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International Journal of Music

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DOI: 10.1177/025576149803200107

1998 os-32: 72International Journal of Music EducationMargaret S. Mertz

Some Thoughts on Music Education in a Global Culture

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Margaret S. MertzNew Mexico Highlands University

Introduction

Taking time to reflect on what we do asmusic educators is as necessary as the time a

performer might take to reflect on her perfor-mances, or as the time a composer might

spend in reflecting on his compositions.Particularly as each of us works in situationsthat have both a primary locale (our schools,our universities) and a wider context (ourcities, our regions, our nations, our continents,our world), the actual music which we make

becomes visible from a variety of internal and

external perspectives.Also, as our studentscome from increasingly diverse backgroundsin terms of society, culture, and education, our

tasks as music teachers become more and

more complex as we strive to meet their needs.

.

Much of my commentary here is ground-ed in my experience with the InternationalBaccalaureate

Diploma Programmein Music.

The International Baccalaureate Organisationis in the unique position of deliveringthorough and rigorous curricula along withreliable and consistent assessment in approxi-mately 900 schools in some 90 countriesworldwide. The curricula established most

strongly are those of the Diploma Programme,designed as a comprehensive pre-universitypreparation, incorporating the study of a

multiplicity of subjects in both breadth and

depth. In addition, students are expected tothink across disciplines in much of their work

toward this Diploma. The InternationalBaccalaureate is also developing two addi-tional sets of curricula aimed at youngerstudents: the Primary Years Programme andthe Middle Years Programme. It is not mypurpose here to review the International

Baccalaureate programmes as a whole, but

rather to focus on issues relevant to the field of

music education which have been apparent

through my experience with the Music Pro-

gramme at the Diploma Level.

Particularly as the International Baccalau-reate Music

Programmeis in the final

stagesof a thorough curriculum review, I would herelike to take the opportunity to reflect on the

philosophies behind and the nature of the

proposed changes, which to me seem criticalin the development of the idea of globalculture.

Global Culture

What exactly do I mean by globalculture? For the purposes of this discussion, I

mean little more than the way in which late

twentieth century media, from the television to

the internet, have changed our heuristicnotion of

community.From all

sources,we are

confronted with contexts for our work and our

lives which can be viewed or heard via

electronic means.

People who produce, listen to, and reflecton music (see Gardner, 1991), no less than

others, are affected by the enlargement of scalethat technological developments have broughtto us. Because of our immediate access via

that same technology to this greater context,we can still teach music the way we ourselves

were taught; by the study of music that formsan essential part of the fabric of our lives. To

be faithful truly to this idea means a constant

awareness of and acknowledgment that thefabric may no longer be made only of the

threads that were part of our own musical

educations.

The ubiquitous presence of some kind of

music in almost every context in which we live

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and work is a feature was not common until

this century. Sound surrounds us, and sound

influences almost every experience we have.And those sounds may have been made bypeople whom we will never meet, other than

through the electronic interface of our audio

output on computer, radio, television, video,

film, compact disc, etc. The constantly ex-

panded by the rapid pace of technologicaldevelopment worldwide. Our students hearthese sounds, make these sounds, and interpretthese sounds, most often subconsciously. Oneof our tasks is to bring these subconscious

thoughts and judgments to conscious intellec-tual awareness.

What then does this mean for our work as

music teachers?An answer to that question isnot so simple. I believe that it means that wehave a responsibility to take on a role as a

leamec as well. We must constantly relearn ourmusical skills; at times in spite of our earlier

training. We must ask ourselves to encountercurrent musical practices with the same alert

intelligence we aim to develop in our students.Fundamental elements of the International

Baccalaureate Music Programme are founded

upon a commitment to the development of theindividual student who is alert to and knowl-

edgeable of the critical features of such a

global culture. To this end, I believe the

following principals have guided the develop-ment of the most recent revisions of the

programme:- Students must participate in as many

musical experiences as possible during thecourse of study; these may include perform-ance collaboratively or singly, composition,and listening;

. Students must become proficient inthe theoretical and/or notationalsystem of the

particular musical practice which is closest to

them, and they must be aware of contrasting

systems;. Students must develop their percep-

tual acuity with regard to a variety of musical

practices and be able to compare that which ismost familiar to that which is most unusual to

them; and. Students must demonstrate their

abilities to reason and reflect on their musical

experiences and show their increasing

understanding of the variety of musics theyencounter.

