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Soil Biology & Biochemistry 39 (2007) 13481354

Plant nutrients in a degraded soil treated with water treatment sludge

and cultivated with grasses and leguminous plants

Sandra Tereza Teixeira, Wanderley Jose de Melo, Erica Tome Silva

Laboratorio de Biogeoqu mica, Departamento de Tecnologia, Faculdade de Ciencias Agrarias e Veterinarias, Universidade do Estado de Sao Paulo, Via de

Acesso Prof. Paulo Donato Castellane, Km 5. CEP 14884-900, Jaboticabal, SP, Brazil

Available online 26 December 2006

Abstract

The objective of this work was to evaluate rates for applications of water treatment sludge (WTS) as a nutrient source for grasses and

leguminous plants cropped in a soil degraded by tin mining in the Amazon Region (Natural Forest of Jamari, Rondonia State, Brazil). The

treatments consisted of three rates of nitrogen supplied by WTS (100, 150 and 200 mg kg1 soil), five combinations of plants, two controls

(absolute control, without fertilization; and chemical control, soil+lime+chemical fertilizers). WTS modified the contents of macro and

micronutrients in the degraded soil, but it was not, as used in the present study, sufficient for the rehabilitation of the degraded area.

r 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Soil rehabilitation; Mining; Residue; Soil fertility; Amazon Basin

1. Introduction

Mining affects ecosystems directly, giving rise to altera-tions in soil topography and to soil chemical, physical and

biological properties, to soil vegetation and to the soil

water dynamic. It also eliminates many species of the wild

fauna or modifies their habitats. The disruption of the

nutrient cycles and the soil impoverishment caused by

mining is a consequence of the depletion of organic matter

and the loss of nutrients by increased leaching and erosion.

Thus the rehabilitation of degraded soils requires nutrients

amendments and the replenishment of organic matter.

The growth of urban centres has generated problems by

giving rise to sanitary residues and industrial sludges, as

well as the sludge produced in the water treatment plants

(WTP), or water treatment sludges (WTS).One of the strategies used to reclaim degraded areas and

to improve soil quality for plant growth involves the

addition of residues, such as sewage sludge, bovine

manure, and composted urban solid waste.

The WTS is the sediment formed in the decanters of the

WTPs as a consequence of the coagulation and flocculation

processes and it is constituted basically of clay, sand, silt and

humic substances. Because of its composition, land applica-

tion is a feasible option for the disposal of WTS (Awwa,1999). Application to land can promote the improvement of

soil structure, the adjustment of pH, and the addition of plant

nutrients. However, WTS can increase the soil content of

heavy metals and increase the adsorption of phosphorous (P).

It is important to combine WTS applications with an

appropriate vegetative covering. Such cover promotes the

reduction of soil erosion and nutrient leaching, mainly

nitrogen, improves soil physical and chemical properties,

and it gives rise to moisture conservation (Dechen et al.,

1981). The plant growth generates the input of organic

substances and initiates nutrient cycling.

The present study had the objective of evaluating the use

of grasses and legumes, in association with WTS, for therehabilitation of a soil degraded by tin mining in the

Amazon Basin.

2. Material and methods

2.1. Location, experimental design and treatments

The experiment was carried out in a greenhouse located in

Jaboticabal, SP, Brazil (211210S and 481260W). Temperature

ARTICLE IN PRESS

www.elsevier.com/locate/soilbio

0038-0717/$- see front matter r 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

doi:10.1016/j.soilbio.2006.12.011

Corresponding author. Tel.: +55 016 3209 2675x228;

fax: +55 0163209 2675.

