solid waste management and hydro geochemistry of limestone

Solid Waste Management and Hydro

geochemistry of Limestone Quarries in and

around Yerraguntla Town, Y.S.R District, A.P

B. Suvarna V. Sunitha, Y. Sudharshan Reddy*, Y. Sai Sudha

Department of Geology, Yogi Vemana University, Kadapa

Corresponding author: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

In view of associated environmental problems and their impacts on public health and safety,

efforts must be made to minimize waste generation; systematic disposal practices must be

followed. This study aims at a better understanding of spatial and temporal changes of unplanned

dumping sites from 2006 to 2018 through application of Google images in assessing the temporal

changes of solid waste at limestone quarries in and around Yerraguntla village, YSR district,

A.P. Results revealed that the solid waste management in the study area is very poor which need

to be properly monitored so as to mitigate the present and future environmental threats. The

waste generated during the quarrying operations is mainly in the form of rock fragments.

Specifications for the judicious application of calcareous stone were discussed. In this paper an

attempt has been made to observe the impact of limestone waste on the ground water quality in

the vicinity of quarries. The quality of water is also compared to the WHO drinking water

standard to observe the difference in the prescribed values. Overall drinking water quality in this

area is not suitable for drinking purpose and requires some proper measurements in water quality

management.

Key Words: Solid waste management, Hydrogeochemistry, Limestone quarries, Yerraguntla,

Kadapa Y.S.R district, A.P

The International journal of analytical and experimental modal analysis

Volume XII, Issue VII, July/2020

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INTRODUCTION

Waste is defined as the discarded and discharged material during every stage of human life that

causes impact on human health and the environment [1]. Solid waste is now become a global

problem in developing and also developed countries. It is estimated that well over 170

million tonnes of solid wastes related to generated in India every year. This is expected to

increase substantially with the increase in the production of various minerals and may

exceed 300 million tonnes of waste per year. This figure of course, relates to the mining

of metal and industrial minerals only. Besides this, the mining of coal and certain other

decorative rocks like granite, marble, etc. are also expected to produce large amount of solid

wastes. A new factor namely, solid waste management has made its presence in the

Indian mineral Industry. Further, change in the national mineral policy is expected to

bring about large investments in high value minerals like gold, base metals, diamonds, etc.

These high value minerals will mostly be mined in large open cast mines producing

additionally several million tonnes of mining wastes annually [2].

India is a diverse country endowed with potentially rich mineral resources.

According to the Indian [3], India produces around 90 minerals. Of these, 4 are fuel minerals, 11

metallic minerals, 52 non-metallic and 23 minor minerals (building and other materials). This

indicates that the mining industry in India is a very important industry essential for the

economic development of the country. Limestone is a nonmetallic mineral and is a raw

ingredient required for the manufacturing of cement, an important construction material. The

total estimated resources of limestone of all categories and grades in India are 184,935 million

tonnes. Of this, 14,926 million tonnes (8%) are under reserves category and 170,009 million

tonnes (92%) are under remaining resources category. The state of Karnataka alone accounts for

about 28% of the total limestone resources in India followed by Andhra Pradesh (20%),

Rajasthan (12%), Gujarat (11%), Meghalaya (9%), Chattisgarh (5%) and remaining 15% by

other states. However in terms of production, the state with maximum production is Andhra

Pradesh accounting about 21% of the total cement production, followed by Rajasthan (20%),

Madhya Pradesh (13%), Tamil Nadu (9%), Gujarat, Karnataka and Chhattisgarh (8% each),

Himachal Pradesh and Maharashtra (4%each) and the remaining 5% is contributed by Odisha

Meghalaya, Uttar Pradesh, Jharkhand, Kerala, Bihar, Assam and Jammu & Kashmir. In India,

cement industry alone consumed about 76% of the limestone produced, whereas 16% is used by

iron and steel industry, 4% by chemical industries and remaining 4% is used in sugar, paper,

fertilizer and ferromanganese industries. India is the second largest cement producing country in

the world after China.