All of this, in the context of the Interna-

tional Baccalaureate schools, must happenregardless of the geographical location of the

particular school.And as each school has itsown specific socio-cultural context, the valuesand the priorities for each schools music

programme may differ widely around the

globe. The challenge for the International

Baccalaureate, then, is to design a programmewhich meets the needs of each individual

school, while maintaining a cohesive and

reliablemeans

of evaluating thesuccess

ofeach individual student in meeting these

expectations.Those of us involved in the discussions

leading to the revised programme have a

vision of the following situations, all not

simply allowed, but encouraged in the contextof the global culture.

1.A school in Japan, devoted to the

preservation of traditional music for the

samisen, koto and shakuhachi, which uses this

repertoire as a foundation for performance and

composition, for the intensive study of its

theoretical and notational system, for the

developmentof

perceptual,reasoning and

reflective skills. These students will identifymost closely with this music, while during thecourse of study, they will experience (perhaps)the music of a Viennese school (Haydn,Mozart and Beethoven or Schoenberg, Bergand Webem) as a contrasting musical practice.

2.A school in the United States, devoted

to the preservation ofjazz as a traditional

American musical practice, which uses this

repertoire as a foundation for performance and

composition, for the intensive study of its

theoretical and notational system, for the

development of perceptual, reasoning andreflective skills. These students will identifymost closely with this music, while during thecourse of study, they will experience (perhaps)the music of the Balinese gamelan as a

contrasting musical practice.3.A school in the United Kingdom,

devoted to the preservation of the western artmusic tradition of the common practice period,which uses this repertoire as a foundation for

performance and composition, for the inten-

sive study of its theoretical and notational

system, for the development of perceptual,reasoning and reflective skills. These students

will identify most closely with this music,while during the course of study, they will

experience (perhaps) the music of Ghana as a

contrasting musical practice.The dissimilarcurricular contents within

each school still have a similar goal: the

development of appropriate musical skills for



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each individual student studying their music in

a particular context. Each student, in this

vision, will also be studying with teachers who

are masters in the music of that particularculture.

Additional demands then fall on those

who provide a means for evaluating thesestudents at the ends of their various courses of

study.It is in the assessment of these diverse

results that I believe the International Bacca-

laureate Music Programme is pioneering new

practices while maintaining consistent and

rigorous standards.

Assessment Issues

The IB Music Programme seeks to assessthe work of students in a manner which is as

close as possible to the actual musical

experiences of those students. The programmeresists an easier, more artificial approach toassessment based on students abilities to

successfully complete a series of tasks in

music out of the context in which they mightactually be used.

Therefore, at the end of the course of

study, students will submit a variety ofmaterials which they have prepared, while theywill also take an examination which is both set

and evaluated externally. The materials whichthe student will prepare in consultation with

the teacher include a cassette tape recording of

musical performances in which she has

participated, either as a member of an ensem-

ble, or as a soloist; a cassette tape recordingand notational evidence of her work in

composition; and a portfolio of materials

including her investigations into music withwhich she is most competent, into music with

which she was previously unfamiliarand somerecord of her personal development over thecourse of study.

The examination which she will take

involves responses to a series of musical

examples recorded on cassette tape. Thesemusical extracts will include for each exami-

nation session questions on a work which isset for all students worldwide prior to theexamination and an additional series of

musical extracts which may come from anymusical practice worldwide.

Teachers and students alike will be givena set of criteria by which all of these materialsshall be evaluated. The standards for each

criteria are laid out with explicit descriptionsof the particular skills which must be evi-

denced in the work the student submits for

every component of this assessment.

Perhaps the most demanding task for thecurriculum development team has been theestablishmentof theses criteria which imply aslittle cultural bias as possible, but which arealso defined clearly enough so that they mayapply to whatever music is under discussion.The criteria for each assessment

componentinclude:. Solo Performance: Overall impres-

sion, technical competence, style and interpre-tation, and repertoire.

. Group Performance: Overall qualityof performance, technical Skills, repertoire,and candidates contribution to the ensemble.