E-mail address: wjmelo@fcav.unesp.br (W. Jose de Melo).

http://www.elsevier.com/locate/soilbiohttp://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.soilbio.2006.12.011mailto:wjmelo@fcav.unesp.brmailto:wjmelo@fcav.unesp.brmailto:wjmelo@fcav.unesp.brmailto:wjmelo@fcav.unesp.brhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.soilbio.2006.12.011http://www.elsevier.com/locate/soilbio

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was controlled in the range 2528 1C. The experimental design

was totally randomized, including two controls (absolute

control, with no soil correction and mineral fertilizer and

chemical control, with soil+limestone+mineral fertilizer),

three rates of nitrogen (N) as WTS (100, 150 and 200mg kg1

soil), and five plant combinations, with four repetitions. The

five plant combinations were: Senna multijuga; Stizolobiumaterrimum+Senna multijuga; Canavalia ensiformis+Senna mul-

tijuga; Brachiaria decumbens+Senna multijuga; and Panicum

maximum cv. tanzania+Senna multijuga.

2.2. Characterization of the degraded soil and WTS

The soil, before mining, was classified as Typic

Haplodox (Empresa Brasileira de Pesquisa Agropecuaria

(EMBRAPA), 1997). Samples, taken from the 020 cm

layer, had the following physico-chemical properties: pH

(CaCl2), 4.9; 3gkg1 organic matter; P (resin extracted),

8mgkg1; potassium (K), 0.5mmolc kg1; calcium (Ca),

5.0mmolc kg1; magnesium (Mg), 2.0 mmolc kg

1; hydro-

gen (H)+aluminium (Al), 12 mmolc kg1; sulphate-sulphur

(SO42-S), 7.5 mmolc kg

1; CEC, 19.5 mmolc kg1; and base

saturation, 38%. Chemical analyses were carried out

according to Raij et al. (1996).

The WTS was obtained from the Water Treatment

Station of Araraquara, SP, Brazil. Ferric chloride was the

coagulant used and lime was added to control the pH in the

reaction medium. A suction pump, installed at the end of

the treatment unit, was turned on during the discharge of

the sludge for 10 consecutive days. Composite samples

from the discharge were conditioned in a fiber container

(1000 l capacity). The supernatant was removed daily bysiphoning; And when the residue approached 98%

moisture it was removed from the container, conditioned

in plastic pots, and transported to the experiment site.

There it was transferred to a fiber container (500 l capacity)

and kept open for 20 days. During that period, The

supernatant was siphoned off daily in order to decrease the

moisture content to about 94%. Then a sample was taken

for chemical and physical characterizations. The physico-

chemical properties of the prepared WTS were: moisture,

98%; organic-C, 10.5 g kg1; total-N, 2 g kg1; P, 1 g kg1;

K, 2.2g kg1; Ca, 121 g kg1; Mg, 4 g kg1; S, 4 g kg1; iron

(Fe), 167 g kg1; zinc (Zn), 66 mg kg1; copper (Cu),

149mgkg1; manganese (Mn), 1683 mgkg1; lead (Pb),

8.4 mgkg1; chromium (Cr), 86 mg kg1; nickel (Ni),

27mgkg1; cadmium (Cd), 6 mgkg1; clay, 260 g kg1;

silt, 315 g kg1; and sand, 425 g kg1. Organic-C was

determined by wet oxidation (Dabin, 1971), total-N by

the Kjeldahl method (Bremner, 1996), and the other

elements were determined in the extracts of digests with

HNO3, HCl and H2O2 (USEPA, 1995).

2.3. Experimental procedure

Pots (6 kg capacity) were filled with 5 kg of degraded soil.

WTS was applied to the soil surface daily during 15 days,

based on the water-holding capacity and the treatment. In

this way leaching was avoided. The soil from each pot was

removed after half of the dose had been applied, placed on

trays, homogenized, then returned to the respective pot,

and the other half of the treatment was applied. When all

of the WTS had been applied, the soil was again removed

from the pots, placed on trays, dried at room temperature,passed through a soil mill, homogenized, and returned to

the respective pot. Dolomitic limestone (TNP, 131%) was

then applied to the pots to elevate base saturation to 70%

(3.3, 3.6, 3.7 and 3.9 g pot1 for the chemical control, D100,

D150 and D200, respectively). After liming, the pots were

irrigated with distilled water to about 70% of the water

retention capacity, then covered with paper and kept in the

greenhouse for 30 days. Water lost by evaporation was

replaced every 2 days. After the incubation period the soil

was removed from the pots, placed on plastic trays, air

dried, and sieved to 2 mm.