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There were 178 large cement plants having an installed capacity of 318.94 million

tonnes in 2012-13 in addition to mini and white cement plants having estimated capacity of

around 6 million tonnes per annum (Indian Minerals Yearbook).At present waste management

became a unavoidable challenge in a regional, national level and global level. Mining is one of

the major incoming source for the developing countries like India, at the same time it’s the major

source of huge amounts of Solid waste generation in terms of overburden, milling, processing

and tail end wastes which need to be monitored and maintain proper mine plan and

environmental policy particularly in opencast mining areas. The unplanned mining became a

cause’s depletion of forest cover, land scape, soil erosion, and contamination of air, water, land

and reduction in biodiversity [4]. Depending on the extent and geographical location mining

activity causes adverse impact on surrounding environment in view of human settlements, air

quality, water body’s agriculture and forest land. In India limestone mines are operated opencast

mining method [3].Opencast mining activity is an intensive processes causes huge impact on the

environment unless it is properly planned. Mine wastes can cause release of toxic metals damage

to heritage, air water and soil pollution, release of sulphide minerals and acid drainage.

Comparatively, Opencast mining activity causes some adverse impacts on the surrounding

environment, unless proper environmental management plan is adopted. Mine wastes require

careful management to ensure the long-term stability of storage and disposal facilities, and to

prevent and minimize air, water, and soil contamination. The inappropriate or unsafe

management of wastes at mining operations continues to generate opposition from local

communities, the general public, and non-government organizations, and has contributed to the

negative public perception of the mining industry. The unplanned mining became a cause’s

depletion of forest cover, land scape, soil erosion, contamination of air, water, land and reduction

in biodiversity [5].

Groundwater is a vital natural resource and is used for domestic, industrial water

supply and irrigation. Word’s supply of groundwater is rapidly decreasing in Asia & North

America[6]. Groundwater quality deterioration and supply of safe drinking water is a major

health concern throughout the world. India has acute public health problems due to contaminated

water resources. Water scarcity is certainly one of the major challenges in urban areas especially

in arid and semi-arid regions of the world. According to UNICEF and WHO reports 748 million

people do not have adequate and safe water resource and over 2.5 billion people have access to

meager water supply [7]. Groundwater is a vital resource to play a crucial role in both hydrologic

and human systems. In the world, less than 1% of the water is available for human consumption

and more greater than 1.2 billion of the people still had no accessibility for safe drinking water.

As we know water had a high dissolving capacity and also it is a universal solvent to dissolved

minerals in the rocks when it comes in contact [8, 9]. Groundwater constitutes nearly 80% for

domestic purposes, around 45% of total agricultural water for irrigating to utilized in India

(Kumar et al., 2005; Sunitha et al., 2019), and it contributes 45% gross of the national product of

the majority of people (Singh, 1983). Excess amount of physico-chemical components, cause a

certain ecological and physical problems to human beings [10]. In India especially in Andhra



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Pradesh, various studies have been carried out on evaluation groundwater quality for drinking

and irrigation purpose, such as [11-14]. Groundwater quality has been assessed by various

researchers in many parts of the world and various parts of India and found that groundwater of

irrigated areas have higher ionic concentration as compared to non-irrigated areas in hard rock

terrain of central India. In view of present scanning the study focused on solid Waste

management and hydro geochemistry of Limestone quarries in and around Yerraguntla Town,

Y.S.R. District Kadapa. The main objectives of the present study are to identify Limestone

Quarries surrounding Yerraguntla town and to demarcate the Lime stone waste in the study area

using Google earth; deciphering groundwater quality in and around limestone quarries nearby

Yerraguntla town.

STUDY AREA

Yerraguntla is a leading Industrial town in Kadapa district of the Indian state

of Andhra Pradesh. It is located in Yerraguntla mandal of Kadapa revenue division. The

Leading Industrial town is home to many cement factories and Rayalaseema Thermal

Power Plant. Niduzivi, Koduru, Valasapalli areas of Yerraguntla Mandal are known for Napa

slabs/Kadapa slabs are black coloured limestone belonging to Koilakuntla Limestones [15-16].