. Composition: Overall impression,structural and stylistic integrity, technical

knowledge of medium/media, control and

development of musical elements, andnotation.

- Portfolio: Critical thinking,responses to music and curiosity, initiative and

growth.. Listening Paper:Aural perception,

technical language, structural analysis andcontext.

Both global and particular skills aredefined for each component. In the develop-ment of these criteria, there has been extensive

effort to avoid duplication and to focus on

particular skills which may be displayedregardless of the specific musical content

being performed, composed, studied or heard.The onus then falls squarely on the

shoulders of the teachers to devise specific

syllabi which allow the student to learn not

just information about music, but to developskills by which such information can be used,evaluated and developed.A similar burdenfalls then on the shoulders of the examiners to

interpret the responses of the students rigor-

ously and consistently, regardless of the

specific content submitted by the students.Both teacher and examiner must be

flexible in order to work with a variety ofmusical content. They must also possess asimilar drive to that of their students. That is,

they must be willing to explore and enjoymusics which may lie far from the area of their

particular musical expertise. Their activities in

learning while they teach serve as exemplarsfor their students. Thus, the teacher and the

examiner hold the position of the mostadvanced learner in this curriculum model.

Please let me emphasize at this point that the



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new International Baccalaureate Music

Programme is proposed to begin teaching inthe fall of 1999, with its first examination

session in the spring of 2001. The programmeis still evolving, and judgments about the

efficacy of the proposed model will have to

wait until the evidence is in. Research into its

effectiveness in preparing students for the

further study of music is necessary as well;and this research may bring to light a varietyofnew aspects for thought in the field of

music education. Meanwhile, we have the task

of preparing teachers to take on a critical

rethinking of their current teaching practices to

align their individualcourse contents with the

development of these musical skills.

Creativity and TraditionThe vastness of the enterprise to which

the IB Music Programme has committed

brings sharply into focus one particular areawhich is both critical and controversial. The

very nature of the language we use to describewhat we do and what we value is itself embed-

ded in culture. The demands of a globalculture require us to at least acknowledge thecontradictions and cultural placements ofindividual words which are used; that is, we

must constantly acknowledge the constraintsand implications of particular words. Creativ-

ity is one of those words.In all the performing arts, we in the west

value highly the notion of creativity as an

essential element of a successful piece of

music, in its composition and its performance.Many cultures outside western practices may

not use this criteria at all in judging theefficacy of a particular musical event, or theymay not value it in the same way. We have

been careful to avoid using this particularword in the revisions to the programmebecause of the potential for misuse and evenbias in its application.

The work of the scholarMihalyi Csiks-

zentmihalyi on the nature of creativity,however, allows us the opportunity to exploreanother model for musical practices both inthe western art music tradition and in a varietyof differing traditional musical practices. He

points out a particularly western bias toward

noveltyas an

elementin

creativityrather than

the carrying on of a particular tradition. The

issues which he raises in the development of

his systems model, however, can be expandedto relate to traditional musics, where the

maintenance of similarity is valued as highlyas creativity is for other musics.

Csikszent-mihalyi suggests that,

... creativity can be observed only in theinterrelations of a system made up ofthree main parts. The first of these is the

domain, which consists of a set of

symbolic rules and procedures. Domainsare in turn nested in what we usually call

culture, or the symbolic knowledgeshared by a particular society, or byhumanity as a whole.

The second component of creativityis the field, which includes all theindividuals who act as gatekeepers to thedomain. It is their job to decide whether a

new idea or product should be includedin the domain. It is this field that selects

what new works (of art) deserve to be

recognized, preserved and remembered.

Finally, the third component of the

creative system is the individual person.Creativity occurs when a person, usingthe symbols of a given domain such as

music, (engineering, business, or

mathematics), has a new idea or sees a

new pattern, and when this novelty is

selected by the appropriate field forinclusion in the relevant domain. (1996,

pp.27-28)

It seems to me to be relatively simple to

map these three aspects of the creative systemonto the three parts of the music education

enterprise: the domain might be any particularmusical

practice,the field

mightbe the

teachers and practitioners of that music, andthe person might be the student studying thatmusic.And where tradition is valued more

highly than novelty, the field will determine

(as it does with creativity) the validity of thestudents work within the domain.