On the day S. multijuga was transplanted, a complete

mineral fertilization was applied for the chemical control.

This consisted of 150 mg N (ammonium sulphate), 150 mg

P (triple superphosphate), 50 mg K (potassium chloride),

and 30 ml of a mixture of micronutrients (Melo et al.,

1998). Thirty days after transplanting, each pot of this

chemical control received 150 mg N and 50 mg K. The

treatments D100, D150 and D200 received NPK fertilization

based on the content of the nutrients in the WTS to bring

the nutrients applied up to the amounts in the chemical

control. The same micronutrients fertilization was applied

for all treatments.

S. aterrimum, C. ensiformis, P. maximum cv. Tanzania,

and B. decumbens were transplanted 129 days after thetransplanting of S. multijuga and left to grow for 60 d.

2.4. Soil and data analysis

Sixty days after the legumes and grasses were trans-

planted, the plants were cut near the soil surface, the soil

was removed from each pot, and roots were separated from

the soil. The soil samples were air-dried in the shade,

pounded to break up clods, homogenized, sieved (2 mm),

placed in polyethylene pots and stored in a dry chamber

until analysed.

Soil samples were analysed for pH (in 0.01moll1

CaCl2, potential acidity (H+Al), resin extractable K, Ca,

Mg, and P (Raij et al., 1996) and sulphate-S in the

ammonium acetate extract (Vitti, 1988). Fe, Cu, Mn and

Zn were determined by atomic absorption spectrophoto-

metry in the DPTA extract (Lindsay and Norwell, 1978). B

was evaluated by atomic absorption spectrophotometry in

the hot water extract (Raij et al., 1996).

The results were submitted to an analysis of variance,

and when the F-test was significant at Po0.05 or Po0.01,

the Tukey test was applied for means comparison

(Banzatto and Kronka, 1992).

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liming material. Impurities, such as clay and silica probably

contributed to a diminishing of the neutralizing power of

the residue. However, WTS will raise soil pH, depending

on its alkalinity, on the rates applied, and on the resistance

of the soil to pH change. Bugbee and Frink (1985) obtained

increments from 0.5 to 1.0 pH unit in the 010 cm layer of

forest soils by applying WTS. Heil and Barbarick (1989)

observed increases in soil pH from 4.0 for 7.0 after

applying WTS at rates of 0.5% and 2.5%. The implications

for soils with pH close to the neutrality, or slightly alkaline

are: (a) high contents of Ca, Mg, and K; (b) high BS; (c)

loss of N by volatilization; (d) deficiency of P due to the

formation of insoluble phosphates; (e) a deficiency of

micronutrients (except Mo and Cu); and (f) a decrease in

availability of heavy metals and in the growth of some

plant species. The pH increase can be controlled by

decreasing the rates of application of WTS.

Phosphorus deficiency limits plant growth. WTS pro-

vides small concentrations of total P and high concentra-

tions of iron hydroxide leading to the immobilization of

inorganic P (Awwa, 1990). Based on the rates of WTS used

in this experiment, there are two explanations for the

contents of soil P found. Firstly, the resin methodology

used for extracting soil P was probably not adapted for use

with soil treated with WTS. In that case, the method of

Olsen and Sommers (1982) for extraction of P could be

tested. Secondly, the WTS has a high capacity for P

adsorption (Elliott and Singer, 1988; Awwa, 1990; Skene et

al., 1995) because of its high contents of iron hydroxides

and clay.

WTS increased the soil Ca content to values as high as

299 (D100) and 310 mmolc kg1 (D200), but the high Ca

contents did not affect plant growth. The possibility of soil

salinization is one of the main problems associated with the

increase of exchangeable bases, as was observed by Oliveira

et al. (2002).

