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TRANSCRIPT
CHAPTER 3
CHAPTER 3
LEARNING AND MEMORY
Multiple Choice1. ________________ refers to a relatively permanent change in behavior that is
caused by experience.
a. Adjustment
b. Memory cycling
c. Learning
d. Reinforcement
Answer: (c) Difficulty: (M) Fact Page: 822. Sam Bolton hums the Purina Cat Chow jingle as he drives down the expressway. A
thought suddenly occurs to Sam, Why am I humming this stupid jingle; I dont buy
this stuff. In fact, I dont even have a cat. Many people have experiences just like
Sam. Whether they realize it or not, they have learned about the world around
themselves in casual, unintentional ways. Acquisition of knowledge in this manner is
known as:
a. memory cycling.
b. reinforcement modeling.
c. incidental learning.
d. learning through experimentation.
Answer: (c) Difficulty: (H) Application Page: 823. ______________ is the casual, unintentional acquisition of knowledge (such as
learning by listening to jingles).
a. Complex learning
b. Systematic learning
c. Repetitive learning
d. Incidental learning
Answer: (d) Difficulty: (M) Fact Page: 82
4. Which form of learning listed below assumes that learning takes place as the result of
responses to external events?
a. Cognitive learning.
b. Incidental learning.
c. Gestalt learning.
d. Behavioral learning.
Answer: (d) Difficulty: (H) Fact Page: 825. ______________ theory sees the mind as a black box and emphasizes the
observable aspects of behavior.
a. Cognitive learning
b. Incidental learning
c. Behavioral learning
d. Gestalt learning
Answer: (c) Difficulty: (M) Fact Page: 826. Frank is sitting in his Psychology 101 class listening to his professor attempt to
explain the black box process and its associations with learning. He suddenly smells the aroma of fresh cinnamon rolls and his mouth begins to water. He looks around and sees a student on the last row bite into a big, juicy roll. I wish I were sitting next to him, Frank thinks, because I know I could steal a bite. What Frank just went through in class was similar to the black box process being described by his professor. This process is most closely associated with which of the following
learning methods?
a. Behavioral learning.
b. Gestalt learning.
c. Cognitive learning.
d. Incidental learning.
Answer: (a) Difficulty: (H) Application Page: 82 7. The behavioral learning view is represented by two major approaches to learning.
These approaches are:
a. observation and modeling.
b. repetition and extinction.
c. classical and instrumental conditioning.
d. memorization and punishment.
Answer: (c) Difficulty: (H) Fact Page: 848. According to the ______________ perspective, peoples experiences are shaped by
the feedback they receive as they go through life. Similarly, consumers respond to
brand names, scents, jingles, and other marketing stimuli based on the learned
connections they have formed over time.
a. behavioral learning
b. gestalt learning
c. cognitive learning
d. incidental learning
Answer: (a) Difficulty: (M) Application Page: 84
9. __________________ occurs when a stimulus that elicits a response is paired with
another stimulus that initially does not elicit a response on its own.
a. Classical conditioning
b. Instrumental conditioning
c. Rejection conditioning
d. Extinction conditioning
Answer: (a) Difficulty: (E) Fact Page: 8410. _________________ was first demonstrated by experiments performed on dogs by
Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist doing research on digestion in animals.
a. Classical conditioning
b. Instrumental conditioning
c. Rejection conditioning
d. Extinction conditioning
Answer: (a) Difficulty: (M) Fact Page: 8411. According to Ivan Pavlovs famous dog experiments that eventually were the
foundation of classical conditioning as a means of learning, a(an) ______________ is illustrated by a stimulus, such as dried meat powder, that caused the dogs to salivate
when sprayed into their mouths.
a. neural stimulus (NS)
b. conditioned stimulus (CS)
c. mnemonic stimulus (MS)
d. unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
Answer: (d) Difficulty: (H) Fact and Application Page: 84 12. A marketer knows that the visual and olfactory senses can be stimulated to induce
hunger, thirst, sexual arousal, and other basic drives. When these cues are consistently
paired with conditioned stimuli such as brand names, consumers may learn to feel
hungry, thirsty, or aroused when later exposed to the brand cues. This is an
example of which of the following learning formats?
a. Classical conditioning.
b. Instrumental conditioning.
c. Stimulation conditioning.
d. Extinction conditioning.
