Sooty Sooty MoldMold

Environmental Protection and Growth Management DepartmentEnvironmental Protection and Growth Management DepartmentAir Quality ProgramAir Quality Program

Ambient Monitoring SectionAmbient Monitoring Section

What is it?What is it? Residents of several cities in

Broward county have complained of finding a dark, sooty material on surfaces in their yards, such as picnic tables, leaves, and cars.

The residents were concerned that the material was from anthropogenic sources, specifically, airplane or vehicular emissions.

Purposes of studies Purposes of studies performed by the Air Quality performed by the Air Quality

ProgramProgram

To determine if the material in question is of anthropogenic origin.

To determine the source of the material. To assuage the concerns of the residents in

affected areas.

Collecting Samples for Collecting Samples for Microscopic AnalysisMicroscopic Analysis

Collection of affected biota/material in clean Collection of affected biota/material in clean plastic baggies.plastic baggies.

Collection of material by scraping a sample it off Collection of material by scraping a sample it off the affected surface into a clean Petri dish.the affected surface into a clean Petri dish.

Collection of material with an evidence vacuum Collection of material with an evidence vacuum sweeper.sweeper.

Sirchie Evidence Vacuum Sweeper

Microscopes used for Particle Microscopes used for Particle IdentificationIdentification

Stereomicroscope Images of Stereomicroscope Images of Sooty MaterialSooty Material

PLM Images of Sooty PLM Images of Sooty MaterialMaterial

Sooty MoldSooty Mold The material was identified as sooty mold.The material was identified as sooty mold. Sooty mold is a black coating of fungal Sooty mold is a black coating of fungal

growth on leaves, branches, and fruit. growth on leaves, branches, and fruit. The fungus is usually powdery and dark The fungus is usually powdery and dark

colored, hence the name - sooty mold. colored, hence the name - sooty mold. The fungi associated with this condition The fungi associated with this condition

are do not feed on live plant tissue, but are do not feed on live plant tissue, but rather on insect secretions with a high rather on insect secretions with a high content of sugars (honeydew). content of sugars (honeydew).

If the honeydew is light, the mold may If the honeydew is light, the mold may appear only in spots. appear only in spots.

As a general rule, sooty mold can usually As a general rule, sooty mold can usually be rubbed off easily from the surface of be rubbed off easily from the surface of leaves, fruit, or branches. leaves, fruit, or branches.

After some time, the fungus may dry-off, After some time, the fungus may dry-off, become flaky, and fall off. become flaky, and fall off.

Generally, the amount of sooty mold will Generally, the amount of sooty mold will decrease if the insect population decreases.decrease if the insect population decreases.

If no insects are present to cause a re-If no insects are present to cause a re-infestation, rains will usually wash off infestation, rains will usually wash off most of the sooty mold. most of the sooty mold.

There are two types of sooty mold. There are two types of sooty mold. – A deciduous growthA deciduous growth on leaves, which lasts on leaves, which lasts

for the life of the leaf. for the life of the leaf. – A persistent growthA persistent growth on stems and twigs of on stems and twigs of

woody plants, and on human-made woody plants, and on human-made structuresstructures

Chemical Analysis of Chemical Analysis of SampleSample

To make certain the material was correctly identified as sooty mold and no anthropogenic To make certain the material was correctly identified as sooty mold and no anthropogenic emissions were present, the material was analyzed by GC/FID. emissions were present, the material was analyzed by GC/FID.

Gas Chromatography with Flame Ionization Detector (GC/FID)Gas Chromatography with Flame Ionization Detector (GC/FID) is used in the is used in the identification of organic compounds. Standards and samples are run on the instrument with identification of organic compounds. Standards and samples are run on the instrument with the same settings.the same settings.

Identification and quantification of the materials are made by comparing the standard and Identification and quantification of the materials are made by comparing the standard and sample spectra. sample spectra.

Results of GC/FID Analysis of Sooty MaterialResults of GC/FID Analysis of Sooty Material

Several organic fuel and Several organic fuel and solvent standards were solvent standards were analyzed:analyzed:

Diesel fuelDiesel fuel Jet fuelJet fuel KeroseneKerosene Mineral spiritsMineral spirits Unleaded gasolineUnleaded gasoline

The material on found on The material on found on various plants in Broward various plants in Broward County was sooty mold County was sooty mold and no evidence of any and no evidence of any hydrocarbon-based fuels hydrocarbon-based fuels was found in the samples.was found in the samples.

Broward County EPD/Environmental Monitoring Division (EMD) GC/FIDAnalysis results.

ConclusionsConclusions

Based upon the microscopic observations, all the samples collected from plants contain sooty mold on their surfaces. Although the extent of coverage and insects present varied among the different samples analyzed.

The possibility of the substance being a petroleum based-fuel from the Ft. Lauderdale Executive Airport is not likely, as demonstrated by the analysis of the sample by gas chromatography with flame ionization detector.

Additionally, despite the different varieties of plants present on the complainants’ properties, the black substance was only present on certain plants. Some plants were not affected at all by the material. If this were truly an inert substance such as combustion emissions, it would be on nearly everything in the yard not certain plants only.

