some alternatives in the sociology of space colonization: the kibbutz as a space colony
TRANSCRIPT
-
8/12/2019 SOME ALTERNATIVES IN THE SOCIOLOGY OF SPACE COLONIZATION: THE KIBBUTZ AS A SPACE COLONY
1/28
SOME ALTERNATIVES IN THE SOCIOLOGY OF SPACE COLONIZATION: THE
KIBBUTZ AS A SPACE COLONY
by
Michael Ashkenazi
KEYWORDS: Space colony; space exploitation; space industrialization; kibbutz
7500 words
-
8/12/2019 SOME ALTERNATIVES IN THE SOCIOLOGY OF SPACE COLONIZATION: THE KIBBUTZ AS A SPACE COLONY
2/28
SOME ALTERNATIVES IN THE THE SOCIOLOGY OF SPACE COLONIZATION: THE
KIBBUTZ AS A SPACE COLONY
(Abstract)
by
Michael Ashkenazi
This paper critiques the scanty sociological examination on future space colonies. It
suggests that the sociology of space colonies has not been examined with due attention to the
relationship between the physical problems of surviving in space and the social form of the
colony. The Israeli kibbutz form is examined as one example of a viable and logical alternative
form of settlement for space colonization.
-
8/12/2019 SOME ALTERNATIVES IN THE SOCIOLOGY OF SPACE COLONIZATION: THE KIBBUTZ AS A SPACE COLONY
3/28
Kibbutz-Space 1
SOME ALTERNATIVES IN THE SOCIOLOGY OF SPACE COLONIZATION: THE
KIBBUTZ AS A SPACE COLONY
1. Introduction
Discussions of space colonization [1, 2, 3] address sociological issues, if at all, as if life in
space were merely a continuation of life on Earth. This is highly unlikely, given the conditions of
life off the earth. Life off Earth, in this discussion, includes artificial satellites (space
stations) and colonies on other natural bodies: Mars, the Moon, asteroids, and Jovian moons
seem viable candidates at this time. Notwithstanding certain differences between off-Earth
planetary and zero-gravity colonies, all are likely to have many things in common: physical
insecurity, distance from Earth, internal environmental problems, and lack of personal space are a
few.
This paper examines some assumptions of the suburban life-style implicit in current
visions of space colonies. Alternative communal arrangements, such as the very successful Israeli
kibbutz community, are suggested as appropriate for three main reasons. (1) The kibbutz form
could ensure a combination of economic and social viability. (2) It enhances the physical
integrity and operation of the colonys biome. And, (3) it offers an alternative to the vexing
contradictions of personal liberty and limitations on it that space life imposes.
The literature on the sociological implications of space colonies [4, 5, 6] is rather strong
on posing questions, and less certain about the answers. Considering the lack of hard data, this
situation is neither surprising nor undesirable. However, it is the nature of the questions that
leaves much to be desired. The questions make little attempt to focus on problems peculiar to the
space environment. For example, Melchionne and Rosen [7] pose a set of questions about the
potential nature of space colony society, but could have posed the same set of questions about
any human society.
-
8/12/2019 SOME ALTERNATIVES IN THE SOCIOLOGY OF SPACE COLONIZATION: THE KIBBUTZ AS A SPACE COLONY
4/28
Kibbutz-Space 2
Given the nature of the Space endeavor, in which people from many cultures are likely to
be involved in a broad effort, it is likely that other sociological paradigms will necessarily evolve
in space.. Accordingly, alternative social arrangements that already exist should be examined for
possible applicability to space colonization. The example brought here the kibbutz is
presented not to urge kibbutz settlement in space, but to illuminate the possibility of alternative
social design for space colonies. The initial design and consideration of such social communities
must carefully consider the physical parameters of the space colony as the framework for social
issues. At the same time, some sort of balance must be maintained between collective needs (for
example, limiting some sorts of individual activities to preserve station integrity) and individual
desires and freedoms (that is, providing some form of popular and individual control over
collective decisions and policy).
2. Space colonization
Space colonization refers to the settling and residence of human beings in space for the
purpose of exploiting the physical characteristics of Space. Space colonies are likely to emerge as
a result of the energy-cost requirements of servicing space exploration and exploitation. Though
ideological considerations may be primary for many in favor of space exploration and
colonization, economic necessity could well be a crucial driving motive for space colonization.
Even just the elimination of the process of lofting payloads and human workers from Earths
gravity well, with its attendant prohibitive costs, would make space colonies a cost-effective
mechanism for space activities.
Phase One of the Space effort (which is likely to continue for several decades) is
characterized by massive government investment (for lack of other resource providers and
probably because of low initial returns from space investment), strong Earth-based regulation
(flowing from the first point), and 3) a limited utilization of space environments: Earth orbit and
possibly reaching to initial Lunar colonies [8].
-
8/12/2019 SOME ALTERNATIVES IN THE SOCIOLOGY OF SPACE COLONIZATION: THE KIBBUTZ AS A SPACE COLONY
5/28
Kibbutz-Space 3
Phase Two, the routinization phase, will emerge as the benefits (if any) of exploiting
space become apparent. It will likely be characterized by entrepreneurship and smaller
investment (as service and economic opportunities become available, but not worth major
government investment); weaker enforcement of Earth-based control; and extended space
occupation, both in terms of duration of individual stays and dispersion of colony points:
Lagrange and circum-Earth space stations, Lunar, and possibly Martian and Jovian-moon
colonies.
3. Problems specific to the space environment
The problems peculiar to settling in space include a number of physical factors, and social
problems deriving from them. Some will be solved initially simply as engineering problems.
Others, particularly the social ones, which are derivative, are more insidious and more difficult to
identify.