Geographically Yerraguntla is located at 14°39ˈ0ˈˈN 78°28ˈ30ˈˈE with average elevation of 152

meters (501 feet). The study area falls in Survey of India toposheet no: 57 J/6 and J/10. Study

area & Sample locations are shown in Figure. 1&3

Fig. 1 showing the Study Area of the Yerraguntla mandal



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The study area in question forms a part of the well-known crescent shaped Cuddapah Basin with

middle Proterozoic sediments and igneous intrusives and flows. The Cuddapah Supergroup

comprising mainly arenaceous and argillaceous sediments with sub-ordinate calcareous facies is

overlain unconformably by the kurnool Group with essentially calcareous rocks. The latter is

present in three sub-basins viz. the northernmost Palnad, northern Srisailam and middle Kurnool

sub-basin. The present study area is in the Kurnool sub-basin and its lithostratigraphy is as

follows:

Fig. 2 Geology map of the study area

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A systematic integrated methodology adopted for the present study to assess the solid waste

disposal. The intensive study of relevant literature, periodicals etc. has been carried out, based on

the review of literature it is clear that remote sensing is the only effective tool to monitor the

changes for multi date scenarios. Thus Google earth satellite images were chosen as the data

source for the study area and the time series changes have been mapped for the years 2006 and

2018. Further detailed field work carried out in the areas of waste disposal sites, mines, tailings,



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cement, stone cutting and polishing industries to know the types of waste generation, handling,

recycling and disposal. Data generated from the Google earth was compared and verified ground

truth data by GPS survey, Topographic maps, field photographs, and questioner form local

sources and mine and industrial management.

Fifteen Groundwater samples were collected in and around Yerraguntla town Y.S.R

District, Andhra Pradesh, sampling was carried out in the month of September 2018. Sampling

locations were recorded using a potable GPS device and they are shown in Fig. 4. Samples were

collected in pre cleaned and well-dried polyethylene bottles. The samples were collected from

bore wells which were extensively used for drinking and other domestic purposes. The water

samples collected in the field were analysed for electrical conductivity (EC), pH, total dissolved

solids (TDS), major cations such as calcium, magnesium, and anions such as bicarbonate,

carbonate, chloride and fluoride, adopting the standard methods [17-18] and suggested

precautions were taken to avoid contamination pH and EC were determined by pH, conductivity

meter, TDS by TDS meter, TH, K+, Na+, TA Ca2+, Mg2+, CO32-, HCO3

- and No3-, SO4

- , Br-, Cl-

were determined ICP-OES/IC instrument, F- Was determined by using ion selective electrode

(Orion 4 star ion meter, Model: pH/ISE). All the experimental were carried out in triplicate and

the results were found reproducible with in a ± 3% error limit [19-20].

Fig. 3 Flow chart of the Methodology



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Fig. 4 Location map of the sample collection in the study area

The water samples collected in the field were analysed for electrical conductivity (EC), pH, total

dissolved solids (TDS), major cations such as calcium, magnesium, and anions such as

bicarbonate, carbonate, chloride and fluoride, adopting the standard methods [17-18].

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Limestone mining waste disposal locations were identified on Google earth imagery, based on

the image elements like tone, texture, shape, size, pattern and association, etc. The active dumps

are clearly visible gray tone with medium to course texture due to the presence of Debris of

waste and overburden and Irregular in shape and size. Whereas the mine pits with perfect shape

and mainly in dark blue tone due to presence of water in the pits as shown in the fig. 5&6.

In mining and cement industry, wastes are generated in every stage of the

operations, in the present study we have identified two major locations of solid waste disposal,

one is near the mine and second one is besides the road. Spatiotemporal changes in (2006 to

2018) as clearly depicted by drawing the red colored polygon for both the locations (Fig. 5 A to

F and Fig. 6 A to F).



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Fig. 5 Temporal and Spatial Formation and Changes during 2006 - 2018 in location of solid

waste beside railway track surrounding Yerraguntla village.



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Fig. 6 Temporal and Spatial Formation and Changes of solid waste during 2006 - 2018 beside

highway road near India cement factory surrounding Yerraguntla village.