Answer: (a) Difficulty: (H) Fact and Application Page: 8413. Repeated exposures increase the strength of stimulus-response associations and:
a. are an irritant to the subconscious.
b. produce illness in some consumers.
c. prevent the decay of these associations in memory.
d. are usually best delivered by spokespersons.
Answer: (c) Difficulty: (M) Fact Page: 8414. Stimulus generalization refers to:
a. the tendency for stimuli to be similar in nature.
b. the situation when a stimulus similar to a Conditioned Stimulus is not followed by
an Unconditioned Stimulus.
c. the tendency of stimuli similar to a Conditioned Stimulus to evoke similar,
conditioned responses.
d. the tendency for the consumer to rationalize purchases for general reasons.
Answer: (c) Difficulty: (H) Fact Page: 8515. A private label shampoo company packages its product in a similar container and
package (but charges 25% less for its product) to Johnson & Johnsons Baby
Shampoo. If the consumer assumes the two products are similar and buys the cheaper
of the two, then a piggybacking strategy has been employed. Which of the
following terms accurately describes the learning principle that the company used to
formulate their strategy?
a. Stimulus discrimination
b. Stimulus generalization
c. Stimulus conditioning
d. Differential discrimination
Answer: (b) Difficulty: (M) Application Page: 8516. Recently, Miller Brewing Co. wanted to try a new approach to reach consumers who
had previously been uninterested in Miller products. It created a dummy company
called Plank Road Brewery when it launched its Icehouse and Red Dog beers.
Consumers who purchased these products never knew that they were really part of
Millers product line. This strategy is called:
a. dual branding.
b. covert branding.
c. deceptive branding.
d. masked branding.
Answer: (d) Difficulty: (M) Fact and Application Page: 8617. _________________ occurs when a stimulus similar to a Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
is not followed by an Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS).
a. Stimulus generalization
b. Stimulus discrimination
c. Stimulus conditioning
d. Differential discrimination
Answer: (b) Difficulty: (H) Fact Page: 86 18. If a brand has strong positive associations in a consumers memory and commands
a lot of loyalty as a result, the brand can be said to have:
a. brand exposure.
b. brand energy.
c. brand development.
d. brand equity.
Answer: (d) Difficulty: (E) Fact Page: 88 19. The process of ____________ is often central to branding and packaging decisions
that attempt to capitalize on consumers positive associations with an existing brand
or company name.
a. stimulus generalization
b. stimulus discrimination
c. stimulus conditioning
d. differential discrimination
Answer: (a) Difficulty: (H) Fact Page: 89 20. All of the following are strategies based on stimulus generalization EXCEPT:
a. family branding.
b. backward branding.
c. product line extensions.
d. licensing.
Answer: (b) Difficulty: (M) Fact Page: 89
21. When American Express Travelers Checks uses an ad campaign that says, Ask for
them by name......, American Express is encouraging:
a. stimulus generalization
b. stimulus discrimination
c. stimulus conditioning
d. differential generalization
Answer: (b) Difficulty: (H) Application Page: 89, 90
22. Another name for operant conditioning is:
a. instrumental conditioning.
b. neo-classical conditioning.
c. stimulus conditioning.
d. reward conditioning.
Answer: (a) Difficulty: (E) Fact Page: 9023. _________________ occurs as the individual learns to perform behaviors that
produce positive outcomes and to avoid those that yield negative outcomes.
a. Classical conditioning
b. Extinction conditioning
c. Stimulation conditioning
d. Instrumental conditioning
Answer: (d) Difficulty: (E) Fact Page: 9024. Psychologist B.F. Skinner is most associated with which of the following form of
conditioning?
a. Classical conditioning.
b. Extinction conditioning.
c. Stimulation conditioning.
d. Instrumental conditioning.