The physical limitations of the space colony must be kept in mind. A comparison of
basic individual needs on a space colony compared to individual needs on Earth indicates clearly
where many analyses of social issues in space colonies fail. The degree of importance of these
factors is roughly measured by how long an individual can do without them. In Space the order
of importance is: air, power, room, pollution (e.g. heat pollution in the first instance, human
waste disposal in the second), food-water, and gravity. On earth this order is reversed: food-
water, pollution (human waste disposal), room, and power. Air and gravity do not, of course,
factor at all. The physical design of a Space habitat is a consequence of these requirements [9].
Social design of a space colony must flow from a recognition that these factors impose special
problems on social forms and behavior.
-
8/12/2019 SOME ALTERNATIVES IN THE SOCIOLOGY OF SPACE COLONIZATION: THE KIBBUTZ AS A SPACE COLONY
6/28
Kibbutz-Space 4
3.1 Physical risk
Physical risk in settling space is a consequence of two factors. First, the hostile
environment, and second, the lack of, or improper/incomplete application of engineering solutions
to the environment. The physical needs hierarchy discussed above can be roughly divided into
three sets of related human problems.
(a) Lack of external atmosphere, alternatively, poisonous atmosphere. The former is
more likely, given our current technology and inability to contemplate set tling planets such as
Venus and all the Jovian planets. The lack of atmosphere implies first, a need for full integrity in
the biome, and second, special training and technology to function outside the habitat or in it in
case of loss of integrity to the habitat. Related to that are questions of bio-toxins and energy. As
settlers increase, so too does the microecology they live in, including micro-organisms. The
possibility of unwanted biological reactions (e.g. uncontrolled fermentation in air or water
systems) must be considered a real danger. Lack of power (or lack of power in required form)
will lead in the first instance to lack of air as air circulation fails. At a greater remove it will likely
cause problems of the entire functioning of the habitat.
(b) Temperature control. For biological purposes, Space may be considered a complete
vacuum, that is, heat is gained or lost through radiation alone. This implies that temperature
regulation of a biome is of primary importance. Both excessive heat gain (through solar exposure
and biologically produced heat) and excessive heat loss (less through radiation than through
expiration) must be considered.
(c) Lack of, or inappropriate, gravity. This has both medical consequences (calcium loss),
and effects on physical activities, such as lack of coordination [8] which, though not medical
problems per se, could be prime causes of accident. Lack of familiarity with the effects of
gravity is likely to cause, at best, errors in judgement and skills, at worse actual risks to station
personnel.
Any of these three factors, or all acting in unison, will affect the health of space colonists.
Moreover, to ensure that no man-made error is likely to threaten the biome, its population
-
8/12/2019 SOME ALTERNATIVES IN THE SOCIOLOGY OF SPACE COLONIZATION: THE KIBBUTZ AS A SPACE COLONY
7/28
Kibbutz-Space 5
requires the sort of preparedness and training required of submarine crews or other human
communities exposed to extreme environmental stress. The higher the technical qualifications and
abilities of the population as a whole, the better the colony is likely to survive a crisis in any of
the environmental areas. It should be noted that egoistic behavior under such environmental
conditions would be ultimately self-defeating.
3.2 Hardship
This embraces all problems relating to physical comfort as distinct from survival and
health. A number of factors may be cited. Close quarters and social proximity. Lack of social
variation. Inability to form sub-groups because of limited social variation, psychological
problems due to enclosed environments, cumulative physical stress. These are irritants (at least
initially) rather than actual physical problems that will affect the long-term physical viability of
residence in space. Some of these problems have been addressed [8, 10, 11], but there is little
data to suggest how colonies (as opposed to extended spaceflight missions with select crews) will
fare in space Recorded human experience from De Veer and Barents in the 1590s to Soviet
cosmonauts in the 1980s demonstrate that dedicated, trained individuals can maintain themselves
over extended periods of time in isolation notwithstanding great physical discomfort and
extended personal proximity. The settings, however, were not permanent settlements, and it is
necessary to consider social factors likely to affect permanent settlements in space.
3.3 Individuals and individual activities
Individual initiative and self-interest propel capitalist endeavor, the currently-dominant
economic ideology. In contrast, exploration and colonization in space necessitates a collective
effort. The minimal support echelon for positioning even one person in space is too formidable
to allow individuals to pursue their personal interests regardless of others. More importantly for
-
8/12/2019 SOME ALTERNATIVES IN THE SOCIOLOGY OF SPACE COLONIZATION: THE KIBBUTZ AS A SPACE COLONY
8/28
Kibbutz-Space 6
this discussion, the survival of any space enterprise in a hostile environment requires absolute
commitment to the habitat. Without such a commitment, the habitat or biome is at physical risk.
As long as exploration is carried out by professional space agencies such as NASA or
ESA, the calibre of personnel and their degree of commitment to the habitat can be controlled.
This may not be the case when profit-oriented firms or entrepreneurs are concerned. On the
Earth, neither national nor international regulation and policing have proven sufficient to ensure
that individual or corporate activities do not have harmful side effects on the biosphere. An
overriding commitment by colonists to their biome is paramount among the safeguards for
prolonging the viability of a space colony, and for its long-term economic success.
3.4 Absence of normal age/sex-distribution curve
Ideal colonies such as those proposed by ONeill [3] aside, it is highly likely that space
colonies will be inhabited by a high number of young to middle-aged males and much lower
numbers of other cohorts. This is of particularly true of Phase One colonies, but is likely to
extend into Phase Two as well. Laws prohibiting discrimination against women and the elderly,
such as those in the US notwithstanding, the sociological reality world-wide is that high-risk,
high-prestige technology-related activities are dominated by men [12]. In other words, given a
capitalist economic system, and a free employment market, there are likely to be a smaller
number of females and of course an almost complete absence of children and older citizens.