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By observing the Google earth temporal images as shown on the figures 5&6 and the filed

observations as shown in the figures 7A to 7F. It is clear that overburden management and solid

waste of these quarries are extremely poor; most of the mining companies are poor in practices

on overburden management and fugitive dust from waste pile. They do not bother to take

preventive measures against the limestone waste management. The best method is to backfill the

excavated land and this is hardly implemental as companies keep opening from time to time

different faces of mine open began without exhausting previous one. The open cast mines are

characterized by enormous open pits surrounded by huge dump yards surrounded by the

croplands. Dust and slurry figure 7B and 7C; from these sites is being transported by the air and

rainwater to nearby croplands ponds which is major threat to soil porosity, productivity,

permeability and crop yield. During dry summer, these dumps become a key source of air

pollution for the surrounding areas [21].

Fig. 7 Showing Limestone wastes dump around yerraguntla town, yerraguntla mandal, Kadapa

District.



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Environmental damage due to Quarrying & Trimming Waste

The Cutting waste produced during trimming of edges of the slabs, broken pieces, unsalable

blocks, irregular and odd shaped blocks are lying scattered here and there in the mine area as

well as in processing units. The quarrying waste is just piled in the forest area by the miners,

creating huge mounds of stone waste, thereby destroying the natural vegetation and ecology of

the area. The quarrying waste is even being dumped on seasonal river beds, thereby threatening

the porosity of the aquifer zones. Quantum of Marble Waste Generated

Dump Rehabilitation

Establishing a vegetative cover is the best long term strategy for stabilization and erosion

control. To begin this process the top soil should be replaced to a similar depth as that

removed from the site originally i.e. 200-300mm. If topsoil is in short supply it may

be necessary to place the topsoil in strips. This at least provides areas of improved

surfaces for regeneration. To increase the success of vegetation establishment, rehabilitation

techniques should aim to increase rainfall infiltration. The term used for this approach

is “water harvesting” and many specific techniques have been developed for various

applications. The most basic of these techniques is to leave the surface of the

dump as rough as possible by deep ripping along the contour after the top soil has

been spread. The roughness and ripping allows for water penetration and provides places

for seeds to lodge. Replacing Pre-stripped vegetation also helps this process and reduces

wind erosion. Creating a surface which enhances water harvesting will also help

to leach soil salts out of the surface profile aid the re vegetation programme. In areas

where salt content of the over burden is high, it is recommended that the dumps be

screened with overburden of the lowest possible salt content. This is usually from

material closer to the surface. This selective handling of overburden may be

considered expensive. However, such treatments will be required to provide a

suitable environment for plant growth, as it will take many years for the salts to leach out

of the surface layers. The screening material needs to be covered by topsoil. In

all cases the surface and faces of waste dumps will need to be ripped to break

compaction and to allow water penetration. This ripping will usually be carried out by

a dozer after the topsoil and old vegetation material is spread. It is stressed that

water harvesting and erosion control are the key issues in establishing the final

surface for the rehabilitation programme.

Hydro geochemistry

To accses the groundwater quality fifty groundwater samples were collected from borewells in

and around Yerraguntla mandal, Y.S.R District, Andhra Pradesh during March 2018. Sample

locations are given in Fig: 4. In order to evaluate the suitability of drinking water quality

parameters like pH, electrical conductivity, Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) Total Hardness, Ca2+,



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Table. 1 Statistical summary of physico-chemical parameters in the study area

Mg2+, Na+, K+, CO32-, HCO3-, Cl-, SO42-, NO3-, F-.The techniques and methods adopted for

collection, parameteranalytical techniques were followed according to Hem (1985), Raghunath

(1987), Karanth (1989), and APHA (2005). The statistical data is depicted in Table1 and

Concentrations of ions and their comparison with the WHO and BIS presented in Table 2.