Additional Information Additional Information on Sooty Moldon Sooty Mold

Identification, Causes, andIdentification, Causes, and

More…More…

The Symptoms of Sooty MoldThe Symptoms of Sooty Mold

The presence of a black, soot-like The presence of a black, soot-like fungus, frequently appearing as a fungus, frequently appearing as a thin crust over the surface of thin crust over the surface of leaves, is the best indicator of this leaves, is the best indicator of this problem. problem.

Some species of sooty molds Some species of sooty molds grow as a thick, spongy mass that grow as a thick, spongy mass that encases the needles of conifers or encases the needles of conifers or the twigs of deciduous trees. the twigs of deciduous trees.

Insect activity may or may not be Insect activity may or may not be apparent. apparent.

Sooty molds may persist long Sooty molds may persist long after the insects themselves have after the insects themselves have disappeared. disappeared.

The Effects of Sooty Mold on The Effects of Sooty Mold on PlantsPlants

Since sooty molds are not parasitic Since sooty molds are not parasitic organisms and do not penetrate the plant organisms and do not penetrate the plant tissue, there is no direct injury to the plant tissue, there is no direct injury to the plant from the sooty mold. from the sooty mold.

Severely affected plants may be yellowed Severely affected plants may be yellowed and suffer defoliation from the combined and suffer defoliation from the combined effects of insect feeding and the reduction in effects of insect feeding and the reduction in photosynthesis that results from the blockage photosynthesis that results from the blockage of sunlight by the fungus. of sunlight by the fungus.

Fruits or vegetables covered with sooty Fruits or vegetables covered with sooty molds are edible after removal of the mold molds are edible after removal of the mold with a solution of mild soap and warm water.with a solution of mild soap and warm water.

Although sooty mold usually does not cause Although sooty mold usually does not cause dieback or mortality, the insect feeding dieback or mortality, the insect feeding which attracted the sooty mold infestation which attracted the sooty mold infestation may have been severe enough to weaken or may have been severe enough to weaken or kill portions of infested plants. kill portions of infested plants.

– Pruning out dead and dying branches helps Pruning out dead and dying branches helps prevent infection by secondary pathogens. prevent infection by secondary pathogens.

The Link Between Insects The Link Between Insects and Sooty Moldand Sooty Mold

Although a few Although a few sooty mold fungi sooty mold fungi grow on plant grow on plant substances exuded substances exuded by the leaves, by the leaves, most grow on the most grow on the honeydew honeydew produced by produced by certain sucking certain sucking insects. insects.

Especially Especially important are:important are:

– WhitefilesWhitefiles– AphidsAphids– Mealy BugsMealy Bugs– Scale InsectsScale Insects

WhitefliesWhiteflies Whiteflies are tiny (about 1/16 of Whiteflies are tiny (about 1/16 of

an inch in length), white moth-like an inch in length), white moth-like insects.insects.

Both adult and nymph stages feed Both adult and nymph stages feed by sucking plant juices.  by sucking plant juices. 

– Heavy feeding can give plants a Heavy feeding can give plants a mottled look, cause yellowing, mottled look, cause yellowing, and may eventually cause death to and may eventually cause death to the host plant.the host plant.

Common species of whiteflies are:Common species of whiteflies are:– greenhouse, greenhouse, – silverleaf.,silverleaf.,– sweet potato, and sweet potato, and – banded wing, banded wing,

Whiteflies attack a wide variety of Whiteflies attack a wide variety of plants including bedding plants, plants including bedding plants, cotton, strawberries, vegetables, cotton, strawberries, vegetables, and poinsettias. and poinsettias.

Whiteflies are difficult to control.Whiteflies are difficult to control.– Chemical control programs often Chemical control programs often

have limited success. have limited success. – The egg and pupa stages are The egg and pupa stages are

tolerant of most insecticides. tolerant of most insecticides. – Whiteflies cling to the undersides Whiteflies cling to the undersides

of leaves, making them difficult to of leaves, making them difficult to reach with chemicals  or oil reach with chemicals  or oil sprays.sprays.

AphidsAphids

Aphids are soft-bodied insects with piercing Aphids are soft-bodied insects with piercing sucking mouthparts that feed on plant sap. sucking mouthparts that feed on plant sap.

Aphids usually occur in colonies on the Aphids usually occur in colonies on the undersides of tender new growth. undersides of tender new growth.

– Heavily-infested leaves can wilt or turn Heavily-infested leaves can wilt or turn yellow because of excessive sap removal. yellow because of excessive sap removal.

– Aphid-feeding generally will not seriously Aphid-feeding generally will not seriously harm healthy, established trees and shrubs. harm healthy, established trees and shrubs.

– Some plants are very sensitive to feeding by Some plants are very sensitive to feeding by certain aphid species and can become certain aphid species and can become severely distorted, even if only a few aphids severely distorted, even if only a few aphids are present.are present.

– Feeding on flower buds and fruit can cause Feeding on flower buds and fruit can cause malformed flowers or fruit. malformed flowers or fruit.