Women, bearing the twin burdens of physical limitations during pregnancy and factual male
dominance of the economy and the sciences, are likely to be underrepresented, and where
represented, skewed towards less-significant positions because of career interruptions.
The same issue will also affect age distribution. Both children and the elderly will
probably be absent, because neither are economically productive in terms of the colonization
effort. The absence of mixed age- and sex-groups may have little or no bearing on a colonys
productive abilities, but their presence should be expected to contribute to a colonys social
-
8/12/2019 SOME ALTERNATIVES IN THE SOCIOLOGY OF SPACE COLONIZATION: THE KIBBUTZ AS A SPACE COLONY
9/28
Kibbutz-Space 7
stability. It should be added that both childhood and ageing are natural biological consequences of
human societies. Properly speaking, colonization implies some form of self-replicating human
society.
3.5 Need for flexibility in living arrangements.
Living arrangements commonly described in the literature [2] imply a direct transfer of
Earth-type conditions, specifically, single-family units. Given the technical and engineering
problems associated with the construction of a biome [13, 14] and particularly the parametric
social assumptions made by Spurlock and Modell [9] this may not be truly practicable. An
attempt to replicate suburban family units [2, 3], for instance, ignores problems such as caring for
children while parents are at work, the need for changing residential systems in response to
engineering, social, and life-cycle requirements, and so on. Social-family patterns of the middle-
class are particularly rigid and not amenable to change. In such a pattern, a certain amount of
flexibility in individual preference (e.g. size, arrangement, coloring, food services) requires great
(and essentially wasteful) investment in replicated facilities ranging from living units and kitchens
to recreation areas: something a space colony could likely not afford.
3.6 Economic production
The most important factor in Space colonization is probably the economic. Given that
economic production and manufacturing in Space has not yet been attempted, it is difficult to
empirically examine the economics of space colonies. Nonetheless, some general approximate
models have been attempted.
Economic sources will include resource exploitation: minerals from planetary and sub-
planetary bodies [15, 16], solar power for sale to Earth [17], manufacturing, particularly in
weightless, and near weightless colonies [14, 18]), and services for the other ty pes. This implies
-
8/12/2019 SOME ALTERNATIVES IN THE SOCIOLOGY OF SPACE COLONIZATION: THE KIBBUTZ AS A SPACE COLONY
10/28
Kibbutz-Space 8
the need for a certain amount of technologically sophisticated flexibility to exploit available
economic possibilities.
Space colonies will probably be dependent, in some areas of their economy, on Earth for
some time. Concurrently, they will be likely to seek autonomy, par ticularly in areas such as
manufacture, local administration, and internal distribution of resources and rewards. Given
variable distances and communication lag, distant colonies (e.g. Jovian moons) will require more
autonomy than closer ones. Space colonies in any case would need to be fairly autonomous for
many of their economic decisions. A mix of autonomous decision-making and external policy-
making from Earth is a possibility.
A second economic factor that must be considered is innovation. The long-term
proisperity of a space colony is likely to be tied to technical and scientific advances originating
with the larger scientific and academic mass of Earth. The solution of immediate local technical,
manufacturing, and economic problems, however, will depend to a large degree on local initiative
using, as much as possible, native resources. Given the high cost of transportation, and the need
for long-range planning, it is likely that economic expenditures, whether for investment (capital
goods) or for personal (consumer goods) use, will be limited. Thus a premium will be laid on the
ability of a space colony to supply its own needs and requirements, to the greatest degree
possible.
All this is to say that a viable space colony will require a sophisticated mix of local and
external input. Moreover, the precise mix in each colony will be different (even disregarding
individual ability and demographic factors) depending on the colonys economic environs and
opportunities.
-
8/12/2019 SOME ALTERNATIVES IN THE SOCIOLOGY OF SPACE COLONIZATION: THE KIBBUTZ AS A SPACE COLONY
11/28
Kibbutz-Space 9
4. The accepted social model of space colonies.
One of the most comprehensive attempts to deal with the social structure of a space
colony is by Heppenheimer [1] and particularly [2]. The socio-political position he adopts
derives from a particular American experience, and makes assumptions that are worth examining
here.
Heppenheimer suggests in effect two things. First, given the economic reality of
investment by a government body (the only one capable of such massive projects, though the
claim can be disputed), political control ought to be vested in the investor. That is, managerial
and political (Heppenheimer makes no distinction) functions in the colony will be exercised by
individuals appointed by the colony funder, normally a government. Domestic arrangements will
be determined by individuals and families, based on norms prevailing in the society (presumably
a homogeneous one) that formed the colony. The settlers will be salaried employees of the
funder, who will also, presumably supply consumer goods and services. The settlers will have
political input in two areas: minor advisory comments regarding personal-material problems, and
the right to vote with their feet and leave the colony voluntarily (or be expelled) in the absence
of agreement with the funder. Thus there will be
a society of Americans expecting to live according to American customs, and with
American rights, while depending for these rights on a powerful government that concentrates all
responsibility and authority into its hands while conferring benefits upon its employees. [19].
Heppenheimer relies too much on benevolent dictatorship, and historical experience has
demonstrated that benevolent dictatorships rarely remain so. Heppenheimers assumption that
the power of the state will eventually wither away [2] is highly unlikely given the propensity of
totalitarian governments to cling to power. Moreover, the economic model is flawed as well,
considering that much of the labor in the Canal Zone is supplied by Panamanians from outside
the Zone itself. The transfer of earth models must therefore be considered with greater attention
-
8/12/2019 SOME ALTERNATIVES IN THE SOCIOLOGY OF SPACE COLONIZATION: THE KIBBUTZ AS A SPACE COLONY
12/28
Kibbutz-Space 10
to the special parameters of the space environment, and with more careful analysis of the
implications of particular settlement forms.