Table. 2 Concentrations of ions and their comparison with the WHO and BIS

Parameters Min Max Mean St. Dev CV

pH 7.3 8.2 7.7 0.26 3.41

EC µS/cm 1380 9580 5117 2531 49

TDS mg/L 660 4580 2458 1217 49

TH mg/L 100 1080 481 275 57

Ca2+ mg/L 54 260 135 64 47

Mg2+ mg/L 10 152 63 38 68

K+ mg/L 0.2 82 34 35 102

Na+ mg/L 22 433 242 109 45

Cl- mg/L 77 1776 531 407 76

Br- mg/L 0.04 3.6 1.2 1 87

NO3- mg/L 2.29 751 126 187 148

SO4- mg/L 45 1281 433 446 103

TA mg/L 304 998 660 208 31

F- mg/L 0.6 5.81 1.2 1 68

Water Quality

Parameter

W.H.O Max

accept limit

W.H.O Max

allow limit

BIS Max accept

limit

BIS Max

allow limit

Concentration in study

area

Exceed

permissible limit

%

pH 7.0 8.5 6.5 8.5 7.3-8.2 Nil

EC (µS/cm) 400 1500 500 1500 1380-9580 92

TDS (mg/L) 500 1500 500 1500 660-4580 64

TH (mg/L) 100 500 300 600 100-1080 41

Ca2+ (mg/L) 75 200 75 200 54-260 20

Mg2+ (mg/L) 50 150 30 100 10-152 5.5

K+ (mg/L) 100 200 - - 0.2-82 Nil

Na+ (mg/L) 50 200 - - 22-433 85

Cl- (mg/L) 250 600 250 1000 77-1776 25

Br- (mg/L) - - - - 0.04-3.6 -

NO3- (mg/L) - 50 45 100 2.2-751 54

SO42- (mg/L) 200 600 200 400 45-1281 20

TA (mg/L) 200 600 200 600 304-998 68

F- (mg/L) 0.6 1.5 0.6 1.5 0.6-5.8 47



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pH:

The limit of pH value for drinking water is specified as 6.5 mg/L to 8.5 mg/L. Most ground

waters have a pH range of 6 to 8.5 [18]. pH of groundwater in the study area is ranging from 7.3

to 8.2 with a mean of 7.7 mg/L. pH values for all the samples are within the desirable limits. The

Maximum pH 8.2 was recorded at station in Peddapadu village and minimum pH 7.3 was

recorded at station in village Chirrajupalle. It is observed that most of the groundwater is

alkaline in nature. Though pH has no direct effect on the human health, all biochemical reactions

are sensitive to variation of the pH. Most of the samples are within the permissible limit of pH

fits for drinking and irrigation purpose.

Electrical Conductivity

The maximum limit of electrical conductivity in drinking water is prescribed as 1500

microSiemens/cm [22]. Electrical conductivity of the groundwater is ranging from 1380 to 9580

S/cm at 250C with a mean of 5117S/cm (Table 1). In the present investigation minimum

concentration of EC 1380 S/cm was observed at Niduzuvi village and maximum EC 9580

S/cm was observed at Chirrajupalle village. High electrical conductivity in these samples may

be due to extensive agricultural practices.

Total dissolved solids (TDS)

According to WHO specification TDS up to 500 mg/l is the highest desirable and up to 1,500

mg/l is maximum permissible. In the study area the TDS value varies between a minimum of 660

mg/L/l and a maximum of 4580 mg/L (Table. 1) indicating that most of the groundwater samples

lies within the maximum permissible limit of TDS. The groundwater of the study area has been

classified based on TDS values, according to the procedure suggested by US Geological Survey

2000. It is clear from Table 3 100% of groundwater samples useful for irrigation. In the present

study minimum concentration of TDS 660 mg/L was observed at Niduzuvi village and maximum

concentration of 4580 mg/L was observed at Chirrajupalle village. High concentration of TDS in

the groundwater sample is due to leaching of salts from soil which may lead to increase in TDS

values.