Answer: (d) Difficulty: (H) Fact Page: 9025. John wants to teach his dog to do tricks such as Sit up, Roll over, and Fetch a
stick. By systematically rewarding his dog for responding in the correct way, he is
able to accomplish great progress over a 30-day period. John was able to teach his
dog using which of the following learning processes?
a. Classical conditioning.
b. Instrumental conditioning.
c. Stimulation conditioning.
d. Extinction conditioning.
Answer: (b) Difficulty: (M) Application Page: 9026. All of the following are ways that instrumental learning may occur EXCEPT:
a. positive reinforcement.
b. negative reinforcement.
c. punishment.
d. extinction.
Answer: (d) Difficulty: (M) Fact Page: 9027. _________________ is in the form of a reward; the response is, therefore,
strengthened and appropriate behavior is learned.
a. Negative reinforcement
b. Positive reinforcement
c. Punishment
d. Coercion
Answer: (b) Difficulty: (E) Fact and Application Page: 9028. A computer company runs an ad that shows a young male sitting in front of his
computer on what appears to be a lonely Saturday night. The copy in the ad implies
that if the young man had only purchased the latest software for his computer, he
would have been able to have friends over to play the latest in video games. Without
the software, however, he is the lonely guy. This would be an example of which of
the following instrumental conditioning options?
a. Negative reinforcement.
b. Positive reinforcement.
c. Punishment.
d. Coercion.
Answer: (a) Difficulty: (M) Application Page: 9029. A woman no longer receives compliments on the perfume that she wears. In learning
terms, the stimulus-response connection has weakened. Which of the following
instrumental conditioning processes explains what has occurred to the woman in the
example?
a. Negative reinforcement.
b. Extinction.
c. Punishment.
d. Coercion.
Answer: (b) Difficulty: (H) Application Page: 90-9130. An important factor in operant conditioning is the set of rules by which appropriate
reinforcements are given for a behavior. All of the following are among those
schedules cited by the text EXCEPT:
a. dependent reinforcement.
b. fixed-interval reinforcement.
c. variable-interval reinforcement.
d. variable-ratio reinforcement.
Answer: (a) Difficulty: (H) Fact Page: 9131. A department store decides to use secret shoppers to test for service quality among
its personnel. Store personnel are rewarded for excellent service attitudes. Which
of the following reinforcement schedules would most likely apply in the above
situation?
a. Fixed-ratio reinforcement.
b. Fixed-interval reinforcement.
c. Variable-ratio reinforcement.
d. Variable-interval reinforcement.
Answer: (d) Difficulty: (H) Application Page: 9132. With respect to the application of instrumental conditioning principles, a popular
technique known as ____________ reinforces regular purchases by giving consumers
prizes with values that increase along with the amount purchased.
a. rebate marketing
b. discount marketing
c. reward marketing
d. frequency marketing
Answer: (d) Difficulty: (M) Fact Page: 92
33. __________________ approaches stress the importance of internal mental processes
or views the consumer as a problem-solver who actively uses information from the
world to master her environment.
a. Instrumental learning theory
b. Cognitive learning theory
c. Operant learning theory
d. Classical learning theory
Answer: (b) Difficulty: (M) Fact Page: 9334. An adolescent girl observes that women on television and in real life seem to be
rewarded with compliments and attention when they smell nice and wear alluring
clothing. If she adjusts her behavior to achieve the same results by the same means,
she is experiencing which of the following learning processes?
a. Instrumental learning theory
b. Observational learning theory
c. Operant learning theory
d. Classical learning theory
Answer: (b) Difficulty: (M) Application Page: 9335. ____________________ occurs when people watch the actions of others and note
the reinforcements they receive for their behaviors.
a. Classical learning
b. Observational learning
c. Rote learning
d. Stochastic learning
Answer: (b) Difficulty: (E) Fact Page: 9336. In order for observational learning in the form of modeling to occur, all of the
following conditions must be met EXCEPT:
a. the consumers attention must be directed (for whatever reason) to the
appropriate model.
b. the consumer must remember what is said or done by the model.
c. the consumer must be able to better (enhance) what the model has done.
d. the consumer must be motivated to perform actions.