In the environment of a space-colony, a socio-political system such as that proposed by
Heppenheimer or ONeill would be impractical, even dangerously self-defeating. It is possible
that all residents of a space colony will have to contribute to its economy and to the biome;
spouses engaged solely in housework, and even children who are unable, during the early stage in
their lives, to assist in colony survival, are unlikely to be acceptable. Communal self-reliance will
be paramount. Finally, any political form that will not enable immediate input and changes by
informed and concerned residents will lead, inevitably, to political excesses. Some alternative
model must be considered.
5. The kibbutz as a colony
The idea of a voluntary communal settlement is not unique to Israel. Kibbutz-like
communes were actually founded before Degania (the first kibbutz, founded 1909) in Japan along
very similar lines. Communal-religious communities have existed elsewhere as well. The Shakers
in the US, the Saint Simeon movement in France in the eighteenth century, and collective
movements in Russia before the communist revolution.
The Israeli kibbutz differs from all of these in two ways. First, kibbutzim are largely
non-religious. At least, their life-style was not influenced by religious considerations, and thus
excesses such as celibacy which limited the evolution of Shaker communes, never occured. The
isolation, required almost, by religious groups to protect their beliefs and life-styles has also not
been a feature. Kibbutzim never barricaded or isolated themselves against non-communal society
[20]. On the whole, they have been, and still are, enthusiastic and successful participants in
Israeli social, cultural, and political life.
The second difference between kibbutzim and other forms of communal settlement
derives from and is related to the first: unlike most other forms, kibbutzim have been very
-
8/12/2019 SOME ALTERNATIVES IN THE SOCIOLOGY OF SPACE COLONIZATION: THE KIBBUTZ AS A SPACE COLONY
13/28
Kibbutz-Space 11
successful. Since the first kibbutz was founded in 1909, 268 kibbutzim have come into
existence, and with one or two exceptions, have been successful. The total kibbutz population of
Israel was 127,000 out of a total Israeli population of 4,406,500 (2.9% of the total population.
Numbers correct to 1987 [21]). The average kibbutz population is 440. Some larger kibbutzim
number up to two thousand members. Though there are smaller, newer kibbutzim with
populations of a couple of dozen.
Originally based largely on agriculture, most kibbutzim today are economic mixes of
agriculture and industry [22]. High value is placed on technological innovation, problem solving,
and technical expertise. There is also a great emphasis on individual commitment to the collective
effort. Kibbutzim vary greatly in demographic factors, sources of income, and socio-political
orientation. This variance is the consequence of economic, environmental, psychological,
ideological, and other factors.
Most of the industries chosen by kibbutzim have been technology intensive. This has
had the advantage of providing satisfaction for young members, while not requiring great
investments in manpower. In addition, most industries are chosen with an eye towards engaging
the interest, and not limiting the participation of members in all physical conditions, including the
aged and the very young [23].
Socially, some kibbutzim have always maintained an extreme communal way of life (no or
little private property, communal dining at all times, communal child-care) while others have
changed, fine-tuned, or completely abandoned some aspects of communal living. Nontheless, all
maintain common usage and communal input and benefit from all means of production [24].
Most kibbutzim spend a great deal of time and resources on educating their members.
Free schooling is provided to all members from the cradle through high school, and to advanced
university degrees if wanted. In addition, kibbutzim often sponsor their members private
educational goals, including training in the arts and sciences outside Israel [23]. Kibbutzim in
general have displayed a very strong commitment to advanced technology and its usage. Ninety
four percent of 196 kibbutzim surveyed used computers as a matter of routine [24]). Of those
-
8/12/2019 SOME ALTERNATIVES IN THE SOCIOLOGY OF SPACE COLONIZATION: THE KIBBUTZ AS A SPACE COLONY
14/28
Kibbutz-Space 12
users, 96% used the computer for accounting, 77% for industrial purposes, and 61% for
education as well. The same study found 202 kibbutzim tied into 10 local, centralized computing
systems. It is significant not only that kibbutzim are able to use advanced technology, but that
such usage supports their own social and economic aims [25, 26].
The growth of industry is stimulated by the availability of a technically highly trained
work force (for example, the Japanese economy [27]). Basic elementary education is supplied by
the government and implemented by the kibbutzim as part of their educational, social, and
cultural efforts, and this reflects on their industrialization. Kibbutzim benefit from the presence
of a fairly high percentage of people with tertiary and professional educations. This has emerged
in response to the need for trained managers, doctors, engineers, etc. In part, however, this is
also due to pressure from individual members, who, as part of what they perceived as the social
welfare function of the kibbutz, have demanded access to higher education. The result, in any
case, as noted, has been a growth in the numbers of skilled professionals, including engineers.
Among other things, this contributes both to the presence of advanced technology industries in
kibbutzim, and to personal satisfaction and fullfilment for kibbutz members.
The process of industrialization in kibbutzim has proceeded as result of the efforts and
requirements of individual settlements, not guided national or government policy. That is, each
kibbutz, based on its own interest has invested (or not) in industrialization. This implies a great
deal of flexibility in choosing particular industries, and what amounts to an ability to fit particular
industries to ecological and economic imperatives. Due to the high absolute cost of labor in
kibbutzim (which generally have suffered from a lack of manpower and have been ideologically
opposed to hiring labor from the outside), kibbutzim have, from the start of industrialization,
invested in technologically sophisticated enterprises where the return on labor is high. Ideological
preferences have dictated a higher than normal (in the prevailing market) capital/labor ratio with
heavy capital investment due to labor shortage [28]. This investment is nontheless, intentionally
curtailed by non-economic considerations. Constitutional and welfare constraints [29], dictate
-
8/12/2019 SOME ALTERNATIVES IN THE SOCIOLOGY OF SPACE COLONIZATION: THE KIBBUTZ AS A SPACE COLONY
15/28
Kibbutz-Space 13
the type of industry the kibbutz engages in, and its form even though the major objective is to
turn a profit, which most kibbutz industrial enterprises manage to do competitively [28].