The CEC was obtained through the sum of the exchange-

able cations and H+Al; CEC (Ca, Mg, K, H+Al), a

method used in the Brazilian soil analysis laboratories (Raij

et al., 1996). A possible excess of free cations in the soil

solution, mainly Ca, can lead to an overestimation of the

CEC. In our experiment CEC ranged from 326 (D100) to

345mmolc kg1 (D200). These values are very high, and so it

can be assumed that the determination of CEC by the

method of the sum of exchangeable cations with H+Al is

not appropriate for soils that received rates of residues rich

in exchangeable cations. These data corroborate with those

obtained by Abreu Jr., et al. (2001) and Oliveira et al. (2002).

ARTICLE IN PRESS

Table 2

Calcium, magnesium, potassium and potential acidity in a degraded soil treated with WTS and cultivated with grasses and legumes 189 days after the plant

cultivation had started

Treatments Ca2+ (mmolc kg1) Mg2+ (mmolckg

1) K+ (mmolc kg1) H++Al3+ (mmolckg

1)

Controls 11.8ba 5.6b 2.3a 10.6a

Factorial 307.62a 23.4a 2.41a 6.27b

F-test 804.90**b 154.17** 0.99 nsc 739.27**

Controls

Absolute 9.00a 2.00a 1.88b 10.25b

Chemical 14.50a 9.25b 2.68a 11.00a

F-test 0.08 ns 7.27** 10.09** 6.20*d

Ratese

D100 299a 19.2c 2.8a 6.4a

D150 314a 23.0b 2.4b 6.4a

D200 310a 28.0a 2.0c 6.1a

F-test 1.63 ns 26.93** 24.40** 2.35 ns

MSD (5%) 21.15 2.90 0.27 0.33

Plants

S. aterrinum 320a 23.6a 2.2b 6.3ab

P. maximum cv. tanzania 294a 22.5a 2.7a 6.1bS. multijuga 308a 23.5a 1.5c 6.7a

C. ensiformis 300a 23.5a 2.9a 6.1b

B. decumbens 316a 23.9a 2.7a 6.3ab

F-test 1.81 ns 0.23 ns 29.02** 3.77**

MSD (5%) 32.00 4.39 0.41 0.50

Interaction ratesplants 0.53 ns 1.61 ns 1.44 ns 1.15 ns

VD (%) 10.16 17.85 14.89 6.28

aMeans flowed by the same letters in the columns are not different by the Tukey test ( Pp0.05).b**, significant at Po0.01.cns, not significant.d*, significant at Po0.05.eD100, D150, D200 100, 150 and 200mg kg

1 of N as WTS, respectively.

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The exchangeable K content was affected by cropping

with grasses and legumes. It was verified that the contents

of K were higher in the pots growing P. maximum cv.

tanzania, C. ensiformis and B. decumbens, and differed

from those in the pots where S. aterrinum and S. multijuga

were grown. This finding is explained by the fact that

C. ensiformis, P. maximum cv. tanzania and B. decumbens

did not have good growth, and took up less K than the

legumes. The soil sulphate-S concentration was very high

based on the limits considered by Raij et al. (1996), and

increasing rates of the WTS decreased the anion concen-

tration (Table 3). The content of sulphate-S in the soil wasaffected by the cover plant. The highest amounts were

obtained for S. aterrimum and S. multifaga, whereas the

lowest values were obtained for B. decumbens. The

amounts were also affected by the combination of cover

plant and WTS application rates (Table 4). The lowest

concentration of sulphate-S occurred when B. decumbens

was the cover plant and the rates of application of WTS

were D100 and D200, and the highest concentration was

observed when the cover plant was S. aterrinum and the

rate of WTS was D100.

The soil content of the resin extractable plant micro-

nutrients, except for Zn, was increased by the application

rate of WTS, as observed by the data in Table 5. As seen in

Table 1, the soil pH was higher than 7.0, which may cause

plant micronutrients, with the exceptions of Mo and Cu, to

become unavailable to plants. But, according to Camargo

et al. (1982), increases in the soil pH values may not result

in the reduction of the phytoavailability of micronutrients.