Answer: (c) Difficulty: (H) Fact and Application Page: 94
37. According to the model that describes the components of observational learning, the
first step in the observational learning process is:
a. retention.
b. production processes.
c. attention.
d. motivation.
Answer: (c) Difficulty: (E) Fact and Application Page: 94, Figure 3.3
38. _________________ involves a process of acquiring information and storing it
over time so that it will be available when needed.
a. Memory
b. Recognition
c. Comprehension
d. Attention
Answer: (a) Difficulty: (E) Fact Page: 9539. If a marketer assumes a consumers mind is much like a computer with respect to
memory functions, then the marketer will probably employ a(an) ______________
to study memory.
a. means-end chain
b. information processing approach
c. experiential approach
d. experimental approach
Answer: (b) Difficulty: (M) Fact and Application Page: 95
40. With respect to the information processing approach to memory formulation, in
the ___________ stage, information is entered in a way the system will recognize.
a. storage
b. retrieval
c. encoding
d. decoding
Answer: (d) Difficulty: (E) Fact Page: 95, Figure 3.4
41. William has decided to buy a new television set. Prior to the purchase of any new
product, William thinks about the last time he bought a TV, the process he went
through, the store he purchased it from, and how satisfied he has been with his old
set. When William does this, he is using his ______________ to review events.
a. short-term memory
b. sensory memory
c. long-term memory
d. working memory
Answer: (c) Difficulty: (M) Application Page: 97, 9842. _____________ permits storage of information we receive from our senses.
a. Short-term memory
b. Sensory memory
c. Long-term memory
d. Working memory
Answer: (b) Difficulty: (E) Fact Page: 9743. According to the _____________, a message is processed in a bottom-up fashion. In
other words, processing begins at a very basic level and is subject to increasingly
complex processing operations that require greater cognitive capacity.
a. information processing model
b. decay processing model
c. parallel processing model
d. hierarchical processing model
Answer: (d) Difficulty: (M) Fact Page: 9844. Marthas mother asks her for a quick list of her favorite perfumes (its time for the
Christmas shopping list). As a consumer, Martha gives her mother six names that are
all her favorite. This group constitutes Marthas ________________ for perfume.
a. position group
b. desire patterns
c. rational set
d. evoked set
Answer: (d) Difficulty: (M) Application Page: 98, 9945. As May-Lee considers her purchase of perfume, she shifts back and forth between
thinking about claims made by the different brands, remembering ads she has seen,
and considers her emotional responses to the various brands. Which of the following
processes most accurately describes what May-Lee is going through?
a. Spreading activation.
b. Advertising decay.
c. Polar parallels.
d. Scalar processing.
Answer: (a) Difficulty: (H) Application Page: 9946. Clearly, forgetting is a big problem for marketers with respect to messages and
communications sent to consumers. Memories of products can simply fade or decay
with time or forgetting can occur because of:
a. interference.
b. lack of interest.
c. salience.
d. recall.
Answer: (a) Difficulty: (M) Fact Page: 10247. Many marketers use the good old days as a common theme in messages. This
is a strategy of focusing on ___________________.
a. retro-interference.
b. return to the womb syndrome.
c. nostalgia.
d. memory spikes.
Answer: (c) Difficulty: (M) Fact Page: 10348. In a typical _________________ test, subjects are shown ads one at a time and
asked if they have seen them before.
a. recall
b. recognition
c. remembrance
d. recovery
Answer: (b) Difficulty: (M) Fact and Application Page: 104, 10549. In a typical _____________ test, subjects are asked to independently think of what
they have seen without being prompted for this information first.
a. free recall
b. recognition
c. retrieval
d. recovery
Answer: (a) Difficulty: (E) Fact and Application Page: 104, 10550. Susan Saurage picks and runs her focus groups carefully. She wants to make sure
that each focus group member provides meaningful information for her research
purposes. As she is examining potential focus group candidates, she notices that three
men and two women seem to provide yes answers regardless of what she asks them.
They seem to want to be on the focus group very badly and appear eager to be good
subjects. If Susan follows prudent testing methodology, she should reject these test
subjects in order to avoid the possibility of which of the following biases?
a. Gender bias.
b. Order bias.
c. Response bias.
d. Affinity bonding bias.