The constitutional and welfare constraints, that emerge from the general social tenets of
the kibbutz, include egalitarianism in valuing of industrial function and no direct return for labor;
sovereignty of the kibbutz over its manufacturing; and lack of positive or negative coercive means
between management and labor. This requires the use of other means to motivate the labor force.
Other constraints limit the choice of industries engaged in to those in which labor is not tedious,
is technologically challenging, and is not destructive and threatening to the local environment.
The work place is normally also the home of the entire labor force: labor, managers, and owners
being interchangeable. Thus the choice of kibbutz industries relies on three main criteria:
profitability (since the survivability of the kibbutz depends on it); satisfaction of the labor force
by providing interest and job rotation [23]; and proper employment and training of staff.
Kibbutzim have been successful economically because of the application of three
principles. First, the quality and motivation of kibbutz manpower. Second, proper running of a
system balancing participatory, often direct democracy, with goal-oriented activity. Third, the
ability of the kibbutz as an economic enterprise, to allocate sufficient capital for investment and
development [29]. The first and last, are in effect prerequisites for space colonies. The second
may well be as well. Only insofar as the colonists are able to participate in the goals of the
colony are they likely to suppor t it. This is particularly true during the pioneering stage, when
standards are set against a background of great difficulty and hardship.
To summarize, the kibbutz form exhibits a number of features that are, in themselves,
important for space colonization. (1) A mixture of agricultural and industrial economic sources.
(2) A preference, in industry, for technologically sophisticated industries. (3) A proven, and
structurally driven need and ability to choose industries flexibly. (4) A highly trained and
motivated work force. (5) The integration of economic unit and social unit, both being large
enough for economic and social viability and small enough for close integration. (6) The physical
proximity of economic unit and social unit, leading to a concern for labor safety and ecological
-
8/12/2019 SOME ALTERNATIVES IN THE SOCIOLOGY OF SPACE COLONIZATION: THE KIBBUTZ AS A SPACE COLONY
16/28
Kibbutz-Space 14
factors. (7) A need for a certain degree of social isolation to maintain a chosen social milieu,
combined with an openness towards wider social trends and influences.
6. The principles of the space-kibbutz.
This section shall relate some of the principles discussed above directly to a kibbutz-form
space colony. The discussion is not intended to be comprehensive nor exhaustive. It merely sets
the foundation to the solution for certain basic problems.
6.1 Recruitment and membership.
Kibbutzim normally are founded as planned cooperative efforts. Most kibbutzim emerge
through a long process of social aggregation and crystallization, which, by the latter part of the
twentieth century, is fairly routinized. Psychological and sociometric measures have been
devised to ensure a minimum standard of compatibility between members. Members of proto-
kibbutz units (a garin [seed] in Israeli parlance) have an opportunity to acclimatize to one
another and to the kibbutz milieu, usually working for a year in an established kibbutz. What is
important, is that the establishment of a new kibbutz is routinized. It is no longer a utopian,
essentially hit-or-miss social collective. This planning and preparation underlie the high rate of
success in establishing new kibbutzim. Significantly, once established, a kibbutz becomes an
autonomous unit. The scope of the autonomy extends to two areas. First, socially, kibbutzim
can, and do vary their social arrangements. This ranges from fine tuning of work assignments to
major decisions about reward allocation. Second, given the means of production, kibbutzim may
and often do make changes in the ways in which they exploit their economic opportunities.
Given the land to work on, the economic choices types of crop and crop mix, whether to go
-
8/12/2019 SOME ALTERNATIVES IN THE SOCIOLOGY OF SPACE COLONIZATION: THE KIBBUTZ AS A SPACE COLONY
17/28
Kibbutz-Space 15
into industry and if so which one are based as much as possible on economically rational
decision making [30] The same is true of industrial development.
Turner cites two problems likely to occur in a space colony we want to know what
the first colonists would give up on earth to strengthen their motivation to remain members of the
community and what mechanisms of investment would ensure that they committed to the
community their individual 'profits' however defined so that they will not readily leave [31 p.
60]. related to that, Allocating different technical jobs to people usually creates a social division
of labor with its own statuses, relationships and tensions. These form the constituent elements
in the social drama of work. What social drama will develop around the tasks of Lagrange
Five? [31 p. 64]. If a kibbutz were a utopian commune, such as those described by Kanter [32]
in the US, this would indeed seem to be a problem. Unlike such communes, however kibbutzim
are no longer utopian communes. That is, through a lengthy process of routinization kibbutzim
have emerged as rather pedestrian, albeit uncommon forms of human settlement. The two
questions Turner struggles with have been overcome, and on the whole quite successfully, by an
extant residential-economic form. Moreover, the usual questions asked about viable communities
childbearing and rearing; marriage patterns; treatment of the aged; law; resource sharing; illness
and medicine; relations to environment; religion; life transitions have been addressed, and a
number of viable solutions provided empirically by kibbutzim. These can be subsumed under
three headings: economics, society, and personal responsibility.