The Nature of learning and the EducationalInstitution

As I have worked over the past eighteenmonths or so on the new curriculum, I have

also been considering the issues in generaleducation as a foil to my focus on the particu-

larities of music. The scholar Howard Gardner,influential in current thinking in United Stateseducationalcontexts, posits some thoughtsregarding the nature of the learning enterprise.



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The test of understanding involvesneither repetition of information learnednor performance of practices mastered.Rather it involves the appropriateapplication of con-cepts and principles to

questions or problems that are newlyposed. In terms of our earlier discussion,the compleat understander can think

appropriately about phenomena ofconsequence in her society, particularlyones that she has not previously encoun-tered. ( 1991, p. 117)

It seems to me that the revisions to the

IB Music Programme do indeed meet the

requirements of Gardners &dquo;test of under-

standing&dquo;. The ideal music student is the onewho can apply his musical knowledge to adiverse set of musical practices, including hisown. The school and its teachers are critical

components in this process. Gardners con-

ception of a school is sufficiently flexible to

meet these demands,

I shall define a school here as an

institution in which a group of young

persons, rarely related by blood but

usually belonging to the same social

group, assemble on a regular basis in the

company of a competent older indi-

vidual, for the explicit purpose of

acquiring one of more skills valued bythe community. (1991, p.126)

All of the schools which participate in

the IB fit this above general definition. But

the groups of young persons belongingto

thesame social groups may vary widely from

school to school. Likewise the competentolder individual may differ between each

school. The obligation of the InternationalBaccalaureate in this global culture is not tomake them alike, but to celebrate their differ-

ences while demanding the achievement ofsimilar musical goals. The preeminent

American trumpeter, Wynton Marsalis, who is

competent in at least two musical cultureswithin the United States, has said in relation to

his practice ofjazz music,

The whole negotiation of the rights ofindividuals with responsibility to the

group, that is the greatestbeauty ofjazzas a mythic entity. (Marsalis, 1990, p.18)

The complex relationship betweenschools in the IB Music Programme is

analogous to this concept ofjazz- eachschool has the right to exhibit and even toflaunt its individual freedom, while also

paying attention to the values and practicesembodied by this high-reaching and visionaryprogramme. While arguably not perfect, I am

convinced that this curriculum will improveour efforts to meet the needs of a globalculture in which sound manifests itself in so

many vital ways.

Reference List

Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1996). Creativity. Flowand the

psychology ofdiscovery and invention. NY

Harper Collins.

Gardner, H. (199 1). The unschooled mind: Howchildren think and how schools should teach.

NY Basic Books.


What exactly is the nature of music education in a global culture? The discussion revolves around

pedagogical issues concerning the roles of teachers and students in the study of music. The Interna-tional Baccalaureate Organisationas a whole and especially in music is pioneering new approaches tocurriculum development and assessment, teacher training and examiner training at the global level.

Stressing the importance of teacher and student-centered learning through the production of music as

maker, hearer and critic, the International Baccalaureate Music Programme promotes the developmentof skills which are transferable from the context of school and academic study to those of actual musical

experiences in the culture in which the student lives. Such an educational model demands that the

teacher take on the primary responsibility for guiding students through a course of study which is notcontent-prescriptive but which requires that both the student and the teacher determine appropriatemusical events for study. This approach to music education is compared with conclusions derived fromcurrent research on the development of creativity and on the nature of education and learning. What

exactly is the nature of music education in a global culture? The discussion revolves around pedagogi-cal issues concerning the roles of teachers and students in the study of music. The International



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Baccalaureate Organisationas a whole and especially in music is pioneering new approaches tocurriculum development and assessment, teacher training and examiner training at the global level.Stressing the importance of teacher and student-centered learning through the production of music asmaker, hearer and critic, the International Baccalaureate Music Programme promotes the developmentof skills which are transferable from the context of school and academic study to those of actual musical

experiences in the culture in which the student lives. Such an educational model demands that theteacher take on the primary responsibility for guiding students through a course of study which is notcontent-prescriptive but which requires that both the student and the teacher determine appropriatemusical events for study. This approach to music education is compared with conclusions derived fromcurrent research on the development of creativity and on the nature of education and learning.