Answer: (c) Difficulty: (M) Application Page: 106
True/False51. Learning refers to a relatively permanent change in behavior that is caused by
experience.
Answer: (True) Difficulty: (E) Fact Page: 8252. Casual, unintentional acquisition of knowledge is known as classical conditioning.
Answer: (False) Difficulty: (M) Fact Page: 8253. Shari Gomez sees the big red heart on the front of a Cheerios box and immediately
thinks of an ad she has seen for the cereal that discusses the low cholesterol benefits of
Cheerios. This would be an illustration of a stimulus-response connection (behavioral
theory).
Answer: (True) Difficulty: (H) Application Page: 82-83
54. There are two major approaches associated with behavioral learning theory; the
approaches are classical conditioning and observational learning.
Answer: (False) Difficulty: (M) Fact Page: 8455. The form of conditioning most associated with psychologist Ivan Pavlov is classical
conditioning.
Answer: (False) Difficulty: (M) Fact Page: 8456. In the original behavioral learning experiments in classical conditioning, it was found
that conditioning effects are more likely to occur after the conditioned and
unconditioned stimuli have been paired a number of times.
Answer: (True) Difficulty: (M) Fact and Application Page: 8457. Stimulus generalization refers to the tendency of stimuli similar to a conditioned
stimulus (CS) to evoke similar, conditioned responses.
Answer: (True) Difficulty: (M) Fact Page: 8558. A good illustration of the phenomenon of stimulus generalization occurs if a drug
stores private brand of mouthwash is deliberately packaged to resemble a leading
brand (such as Scope).
Answer: (True) Difficulty: (E) Application Page: 8559. Masked branding occurs when the brand name is deliberately covered up so the
consumer cannot see it.
Answer: (False) Difficulty: (E) Fact Page: 8660. Stimulus discrimination occurs when an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) does not
follow a stimulus similar to a conditioned stimulus (CS).
Answer: (True) Difficulty: (M) Fact Page: 8661. Marlboro, IBM, Microsoft, and Coca-Cola exert powerful effects on consumers. All
of these brands use brand equity to ensure a strong positive association in a
consumers memory.
Answer: (True) Difficulty: (E) Fact and Application Page: 87, 8862. The order in which the conditioned stimulus (CS) and the unconditioned stimulus
(UCS) are presented do not affect the likelihood that learning will occur.
Answer: (False) Difficulty: (M) Fact Page: 8863. An example of a marketing strategy that results from an appreciation and
understanding of stimulus generalization is licensing.
Answer: (True) Difficulty: (M) Fact and Application Page: 8964. Instrumental conditioning occurs as the individual learns to perform behaviors that
produce positive outcomes and to avoid those that yield negative outcomes.
Answer: (True) Difficulty: (M) Fact and Application Page: 9065. Instrumental conditioning is also known as operant conditioning.
Answer: (True) Difficulty: (E) Fact Page: 9066. A woman who gets compliments after wearing Obsession perfume will learn that
using this product has the desired positive effect of gaining attention; she will be more
likely to keep buying the product. This is an example of instrumental learning.
Answer: (True) Difficulty: (M) Application Page: 9067. Instrumental conditioning occurs in three ways. The ways are positive reinforcement,
positive reward, and monetary reward.
Answer: (False) Difficulty: (M) Fact and Application Page: 9068. Secret shoppers may be used by marketers to test the effectiveness of service-
quality among employees. This is a form of variable-interval reinforcement testing.
Answer: (True) Difficulty: (M) Fact and Application Page: 9169. Frequent flyer incentive programs (that achieved popularity in the 1980s) are a form
of reward linked to the classical conditioning process.
Answer: (False) Difficulty: (M) Fact and Application Page: 9270. Cognitive learning theory approaches stress the importance of internal mental
processes.
Answer: (True) Difficulty: (E) Fact Page: 9371. A woman shopping for a new kind of perfume may remember the reactions her
friend received upon wearing a certain brand several months earlier, and she will
base her behavior on her friends action. This is an example of a form of
cognitive learning.