Table 3. Classification based on TDS: US Geological Survey 2000

Parameter Classification Range Number

of samples

% of Samples

TDS

Fresh water

Slightly saline

Moderately saline

High saline

<1000

1000-3000

3000-10,000

10,000-35,000

2

7

6

-

13.3

46.6

40

Nil



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Total hardness (TH)

The maximum allowable limit of TH for drinking purpose is 500 mg/L and the most desirable

limit is 100 mg/L as per the WHO international standard. The total hardness is varying from 100

to 1080 mg/l (Table 1). In the present study minimum concentration of TDS 100 mg/L was

observed at Peddapadu village and maximum concentration of 1080 mg/L was observed at

Chirrajupalle village. According to Sawyer et al. (1967) [23] groundwater is considered as safe:<

safe , moderate to hard: 75-150 (6.6%); Hard 150-300 (26.7%); Very hard:>300 and most of the

groundwater (66.7%) of the present study area is rated as hard and requires processing before use

(Table: 4)

Table: 4 Classification of Groundwater on the basis of Total Hardness

Sodium (Na+):

The ratio of sodium in sum of the cations is an important factor in considering water for

agricultural uses. The relative high concentration of sodium may adversely affect soil structure

and permeability, resulting in alkaline soils. Excessive amounts of sodium in drinking water

normally affects the potability of water, and water containing up to 1000 mg/L may generally be

physiologically tolerable. The prescribed limit of sodium in potable water is 200 mg/L [22]. In

the present study minimum concentration of Sodium values 22 mg/L was observed at Koduru

village and maximum concentration of 433 mg/L was observed at Hanumangutta village.

Potassium (K+)

The concentration of potassium ranges from 1 mg/L or less to about 10-15 mg/L in potable

waters, and from 100 mg/L to over several thousand mg/L in some brines. Potassium salts are

more soluble than sodium salts and hence the last to crystallize during evaporation. Potassium

(K+) occurs in various minerals from which it may be dissolved through weathering processes. In

the present study minimum concentration of K+ 0.2 mg/L was observed at Niduzuvi village and

maximum concentration of 82 mg/L was observed at Chirrajupalle village. High concentration of

K+ in the groundwater sample is due to leaching of salts from soil and also percolation of

limestone wastage may percolate into the groundwater which may lead to increase in Potassium

values.

Parameter Classification Range Number

of samples % of Samples References

TH

Safe

Moderate

Hard

Very Hard

<75

75-150

150-

300

>300

Nil

1

4

10

Nil

6.6

26.7

66.7

Sawyer et al.

(1967)



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Total Alkalinity (CO3- and HCO3

-)

The alkalinity of natural waters is due to the salts of carbonates, bicarbonates, borates, silicates

and phosphates along with hydroxyl ions in the free state. The permissible limit of bicarbonate

in drinking water is 150 mg/L [22]. In the present study minimum concentration of Total

alkalinity 304 mg/L was observed at Sunkesula village and maximum concentration of 998.4

mg/L was observed at Peddapadu village.

Chloride (Cl- )

Chloride in drinking water originates from natural sources, sewage and industrial effluents and

saline intrusion. Its concentration in natural water is commonly less than 100 mg/L unless the

water is brackish or saline [24]. High concentration of chloride gives a salty taste to water and

beverages and may cause physiological damages. Water with high chloride content usually has

an unpleasant taste and may be objectionable for some agricultural purposes. As per [22]

standard Cl- has desirable and acceptable limits less than 250 and 250-600 mg/L. Chloride

concentration in the study area varies from 77 mg/L to 1776 mg/L with a mean of 478.64 mg/l.

The desirable limit of chloride in potable water is 250 mg/L and the permissible limit is 1000

mg/L. Higher concentration of 1776 mg/l at station in Hanumangutta village can be

groundwater contamination may be due to wastage of limestone. This can also be due to leaching

of upper soil layers due to industrial & domestic activities and dry climate [7]. The desirable

limit of chloride in potable water is 250 mg/L and the permissible limit is 1000 mg/L.

Calcium and Magnesium

Calcium and magnesium contribute to the hardness of water. Calcium varied from 54 mg/L to

260 mg/l and the values of magnesium ranged from 10 mg/L to 152 mg/L. The maximum value

of Calcium was recorded as 260 mg/L at sampling location Hanumangutta and minimum was 54

mg/L at Peddapadu village. The maximum admissible limit for calcium is 200 mg/L [22]. 20%

of the samples are exceeding permissible limit of calcium suggested by W.H.O (1990) (Table 3).