The contents of resin extractable Fe and Cu caused by

applications of WTS are considered to be high in terms of

plant nutrition (Raij et al., 1996).

The low B contents found in the treatments that had

received WTS can be related to pH and the amount of

hydrated lime added to the soil in the residue. According to

Moreira et al. (2000) the adsorption of B is significantlyincreased under those conditions.

Soil Zn extracted by the resin method was affected by the

interactions plantWTS rates as shown in Table 5. For this

plant nutrient, the cover plant that caused the lowest or the

highest value varied according to the WTS rate (Table 6).

The plants that caused the lowest values for resin

extractable Zn were S. aterrimum (D100), C. ensiformis

(D150) and S. multifaga (D200). On the other hand, the

plants that caused the highest values for extractable Zn

were C. ensiformis (D100) and B. decumbens (D150 and

D200). That means that, when applying WTS to soil, as

used in the present study, it is important to select plants

that will give acceptable responses.

5. Conclusions

The present study was carried out to evaluate the

possibility of improving a degraded soil by applications

of WTS. When considering the application of WTS for this

purpose attention should first be given to the nature of the

residue. As WTS has a high moisture content, it is possible

that its application as water irrigation is the best practise.

However, because the residue tends to form a crust on the

soil surface attention should be given to the ways in which

the applications affect the soil physical properties.

ARTICLE IN PRESS

Table 3

Cation exchange capacity, base saturation, and sulphate-S in a degraded

soil treated with WTS and cultivated with grasses and legumes 189 days

after the plant cultivation had started

Treatments CEC

(mmolc kg1)

BS (%) SO42-S

(mgkg1)

Control 30.3ba 62.5b 95a

Factorial 339a 98.0a 101a

F-test 760.52**b 1926.50** 0.43 nsc

Controls

Absolute 23.1a 55.6b 59b

Chemical 37.4a 69.3a 131a

F-test 0.46 ns 78.94** 19.11**

Ratesd

D100 326a 98.0a 112a

D150 346a 98.0a 100ab

D200 345a 98.0a 90b

F-test 2.85 ns 0.0 ns 4.50*e

MSD (5%) 22.71 1.64 17.86

PlantsS. aterrinum 352a 98.0a 118a

P. maximum cv. tanzania 326a 98.0a 96ab

S. multijuga 340a 98.0a 117a

C. ensiformis 332a 98.0a 97ab

B. decumbens 345a 98.0a 76b

F-test 1.47 ns 0.00 ns 6.9**

MSD (5%) 34.37 2.80 27.20

Interaction ratesplants 0.66 ns 0.40 ns 2.80**

VC (%) 9.83 2.90 23.40

aMeans followed by the same letters in the columns are not different by

the Tukey test (Pp0.05).b**, significant at Po0.01.cns, not significant.

dD100, D150, D200 100, 150 and 200mgkg1 of N as WTS,respectively.

e*, significant at Po0.05.

Table 4

Sulphate-S in a degraded soil treated with WTS and cultivated with

grasses and legumes 189 days after the plant cultivation had started

Plants D100 (S-

sulphate,

mgkg1 soil)

D150 (S-

sulphate,

mgkg1 soil)

D200 (S-

sulphate,

mgkg1 soil)

S. aterrinum 136 Aaa 120 Aab 96 ABb

P. maximum cv.tanzania

134 Aa 99 ABa 85 ABa

S. multijuga 110 Aba 123 Aa 120 Aa

C. ensiformis 108 Aba 71 Bb 85 Aba

B. decumbens 72 Ba 90 ABa 67 Ba

aMeans followed by the same capital letters in the columns and small

letters in the lines are not different by the Tukey test (Po0.05).

