reducing the chances of over-fertilisation and contamination of ground waterwith nitrates.

Forest ManagementLand mapping has provided basic data for betterforest management. Site characteristics, such asparent material, physiography aspect, soiltypological unit, soil depth, slope and surfacestoniness, employed in the description anddesignation of land units, are used in classifyingforest sites into suitability classes for variousspecies. Such information has also been used inthe selection of sites for intensive management andreforestation (Nakos, 1984)



Other UsesThe Government has been engaged in farmconsolidation due to the fact that a seriousinefficiency of Greek agriculture is the high degreeof farm fragmentation. Soil surveys have beenused on some occasions in reallocations of land.This application must be expanded to secure moreefficient farming and to prevent injustices andcomplaints on the part of the farmers.

Soil survey data have also been used inarchaeological studies (Yassoglou and Nobeli,1972). Soil maps and profile data have contributedin identifying locations of buried settlements andstructures, old land use patterns and pastpopulation densities.

OutlookThere is increasing interest in soil information inGreece, which needs to be taken seriously andsatisfied. The following recommendations wouldgo some way in improving the quality andavailability of soil information:

1. The importance of soils should be taught at alllevels of education

2. Soil survey reports should be made more user-friendly, contain instructions for the users andbecome more widely available to the public.

3. Mapping units should have a morepronounced bias towards practicalapplications. They should be easily recognisedand understood by a wide spectrum of users.The 1:250,000 Soil Manual prepared by theEuropean Soil Bureau (ESB, 1998) is anexample, which could be further improvedand expanded.

4. Soil mapping groups should establish closeties with local, national and internationalbodies, and seek new sources of funding forsoil mapping projects.

5. Soil databases should be improved andextended, and links secured at national andinternational levels.

6. There should be experiments with newtechnologies for collecting, classifying, andinterpreting soil information.

ReferencesAggelides S. and Theocharopoulos S.P. (1991).

Soil mapping in Greece. In: Soil Survey – ABasis for European Soil Protection . J.M.Hodgson (ed). Soil and Groundwater ResearchReport I, EUR 13340 EN, 61-63. Office forOfficial Publications of the EuropeanCommunities, Luxembourg.

Aubert, G, et Duchaufour P. (1956). Projet declassification des sols VIe congrès internationalde la science du sol, Paris, Vol. E 597-604.

CORINE (1992). Soil erosion risk and importantland resources in the southern regions of theEuropean Communities. EUR 13233 EN,Luxembourg. 96 pp.

Danalatos, N.G. (1993). Quantified analysis ofselected land use systems in the LarissaRegion, Greece. Doctorate Thesis. AgriculturalUniversity, Wageningen, 370 pp.

ESB (1998). Georeferenced Soil Database forEurope, Manual of Procedures Ver. 1.European Soil Bureau, Scientific Committee.EUR 18092 EN, 184pp. Office for OfficialPublications of the European Communities,Luxembourg.

FAO/UNESCO. (1990). Soil map of the World.Revised legend. World Resources Report 60.FAO United Nations, Rome, 119 pp.

Glinka, K.D. (1927). The Great Soil Groups of theWorld and their development. Ann ArborMichigan, 235 pp.

Kollias, V.J. and Malliris, A.G. (1990). Aprototype multidatabase system for soildatabases. Computers and Geosciences, 16,331-339.

Kosmas, C., Ferrara, A., Briassouli, H. andImeson, A. (In press). A methodology formapping environmentally sensitive areas. In:C.Kosmas, M. Kirkby and N. Geeson. (Eds.)Manual on indicators of desertification andmapping environmentally sensitive areas todesertification. European Commission.

Nakos, G. (1983). Land resources survey ofGreece. Journal of EnvironmentalManagement, 17, 153-169.

Nakos, G. (1984). Forestry development andreforestation. Greece. Site and soil survey:Anthrakia pilot plantation area. FO:DP/GRE/78/003 working document no 20,UNDP-FAO Athens.



Soil Survey Staff. (1975). Soil Taxonomy.Agriculture Handbook no 436. SoilConservation Service, USDA, 754 pp.Sys, C.1985. Land Evaluation. Intentional TrainingCenter for Graduate Soil Scientists. StateUniversity of Gent.

Theocharopulas, S.P., Papadopulos, N.Th. andPapademos, G. (1992). Management soildatabase (SOILDB). Agr. Reseearch 16, 1-12{Grk].

Thorp, J. and Baldwin, M. (1938). Newnomenculture of the higher categories of soilclassification as used in the Department ofAgriculture. Proc.Soil Sci. Soc. Am. 3, 160-268.

US Bureau of Reclamation. (1953). ReclamationManual, Vol. V: Irrigated land use, Part 2.Land classification. USBR, Denver, Colorodo,USA.

Yassoglou, N.J. and Nobelli, C. (1972). Soilstudies. In: W.A. McDonald and G.R.Rapp Jr.(Eds.) The Minnesota Messenia expedition/Reconstructing a Bronze Age regionalenvironment. The University of MinnesotaPress, pp171-176.

Yassoglou, N.J. and Kollias, V.J. (1989).Computer assisted soil mapping for theevaluation of soil erosion risk and land qualityin Greece. In: H.A.J. Van Lanen andA.K.Bregt (Eds.). Agriculture. Application ofcomputerized EC soil map and climate data.Comm. Eur. Comm., EUR 12039 EN, p. 237-246.

Yassoglou, N.J. (1990). A study of the conditionsand prospectives for the use of urea as anitrogen fertilizer in Greek soils. Reportsubmitted to the Nitrogen fertilizers Companyof Greece {Grk.} 23pp.

Yassoglou, N. (1996). Greece. Soil mapping andsoil databases. In: Soil Databases to SupportSustainable Development. C. Le Bas and M.Jamagne (eds.) European Soil Bureau ResearchReport No. 2, p.57-60. EUR 16371 EN. Officefor Official Publications of the EuropeanCommunities, Luxembourg.

Yassoglou, N.J. (ed). (1999). The Greek actionplan for combating desertification. A documentsubmitted to the Greek Government. {Grk}

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