Algunas reflexiones sobre la educacion musical en una cultura global

LCudl es exactamente la naturaleza de la educaci6n musical en una cultura global? El debate giraen torno a temas pedag6gicos en cuanto a los roles de los maestros y de los estudiantes que cursanmusica. La Organizaci6n del Bachillerato Internacional como un todo y en especial en musica, estd

promoviendo a nivel global nuevos enfoques para el desarrollo y la evaluaci6n curricular, para la

capacitaci6n del docente y del examinador. Enfatizando la importancia del aprendizajecentrado en elmaestro-alumno a trav6s de la producci6n de la musica - ya sea como creadores, oyentes y criticos -el

Programa de Musica del Bachillerato Internacional promueve el desarrollo de destrezas posibles detransferir del contexto de la escuela y del estudio academico al contexto de las experienciasmusicalesreales dentro de la cultura en la cual vive el estudiante. Este modelo educativo le demanda al maestroasumir la principal responsabilidad de guiar a los estudiantes a trav6s de un rumbo de estudios no

prescriptivo en sus contenidos, pero que requiere que tanto estudiante como maestro determinen loseventos musicales apropiados para ser estudiados. Esta aproximaci6n a la educaci6n musical es

comparable con conclusiones derivadas de actuales investigaciones sobre el desarrollo de la creatividady sobre la naturaleza de la educaci6n y el aprendizaje.

Uberlegungen zur Musikerziehung in einer globalen KulturWas genau ist das Wesen der Musikerziehung in einer globalen Kultu~? Die Diskussion dreht sich

um pddagogische Fragen zur Lehrer- und Schulerrolle in der Musikausbildung. Die InternationalBaccalaureate Organisation insgesamt und insbesondere im Fach Musik entwickelt auf einer globalenEbene neueAnsatze fur die Curriculum-Entwicklung und Leistungsmessung, fur dieAusbildung vonLehrern und Prufern. lndem diese Organisation die Bedeutung lehrer- und scholerzentrierten Lernens aufder Grundlage von Musikproduktion als Spieler, Horer und Kritiker betont, unterstutzt sie die Entwicklungsolcher Fdhigkeiten, die aus Schule und akademischer Lehre ubertragbar sind auf die realenmusikalischen Erfahrung innerhalb der Kultur, in der die SchOler leben. Solch ein Erziehungskonzeptbeansprucht, daB der Lehrer die volle Verantwortung fur eine Unterrichtsgestaltung ubernimmt, die nichtInhalte vorschreibt, sondern die von Lehrer- wie Schulerseite verlangt, daB sie angemessenemusikalische Gegenstande fur das Studium bestimmen. Dieser musikpadagogischeAnsatz entsprichtErkenntnissen, die aus der Kreativitatsforschung gewonnen wurden, und folgt dem Wesen menschlichenLernens.

R6flexions sur IEducation Musicale dans notre Culture Globale

Quelle est la nature de Idducation musicale dans notre culture globale? Cette discussion tourneautour des questions p6dagogiques concernant le r6le des enseignants et des dtudiants dans 16tude deen musique. Lorganisation du baccalaur6at international comme entit6 et sp6cialement en musique est

pionnier dans les nouvelles approches du d6veloppement du curriculum et des dvaluations, deIdducation des enseignants,et de 16ducation des juges a un niveau global. Stressant limportance des

enseignants et de Iapproche a 1enseignementcentr6e sur les dtudiants a travers la production de

musique en tant quartiste, qu6couteur et de critique, le programme de musique au baccalaureatinternational promouvoit le d6veloppement dhabiletds qui sont transferables du contexte de Idcole et duniveau d6tudes academiques a 1experience actuelle musicale dans la culture dans laquelle les

6tudiants vivant. Un tel modble 6ducationel demande que 1enseignant prenneune

responsabilit6primaire afin de guider les 6tudiants a travers des etudes qui ne sont pas contenu-prescriptives mais

plut6t qui demande que les 6tudiants de meme que les enseignants determinent la sequence musicale

appropride a Ietude. Cette approche ~ 16ducation musicale est compar6e avec conclusions a desrecherches r6centes sur le d6veloppement de la creativite et de la nature de 16ducation et de

Iapprentissage.


some thoughts on music education in a global culture

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