6.2 Economics.
Kibbutzim in Israel, from their inception, have been financed in their first years from
public funds. Land allocation and funds for the purchase of means of production and residence
have been public. In this, a space kibbutz is likely not to differ either from the parent form, or
from the establishment of any other type of commercial enterprise. That is, given an agency
intent on exploiting an economic opportunity in space, it makes sense (for reasons detailed in
-
8/12/2019 SOME ALTERNATIVES IN THE SOCIOLOGY OF SPACE COLONIZATION: THE KIBBUTZ AS A SPACE COLONY
18/28
Kibbutz-Space 16
previous sections) to recruit and finance the establishment of a kibbutz. Such an agency might
well be a government agency or a commercial firm, or, for that matter, an international agency,
ideological movement, or benevolent foundation.
The economic relationship between the funder and the kibbutz itself might be a continuing
one (for example, in the case of an industrial firm), or limited to the provision of seed money. In
any case, the kibbutz maintains its social autonomy and much of its economic decision making
power, perhaps as a contractor for some enterprise: the maintenance of solar-power satellites, or
lunar mining come to mind. The community, as a unit, will be competing with others in seeking
economically viable activities, while preserving its biome.
Space-kibbutzim imply two things: first, space colonies which are likely to exhibit high
standards of physical safety. Second, space colonies with an overall flexibility in their approach
to the exploitation of space. Physical safety is crucial to continuing human presence in space,
complexity and flexibility are preconditions for any successful economic sector.
One would expect kibbutz-ty pe space colonies to engage in economic and scientific
activities in much the same way that any other colony does. Using contemporary kibbutzim as a
model, it is likely that they will attempt to create a balance between resource-driven and
manufacturing industries. It is also possible, considering their origins, that many of them will
engage in agriculture certainly for local consumption (see [2 pp. 162-186] for a summary of
agriculture in space and [9] for actual operating assumptions), possibly for export ( that is, to
other colonies lacking the same orientation) which tends to create greater self-sufficiency.
Given their possible financial origins, it is also likely that those colonies that have been funded
initially by an economic enterprise, will be paying off their debt, or relying on long-term
contracts for the supply of resources or manufactured items.
-
8/12/2019 SOME ALTERNATIVES IN THE SOCIOLOGY OF SPACE COLONIZATION: THE KIBBUTZ AS A SPACE COLONY
19/28
Kibbutz-Space 17
6.3 Space kibbutz as a viable social entity
A kibbutz is a community. In order to maintain itself it must renew its personnel. This
is done through two methods: through biological reproduction, and by recruitment. For fairly
complex reasons, kibbutzim in Israel tend to be exogamous. That is to say, members find mates
from outside the community. Those leaving to join their spouses (in other kibbutzim or
elsewhere) are balanced by those joining spouses on the kibbutz. Successful kibbutzim tend also
to slough off groups of younger members by assisting in the foundation of a new kibbutz
elsewhere, and people do leave the kibbutz for life elsewhere. This is the result of
overpopulation, dissatisfaction, and the desire of younger members for greater control of their
lives. It is likely that kibbutz-type space colonies will replicate this pattern, given the ability of
the colony to maintain a reasonable affluence, and an equitable distribution of effort and reward.
Thus we are likely to find that kibbutz-type space colonies are viable for the extremely long
range, and, moreover, will also establish daughter communities when they are able. Since the
establishment of a daughter colony is a major financial and personnel undertaking, such daughter
colonies will be established, as new kibbutzim often are today, in cooperation with similar
colonies and consequently with close industrial and social ties. This helps ensure broad internal
cohesion between families of kibbutzim, industrial streaming, control of upstream resources by
specializing in different aspects of a particular industrial process, and so on.
The Israeli kibbutz model suggests that a kibbutz is a long-term proposition. That is, the
planning horizon for kibbutz managers is in the range of generations, certainly no shorter than
decades. This means that such space colonies are likely to invest heavily in education. The
experience of most kibbutzim shows that individuals trained professionally outside the kibbutz,
tend to return to the kibbutz with relatively high frequency [24]. This suggests that this type of
space colony will enjoy a high level of technical competence and professional expertise among its
members. Moreover, on the whole, such a colony is not likely to suffer from a brain-drain.
Though a certain number do leave, they are replaced through training in the kibbutz community,
through borrowing specialists from other kibbutzim, or through recruitment.
-
8/12/2019 SOME ALTERNATIVES IN THE SOCIOLOGY OF SPACE COLONIZATION: THE KIBBUTZ AS A SPACE COLONY
20/28
Kibbutz-Space 18
The tremendous isolation imposed by distances in space is not likely to be a major
problem. In one aspect, at least, it may even be beneficial. A comparative analysis of kibbutzim
and Hutterite colonies [20] suggest that a certain degree of social and physical isolation positively
correlates with the success of a collective community. It forces the members to confront and deal
with social and technical problems without recourse to outside help. The isolation may also spur
the birth of second-generation space colonies, as the colony seeks to improve its economic and
social position in space, a point discussed above.
6.4 Personal responsibility
A factor implicit in the Space environment [2] is the problem of law and control. A Space
biome will be extremely fragile. Obviously, a variety of safety devices can and will be installed.
Nontheless, even those, which presumably will be expected to be fool-proof and multiply
redundant, require the presence of a population exhibiting, at the very least, two qualities. First,
technical sophistication and second, a commitment to the community and biome that exceeds
their commitment to their own personal goals.
Both qualities would be fairly easy to achieve in Phase One stations. During this phase,
crew selection is likely to be rigid. Control of whatever type, whether through training or police
activity or a combination of the two, relatively easy. This is not the case during Phase Two,
when economic imperatives will determine a much more heterogeneous mix of population. Under
such a case it is not hard to imagine attempts, however innocent, to bypass safety procedures, to
expand ones own economic opportunities into the risk zone of station habitability, or to totally
threaten the long-term survival of the station by immediate economic concerns. One strategy to
counter this problem is improving police procedures, but this strategy always carries a high cost
in manpower and specialized, non-productive personnel. Moreover, improved police
procedures, can be, and often are, a euphemism for greater control of the individual by the
authorities, raising severe problems of individual liberty, however they are designed.