Magnesium in the groundwater of the study area is varying from 10 to 152 mg/L and the average

value is 63 mg/L (Tables 5&6). Maximum value of the magnesium was recorded as 152.281

mg/L at sampling location Chirrajupalle.The required permissible limit of magnesium in

groundwater for drinking purpose is 30 mg/L and the concentrations are found to be within the

permissible limits.

Bromide (Br-)

Bromide (Br−) is the anion of the element bromine, which is a member of the common halogen

element series that includes fluorine, chlorine, bromine and iodine. These elements have

chemical similarities, but also important differences. Bromide commonly exists as salts with

sodium, potassium and other cations, which are usually very soluble in water. It also forms the

strong acid, hydrobromic acid (HBr). Bromide is commonly found in nature along with sodium

chloride, owing to their similar physical and chemical properties, but in smaller quantities.



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Bromide concentration in the study area varies from 0.04 mg/L at chilamkur village to 3.63 mg/L

with a mean of 1.2 mg/l at Hanumangutti.

Fluoride

Fluoride concentration varies from 0.6 mg/L (Yerraguntla) to 5.81 mg/L (Peddapadu) with a

mean of 1.662 mg/L. The desirable limit of fluoride in drinking water is between 0.5 to 1.5

mg/L. The permissible limit in drinking water 1.5mg/L (W.H.O 2011).Out of the total sample

analysis 40% of the samples are above the permissible limit of 1.5 mg/L. Six locations Sunkesula

(1.8 mg/L), Koduru (2.3 mg/L) , Peddapadu (5.8 mg/L), Valasapalli (2.3 mg/L), Kalamalla (1.6

mg/L), Yerraguntla (1.7) have a mean fluoride concentration beyond 1.6 mg/l. It can be

concluded that fluoride bearing water are usually high in the alkalinity and low in hardness and

chloride, sulphate [9]. It can be concluded that fluoride bearing water is usually high in alkalinity

and low in hardness and chloride, sulfate [2, 8]. Higher fluoride in groundwater of this region

may due to basic flows along with igneous formation like dolerites and carbonate minerals [25].

Fluorides occur in three forms, namely fluorspar or calcium fluoride (CaF2), apatite or rock

phosphate [Ca3F (PO4)3] and cryolite (Na3AlF6) [27]. Out of 416 fluoride-bearing rock minerals,

only topaz, fluorite, villiaunite, and cryolite contain fluorine as an essential constituent in the

formula. Geogenic sources like apatite, clay, biotite and also longer contact with the aquifer

media under alkaline environment is the one of the key factors to present higher concentration

fluoride in the study area [26]. The sources of geogenic (apatite, biotite, and clays) with a

combination of higher rate of evaporation and longer interaction of water with the aquifer

materials under alkaline environment are the key factors for the concentration of F- in the study

area. Prolonged water rock interactions facilitate fluoride enrichment in groundwater. Geological

settings and type of rocks play a crucial role in fluoride contamination in groundwater. The

various actors that govern the release of fluoride into groundwater are temperature, pH, and

solubility of fluoride-bearing minerals, anion exchange capacity of aquifer materials (OH− for

F−), the nature of geological formations drained by water, and the contact time of water with the

source minerals.

Nitrate (NO3-)

Nitrate concentration in groundwater ranges from 2.51 mg/L- 751 mg/L. Permissible limit of

nitrate in ground water is 45mg/L. Around 57% of the groundwater samples within the

permissible limit of nitrate and remaining 43% of the samples exceeds the desirable limit (45

mg/L) of nitrate. In most of the locations nitrate contamination occurs due to various sources like

agricultural activities, leachate from landfills, domestic sewage line leakage and poultry waste

disposal and cultivate animal dung [27]. A higher concentration of nitrates is leached in

groundwater in this region may be due to pollution by inactive/abandoned mine impoundment.

These impoundments are acted as strategic reservoirs of agriculture waste; and directly in contact

with groundwater table and easily contaminated by, NO3- ions into groundwater resources.