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The uses of ferric chloride or aluminium sulphate as

coagulants in the preparation of the sludges can, when in

excess amounts, have phytotoxic effects, and it is well

known that Fe and Al react with P to form insoluble

phosphates that are not available to plants (Bennett, 1993;

Malavolta, 1994).

In addition to the undesirable effects of insolubilizing P

(as the result of the presence of Fe and Al used for

coagulating the WTP), WTS can cause the soil pH to reach

high values resulting in plant micronutrients becoming

unavailable to plants.

The selection of the cover plant to be used for the soil

rehabilitation is important, as shown by the data in this

study, and consideration should be given to plants with the

abilities to grow in soils with relatively high concentrations

of Fe and Al.

Further work is needed in order to determine the best

procedures for applications of WTS for the rehabilitation

of degraded soils.

Acknowledgement

The authors thank FAPESP for financial support.

References

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ARTICLE IN PRESS

Table 6

Zinc in a graded soil treated with WTS and cultivated with grasses and

legumes 189 days after the plant cultivation started

Plants D100 (Zn,

mgkg1 soil)

D150 (Zn,

mgkg1 soil)

D200 (Zn,

mgkg1 soil)

S. aterrinum 2.2 Aaa 2.8 Aa 2.6 Ba

P. maximum cv.

tanzania

2.5 Aa 3.1 Aa 2.3 Ba

S. multijuga 2.3 Aa 3.0 Aa 2.2 Ba

C. ensiformis 3.5 Aa 2.5 Aa 2.4 Ba

B. decumbens 2.7 Ab 3.5 Aab 4.2 Aa

a

Means followed by the same capital letters in the columns and smallletters in the lines are not different by the Tukey test (Po0.05).

Table 5

Copper, iron, manganese, zinc and boron in a degraded soil treated with WTS and cultivated with grasses and legumes 189 days after the plant cultivation

started

Treatments Cu (mmolc kg1) Fe (mmolc kg

1) Mn (mmolckg1) Zn (mmolckg

1) B (mmolc kg1)

Controls 0.5ba 3.1b 0.9b 1.6b 0.2a

Factorial 1.54a 50.38a 2.58a 2.77a 0.28a

F-test 126**b 1870** 138** 19.7** 1.03 nsc

Controls

Absolute 0.1b 3.0a 0.9a 0.1b 0.02a

Chemical 0.9a 3.3a 1.0a 3.2a 0.4b

F-test 17.64** 0.01 ns 0.14 ns 41.17** 60.32**

Ratesd

D100 1.2c 43c 2.2b 3.0a 0.2a

D150 1.5b 49b 2.4b 2.7a 0.2a

D200 1.9a 59a 3.2a 2.6a 0.1b

F-test 29.18** 151.47** 40.95** 1.29 ns 6.49**

MSD (5%) 0.19 2.22 0.29 0.52 0.05

Plants

S. aterrinum 1.5a 54a 2.9a 2.5b 0.2a

P. maximum cv. tanzania 1.6a 50b 2.4b 2.6b 0.2aS. multijuga 1.5a 49b 2.8ab 2.5b 0.2a

C. ensiformis 1.6a 49b 2.3b 2.8ab 0.2a

B. decumbens 1.6a 50b 2.6ab 3.4a 0.2a

F-test 0.83 ns 4.69** 4.62** 4.05*e 0.45 ns

MSD (5%) 0.29 3.35 0.44 0.78 0.08

Interaction ratesplants 0.53 ns 0.81 ns 1.62 ns 2.88* 0.96 ns

VC (%) 17.83 6.48 15.93 25.70 36.43

aMeans flowed by the same letters in the columns are not different by the Tukey test ( Pp0.05).b**, significant at Po0.01.cns, not significant.dD100, D150, D200 100, 150 and 200mg kg

1 of N as WTS, respectively.e*, significant at Po0.05.

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Lindsay, W.L., Norwell, W.A., 1978. Development of DTPA soil test for

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86pp.

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Disponibilidade de nutrientes em vertissolo calcario. Pesquisa Agro-pecuaria Brasileira 35, 21072113.

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