-
8/12/2019 SOME ALTERNATIVES IN THE SOCIOLOGY OF SPACE COLONIZATION: THE KIBBUTZ AS A SPACE COLONY
21/28
Kibbutz-Space 19
Kibbutz-type organizations do not ensure that population will always be able to face the
technical challenge, nor that economic or political immediacy will not threaten a space colonys
physical existence. What they do guarantee is that the effort required to ensure technical
competence and to limit dangerous activities will be much smaller. Rather than extrinsic controls
(which is presumably what Turner [31] means by law and order), internalized controls and
community controls would be operating. It is likely, though no evidence is yet available, that
such controls would be far more efficient than having a sheriff making the rounds of a station.
Internalizing self-discipline is dependent on a number of factors. One, at least, is
perceived equality in effort and rewards. Kibbutzim have been industrialized for a full
generation. Their populations include full-time managers, and technical specialists ranging from
technicians and engineers to Ph. D.s. Nontheless, there is little evidence that this has led to major
economic or social stratification in kibbutzim [33]. Even studies focusing on the specific
question of equality have not really managed to demonstrate anything beyond minimal status
differentiation (e.g. newspaper deliveries to the domiciles of older members [34]) and consequent
dissatisfaction with reward allocation. The answer to What kind of status and economic
inequalities are likely to emerge in this town in the sky? [31] is implicit in the form of the
question. Given a town in the sky, a heterogeneous human aggregate, economic inequalities
would be a real problem. Given another type of community, the problem would probably be
much smaller. Thus a whole host of questions asked by Turner and others are not real issues.
Poverty, for example, is untenable because, unlike on Earth, nothing in the space colony is going
to be free. Air, free on Earth, is going to be a critical factor in colonies lacking oxygen bearing
rock and rock-cracking facilities. Starvation is not the problem for the poor, breathing is.
The greatest danger in a stratified, unequal system (almost a given in a purely
capitalist/entrepreneurial system) is simple station integrity. Space colonies cannot afford to
have violent revolutionaries, whether they are Bakunists or not. Station integrity depends on
committed, aware, concerned citizens: poor disaffected revolutionaries may be a danger to public
-
8/12/2019 SOME ALTERNATIVES IN THE SOCIOLOGY OF SPACE COLONIZATION: THE KIBBUTZ AS A SPACE COLONY
22/28
Kibbutz-Space 20
order and public safety on Earth; in a space colony they endanger every living thing and the
existence of the biome as a whole.
The question of local government is related to that. Obviously, full participatory
democracy is impossible in any community that is much larger than a face-to-face group.
Kibbutzim, which are usually small face-to-face groups allow a maximum personal freedom
consistent with their surroundings (in fact, kibbutzim have found that another problem crops up:
motivating members to participate in the general meetings [35]). Kibbutzim have an enviable
record in maintaining participatory democracy without the need for a supervising paternal
autocracy.
7. Conclusions
Whether space colonies are ever built depends on a number of factors that are beyond the
scope of this paper. On the assumption that space colonies will come into being, three main
points have been discussed. First, most of the common wisdom regarding the sociology of space
colonization has suffered from not examining the implication of the physical issues in sociological
context. Second, the sociological models suggested have suffered universally from narrow focus
and an almost rigid ethnocentrism: an attempt, in effect, to predispose the discussion to one
particular form of settlement. It might be added that any resident of an American town, from
whence the model originates, knows that it is inherently problematic even on Earth. The third
point providing an alternative example is an illustration of the fact that alternative
settlement models for space colonies do exist, and that, on the face of it, they seem more suited
to space colonization than the suburban model, offering a reasonable answer to most problems in
space colonization and balancing some serious conflicts between the requirements inherent in
space, and those desirable from a human viewpoint. The paper is definitely not suggesting that
space colonies should be kibbutzim. It is suggesting instead that careful attention be paid to
alternative successful models of human community. Japan and China have both evolved native
-
8/12/2019 SOME ALTERNATIVES IN THE SOCIOLOGY OF SPACE COLONIZATION: THE KIBBUTZ AS A SPACE COLONY
23/28
Kibbutz-Space 21
models of small-community living, many of whose features are likely to be applicable to Space.
The same can probably be said about a number of other set tlement and associative forms. It is
important that we not blind ourselves to such alternatives merely because most of the analysts
come from one particular, roughly similar, cultural background.
- THE END -
-
8/12/2019 SOME ALTERNATIVES IN THE SOCIOLOGY OF SPACE COLONIZATION: THE KIBBUTZ AS A SPACE COLONY
24/28
Kibbutz-Space 22
REFERENCES CITED
1. T.A. Heppenheimer, 1978 Colonies in space. N.Y.: Warner Books. pp. 182-187.
2. T.A. Heppenheimer, 1979 Towards distant suns. Harrisburg: Stackpole Books [NY:
Fawcett Columbine]. Ch. 9, 10.
3. G. K. O'Neill, 1977 The high frontier. N.Y.: William Morrow and Co. [1978
Doubleday & Co.]