Answer: (True) Difficulty: (H) Application Page: 93, 9472. Sensory memorys duration is usually very shortsometimes lasting less than one
second.
Answer: (True) Difficulty: (M) Fact Page: 97
73. The salience of a brand refers to its degree of pricing flexibility (i.e., frequency of
price changes).
Answer: (False) Difficulty: (E) Fact Page: 10174. Forgetting may occur due to interferencelearning additional information about a
subject.
Answer: (True) Difficulty: (M) Fact Page: 10275. In a typical free recall test, subjects are shown ads one at a time and asked if they
have seen them before.
Answer: (False) Difficulty: (H) Fact and Application Page: 104, 105Essay Questions76. Describe the term learning. Define the term incidental learning.
Answer:Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior caused by experience. The learner need not have the experience directly. We can also learn by observing events that affect others. We learn even when we are not trying. Consumers recognize many brand names and can hum many product jingles (even for products they do not personally use). This casual, unintentional acquisition of knowledge is known as incidental learning.
Difficulty: (E) Fact Page: 8277. Compare and contrast classical and instrumental (operant) conditioning.
Answer:Classical conditioning involves the close pairing of two stimuli. Classical conditioning occurs when a stimulus that elicits a response is paired with another stimulus that initially does not elicit a response of its own. Over time, this second stimulus causes a similar response because it is associated with the first stimulus. The person to study this form of conditioning was Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist (while doing research on digestion in animals).
Operant (or instrumental) conditioning occurs as an individual learns to perform behaviors that produce positive outcomes and to avoid those that yield negative outcomes. B.F. Skinner demonstrated the effects of instrumental conditioning by teaching animals to dance, play ping-pong, and so on by systematically rewarding them for desired behaviors.
While responses in classical conditioning are involuntary and fairly simple, those in instrumental conditioning are made deliberately to obtain a goal and may be more complex and shaped over a period of time. Instrumental learning occurs as a result of a reward following the desired behavior. It takes place over a period of time while the individual tries a variety of other behaviors and abandons them because they are not reinforced. In instrumental learning, the response is performed because it is instrumental in gaining a reward or avoiding punishment.
Difficulty: (H) Fact and Application Page: 84-90, 90-93
78. Discuss what stimulus generalization and stimulus discrimination are and present an
example of each that is relevant to the field of marketing.
Answer:(a) Stimulus generalization refers to the tendency of stimuli similar to a Conditioned Stimulus to evoke similar, conditioned responses. The idea is that people react to other stimuli (similar stimuli) in much the same way they respond to the original stimuli. For example, a drug stores bottle of private brand mouthwash might be deliberately packaged to resemble a name brand (such as Listerine). The consumer would assume this me-too product has the same characteristics as the name brand and buy it because of its cheaper price.
(b) Stimulus discrimination occurs when a stimulus similar to a Conditioned Stimulus is not followed by an Unconditioned Stimulus. In this case, reactions are weakened and will soon disappear. National manufacturers remind consumers that if they buy cheaper brands they will not get the same results as they do when they buy the national brand.
Difficulty: (M) Fact and Application Page: 85-8779. The process of stimulus generalization is often central to branding and packaging decisions that attempt to capitalize on consumers positive associations with an existing brand or company name. In this context, list and briefly discuss the four strategies based on stimulus generalization presented in the text.
Answer: Family brandinga variety of products capitalize on the reputation of a company name. Positive corporate images help to sell the companys different product lines.
Product line extensionsrelated products are added to an established brand.
Licensingwell-known brand names are rented by others. This strategy is increasing in popularity as marketers try to link their products and services with well-established figures.
Look-alike packagingdistinctive packaging designs create strong associations with a particular brand. Imitating the look of an existing successful brand is common in todays crowded marketplace.
Difficulty: (M) Fact and Application Page: 8980. Explain how instrumental conditioning occurs. Be sure to use the proper terms to explain this process.