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Correlation Analysis

Correlation analysis is a preliminary descriptive technique to estimate the degree of association

among the variables involved. From figure 8 shows strong positive correlation is observed from

the correlaticoefficient values between TDS and EC (0.9981), SO4- and Br- (0.5715), So4

- and Cl-

(0.7435), Mg2+ and TH (0.7479) are positively correlated (Table. 5 ).

pH EC TDS TH Ca2+ Mg2+ K+ Na+ Cl- Br- NO3- SO4

2- TA Fˉ

pH 1.00

EC -0.23 1.00

TDS -0.20 0.99* 1.00

TH -0.57 0.63* 0.63* 1.00

Ca2+ 0.09 -0.51 -0.50 -0.27 1.00

Mg2+ -0.46 0.44 0.43 0.74* -0.51 1.00

K+ -0.10 -0.26 -0.27 -0.05 0.14 -0.08 1.00

Na+ -0.19 0.69 0.69 0.33 -0.58 0.27 -0.01 1.00

Cl- 0.04 0.65* 0.66* 0.47 -0.18 0.15 -0.31 0.52 1.00

Br- -0.18 0.58 0.59 0.59 -0.21 0.45 -0.44 0.53 0.84* 1.00

NO3- 0.36 0.39 0.41 0.09 -0.08 -0.24 -0.27 0.40 0.84* 0.60 1.00

SO4

2- -0.09 0.49 0.49 0.27 0.16 -0.06 -0.36 0.41 0.73* 0.75* 0.57 1.00

TA 0.17 0.34 0.33 -0.21 -0.18 -0.13 -0.41 0.05 -0.18 -0.19 -0.04 0.00 1.00

Fˉ 0.45 -0.37 -0.35 -0.40 0.10 -0.42 -0.34 -0.35 -0.36 -0.37 0.03 -0.31 0.39 1.00

Table.5 Correlation coefficient of chemical parameters



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Fig. 8 (A,B,C,D) Correlation among physico- chemical parameters of the Groundwater

samples

Conclusions& Recommendations

The present study intended to assess the spatiotemporal changes in the disposal of solid waste

derived from the different types and the quantities of mining waste, in and around Yerraguntla

village area in Kadapa district by using the Google earth imagery. Based on the Satellite data

analysis and ground truth verification it is concluded that over burden and the tailings from the

limestone are extremely poor and there is no strict control on the solid waste disposal and

management plan which resulted the dumping of waste in the nearby streams, road side and the

banks of the highway. Limestone quarries had been contained fines from these fines is carried by

rainwater into nearby water bodies or lands and pollutes the both media. The waste generated

during the quarrying operations is mainly in the form of rock fragments. All the calcareous stone

can be used judiciously as per its specifications. Quarrying by blasting the building stones,

dimensional and decorative calcareous stones, namely Cuddapah slabs adopted by modern Wire

Saw mining techniques to reduce the stone wastage from 60% to 85% at the production or

mining stage itself to hardly 20% to 30%, which could further be reduced by utilising the small

sized and odd shaped blocks to produce small slabs and tiles and also the same may be used for

many other value added decorative articles like pen stands, ash trays, flower pots, etc. Micro

grinding of calcium carbonate technique should be adopted to produce international standard

powder of calcium carbonate for use as fillers in plastic, paper and paint industry. For this

purpose calcareous stone and its waste could be used to produce the value added product which



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is in great demand world over. Calcareous stone slurry, obtained during polishing of stones, a

mixture of calcium carbonate and silica, could successfully be used in manufacture of lime-silica

bricks. In the present era of Economic Liberalization, though the mineral and industrial policy

have been significantly revised for the industrial development of the country, yet following

suggestions are made to further improve upon the situation. Due to this irregular an uncontrolled

solid waste dumping in and around yerraguntla town water pollution has been noticed and hence

water quality analysis of physicochemical parameters study has been carried out. Groundwater is

exceeding the permissible limits of TDS, TH, EC, chloride and sulphates, fluorides and nitrates.

Excess fluoride may lead to tooth decay and kidney disease. Overall drinking water quality in

this area is not suitable for drinking purpose and fallows some proper measurements in water

quality management.

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solid waste management and hydro geochemistry of limestone

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