4. C. Holbrow, A. Russell & G. Sutton (eds) 1985 Space colonization: Technology and the
liberal arts. AIP Conference Proceedings 148 Geneva, N.Y.: American Institute of Physics
5. A. Russel, 1978 "Human societies in interplanetary space: Toward a fructification of the
utopian tradition" Technological Forecasting and social change 12: 353-364
6. R. Johnson and C. Holbrow (ed) 1977 Space settlements: A design study.
Washington DC: Government Printing Office
7. T. L Melchionne and S. Rosen 1985 "Space colonization as a tool for teaching
anthropology" pp. 73-82 in C. Holbrow et al (eds) Space colonization: Technology and the
liberal arts. Geneva, NY: AIP
8. Space Science Board 1972 Human factors in long-duration spaceflight. Washington:
National Academy of Sciences. pp 78-107
-
8/12/2019 SOME ALTERNATIVES IN THE SOCIOLOGY OF SPACE COLONIZATION: THE KIBBUTZ AS A SPACE COLONY
25/28
Kibbutz-Space 23
9. J. Spurlcok and M. Modell 1979 Systems engineering overview for regenerative life-
support systems applicable to space habitats pp. 1-12 in J. Billingham and W. Gilbreath (eds)
Space resources and space settlements. Washington: NASA (NASA SP-428)
10. M.M. Connors 1985 Living Aloft: Human requirements for extended spaceflight.
Washington DC: NASA
11. T.S. Cheston and D. Winter (eds) 1980 Human factors in outer space production.
AAAS 50. Boulder CO: Westview Press
12. B. Powell and J. Jacobs 1984 Differential evolution and male and female workers
Sociology of work and occupation 11(3): 283-291
13. H.F. Wuenscher 1972 "Manufacturing in space" Astronautics and aeronautics 10: 42-
54
14. G. K. O'Neill 1976 "Engineering a space manufacturing center" Astronautics and
aeronautics 14: 20-28, 36
15. W. K. Hartmann 1985 The resource base in our solar system pp. 26-41 in B. Finney
and E.M. Jones (eds) Interstellar migration and the human experience. Berkeley: University of
California Press
16. M. Gaffey, E. Helin and B. O'Leary 1979 "An assesment of near-Earth asteroid
resources" pp. 191-204 in J. Billingham et al. (eds) Space resources and space settlements.
(NASA SP-428) Washington DC: NASA
-
8/12/2019 SOME ALTERNATIVES IN THE SOCIOLOGY OF SPACE COLONIZATION: THE KIBBUTZ AS A SPACE COLONY
26/28
Kibbutz-Space 24
17. P.E. Glaser, 1977 Solar power from satellites. Physics Today (July): 30-69
18. G.H. Stine 1975 The third industrial revolution. N.Y.: GB. Putnams Sons. 89-146
19. T.A. Heppenheimer, 1985 "Resources and recollections of space colonization" pp. 129-
140 in C. Holbrow et al (eds) Space colonization: Technology and the liberal arts. Geneva, NY:
AIP, pp. 139
20. D. Barkin and J. W. Bennet, 1972 "Kibbutz and colony: Collective economies and the
outside world" Comparative studies in society and history 14: 456-483
21. Statistical Abstract of Israel 1988 Jerusalem: Central Statistics Bureau. p. 11, Table II.
22. U. Leviatan, 1973 "The industrial process in Israeli kibbutzim: Problems and their
solution" in M. Curtis and M.S. Chertoff (eds) Israel: Social structure and change. New
Brunswick: Transaction
23. U. Leviatan, 1980 "Importance of knowledge: Intensive occupations for the kibbutz
society" in U. Leviatan and M. Rosner (eds) Work and organization in kibbutz industry.
Norwood PA: Norwood editions
24. D. Katz and N. Golomb, 1974 "Integration, effectiveness and adaptation in social
systems: A comparative analysis of kibbutzim communities" Administration and society 6:
283-301; 416-421
-
8/12/2019 SOME ALTERNATIVES IN THE SOCIOLOGY OF SPACE COLONIZATION: THE KIBBUTZ AS A SPACE COLONY
27/28
Kibbutz-Space 25
25. S. Shur and D. Mittleberg 1987 Towards the computerized kibbutz: results from a
computerization survey in the kibbutz movement [in Hebrew]. Haifa: The kibbutz research
institute #30
26. U. Leviatan, 1976 "The process of industrialization in Israeli kibbutzim" in J. Nash et
al. (eds) Popular participation in social change. The Hague: Mouton
27. C.J. McMillan, 1984 The Japanese industrial system. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter
28. Y. Don and U. Leviatan, 1987 Kibbutz industrialization pp. 21-56 in R. Bar-El and
A. Nesher (eds) Rural industrialization in Israel. Boulder: Westview Press.
29. Y. Don, 1977 "Industrialization in advanced rural communities: The Israeli kibbutz"
Sociologia ruralis 17: 59-72
30. N. Golomb, 1980 "The relation between the kibbutz and its industry" in A. Cherns
(ed) Quality of working life and the kibbutz experience: Proceedings of an international
conference. Norwood PA: Norwood editions
31. B. Turner, 1985 "Asking sociological questions about Lagrange Five" pp. 56-72 in C.
Holbrow et al. (eds) Space colonization: Technology and the liberal arts. Geneva, NY: American
Institute of Physics
32. R.M. Kanter, 1972 Committment and community: Communes and utopias in
sociological perspective. Cambridge Mass.: Harvard U. press
-
8/12/2019 SOME ALTERNATIVES IN THE SOCIOLOGY OF SPACE COLONIZATION: THE KIBBUTZ AS A SPACE COLONY
28/28
Kibbutz-Space 26
33. I. Vallier, 1962 "Structural differentiation, production imperatives, and communal
norms: The kibbutz in crisis" Social forces 40: 234-242
34. G. Kressel, 1983 To each according to his needs.: Equality and stratification in the
kibbutz. [in Hebrew]. Tel Aviv: Cherikover
35. M. Rosner and Nissim Cohen, 1986 "Emancipatory use of new technologies as seen in
the kibbutzim" Haifa: University of Haifa, The kibbutz Center.