Answer:Instrumental conditioning occurs as the individual learns to perform behaviors that produce positive outcomes and to avoid those that yield negative outcomes. This form of conditioning occurs in one of three ways. When the environment provides positive reinforcement in the form of a reward, the response is strengthened, and appropriate behavior is learned. Second, negative reinforcement also strengthens responses so that appropriate behavior is learned. Lastly, we learn to do certain things in order to avoid punishment. In this case, we wish to avoid an unpleasant consequence. We learn the hard way sometimes what these situations are.
Difficulty: (M) Fact and Application Page: 9081. An important factor in instrumental (operant) conditioning is the set of rules by which appropriate reinforcements are given for a behavior. The chapter discusses four possible schedules of reinforcement. Briefly describe each and give a short example. Be sure to use the proper terminology for each schedule.
Answer:(a) Fixed-interval reinforcementafter a specified time period has passed, the first response that is made brings reward. Under such conditions, people tend to respond slowly right after being reinforced, but their responses speed up as the time for the next reinforcement looms. Example: crowding a store on the last day of a sale but not returning for another year.
(b) Variable-interval reinforcementthe time must pass before reinforcement is delivered varies around some average. Since the person does not know exactly when to expect the reinforcement, responses must be performed at a consistent rate. Example: using mystery or secret shoppers to watch store employees and their attempt to provide quality service.
(c) Fixed-ratio reinforcementreinforcement occurs only after a fixed number of responses. This schedule motivates people to continue performing the same behavior over and over again. Example: repeat shopping to earn prizes by earning credits or trading stamps.
(d) Variable-ratio reinforcementthe person is reinforced after a certain number of responses, but he or she does not know how many responses are required. People in such situations tend to respond at very high and steady rates, and this type of behavior is very difficult to extinguish. Example: gambling or playing slot machines.
Difficulty: (H) Fact and Application Page: 9182. Give a brief explanation of cognitive learning.
Answer:In contrast to behavioral theories of learning, cognitive learning theory approaches stress the importance of internal mental processes. This perspective views people as problem-solvers who actively use information from the world around them to master their environment. Supporters of this viewpoint also stress the role of creativity and insight during the learning process.
Difficulty: (E) Fact Page: 9383. List and describe the components of observational learning as displayed in a figure shown in the text.
Answer: Attentionthe consumer focuses on a models behavior.
Retentionthe consumer retains this behavior in memory.
Production processesthe consumer has the ability to perform the behavior.
Motivationa situation arises wherein the behavior is useful to the consumer.
This results in observational learningthe consumer acquires and performs the behavior earlier demonstrated by a model.
Difficulty: (M) Fact and Discussion Page: 94, Figure 3.3
84. Identify and briefly discuss each of the three distinct memory systems described in the text.
Answer:(a) Sensory memorypermits the storage of information we receive from our senses. This storage is very temporary; it last a couple of seconds at most. If information is retained for further processing, it passes through an attentional gate and is transferred to short-term memory.
(b) Short-term memory (STM)stores information for a limited period of time; its capacity is limited. Regarded as working memory (like a computer), it holds the information we are currently processing. This information is stored by combining small pieces into larger ones in a process known as chunking.
(c) Long-term memory (LTM)is a system that allows us to retain information for a long period of time. In order for information to enter into long-term memory from short-term memory, an elaborate rehearsal is required. This process involves thinking about the meaning of a stimulus and relating it to other information already in memory.
Difficulty: (M) Fact and Discussion Page: 97, 98, Figure 3.5
85. Measuring memory for marketing stimuli is often difficult. Discuss the differences between recognition and recall. Give examples of methods for testing each form. Which one is thought to the more reliable measure of memory?
Answer:Two basic measures of impact are recognition and recall. In the typical recognition test, subjects are shown ads one at a time and asked if they have seen them before. In contrast, free recall tests ask consumers to independently think of what they have seen without being prompted for this information firstobviously, this task requires greater effort on the part of respondents.
Under some conditions, these two memory measures tend to yield the same results, especially when the researchers try to keep the viewers interest in ads constant. Generally, though, recognition scores tend to be more reliable and do not decay over time the way recall scores do. Recognition scores are almost always better than recall scores because recognition is a simpler process and more retrieval cues are available to the consumer.
Difficulty: (M) Fact and Discussion Page: 104-106
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