Aphids produce large amounts of honeydew. Aphids produce large amounts of honeydew. Used with permission from the University of Florida, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences (IFAS) Extension Ornamental Insect Sheet 2 (reference no. 7).

(Photo by : J.L. Castner, Department of Entomology and Nematology, IFAS, University of Florida)

MealybugsMealybugs Soft-bodied insects about 1/8" Soft-bodied insects about 1/8"

long. long. White to pinkish-white in color. White to pinkish-white in color. Several pairs of legs.Several pairs of legs. A mealy bug’s body is covered A mealy bug’s body is covered

with a waxy substance making with a waxy substance making chemical control difficult. chemical control difficult.

Mealybugs tend to hide out in the Mealybugs tend to hide out in the tight crevasses of the plant nodes.tight crevasses of the plant nodes.

Nearly any foliage plant can be Nearly any foliage plant can be susceptible to this insect.susceptible to this insect.

Mealybugs are hatched from Mealybugs are hatched from eggs. eggs.

– A female mealy bug can lay up A female mealy bug can lay up to 300 eggs with or without a to 300 eggs with or without a male. male.

– Nymphs or crawlers mature in Nymphs or crawlers mature in about 2 weeks. about 2 weeks. 

Scale InsectsScale Insects Scale insects have piercing, sucking Scale insects have piercing, sucking

mouthparts.mouthparts. Feeding by scale insects weakens Feeding by scale insects weakens

and may kill plants. and may kill plants. Scale insects are classified as being Scale insects are classified as being

either armored or soft scale insects.either armored or soft scale insects.– Soft scales produce honeydew.Soft scales produce honeydew.– Armored scales do not produce Armored scales do not produce

honeydew.honeydew. The developmental stages of scale The developmental stages of scale

insects are:insects are:– egg (or live nymph), egg (or live nymph), – nymph (females, three instars; nymph (females, three instars;

males, five instars), and males, five instars), and – adult. adult.

Scale insect development from egg Scale insect development from egg to adult is:to adult is:

– about 60 days for soft scales, andabout 60 days for soft scales, and– about 180 days for armored scales, about 180 days for armored scales,

but can vary widely with individual but can vary widely with individual species. species.

Adult males do not look like Adult males do not look like females, but rather resemble small females, but rather resemble small midge-like insects. midge-like insects.

Females of some species reproduce Females of some species reproduce without mating (parthenogenesis). without mating (parthenogenesis).

Managing Sooty MoldManaging Sooty Mold

Most plants will tolerate a small insect population and light amounts of sooty mold. Most plants will tolerate a small insect population and light amounts of sooty mold. Control of sooty molds begins with management of the insects creating the honeydew. Control of sooty molds begins with management of the insects creating the honeydew.

– In some situations they can be dislodged with a strong stream of water. In some situations they can be dislodged with a strong stream of water. – Fertilizing and watering to keep plants healthy but not excessively vigorous also helps. Fertilizing and watering to keep plants healthy but not excessively vigorous also helps.

Ant management is an important consideration in managing sooty mold. Ant management is an important consideration in managing sooty mold. – Ants are attracted to and use honeydew as a source of food. Ants are attracted to and use honeydew as a source of food. – Because of this, they will protect honeydew-producing insects from predators and parasites in order Because of this, they will protect honeydew-producing insects from predators and parasites in order

to harvest the honeydew.to harvest the honeydew.– Keep ants out of trees and away from honeydew-producing insects by applying a sticky compound Keep ants out of trees and away from honeydew-producing insects by applying a sticky compound

around the trunk and trimming limbs touching buildings or other access points. around the trunk and trimming limbs touching buildings or other access points. – Baits, such as ant stakes placed under trees and shrubs, may help reduce ant foraging in some cases. Baits, such as ant stakes placed under trees and shrubs, may help reduce ant foraging in some cases. – In many cases, predators and parasites are sufficiently abundant and quickly begin feeding on and In many cases, predators and parasites are sufficiently abundant and quickly begin feeding on and

reducing populations of scale insects, aphids, whiteflies, or mealybugs once ants have been reducing populations of scale insects, aphids, whiteflies, or mealybugs once ants have been eliminated. eliminated.

If populations fail to decline, apply horticultural oils or insecticidal soap to suppress the If populations fail to decline, apply horticultural oils or insecticidal soap to suppress the problem insects. One or more applications may be needed. problem insects. One or more applications may be needed.

Sometimes prudent pruning can be helpful in removing most of the infested plant parts. Sometimes prudent pruning can be helpful in removing most of the infested plant parts. Once the honeydew-producing insects are suppressed, sooty molds will gradually weather Once the honeydew-producing insects are suppressed, sooty molds will gradually weather

away. away.

A New South Florida Pest:A New South Florida Pest:The Lobate Lac ScaleThe Lobate Lac Scale

Scientific name: Paratachardina Scientific name: Paratachardina lobata lobatalobata lobata

First collected in Florida on August First collected in Florida on August 2525thth 1999. 1999.

Native to India and Sri Lanka.Native to India and Sri Lanka. Pest to several tropical and Pest to several tropical and

subtropical fruits and ornamentalssubtropical fruits and ornamentals– Including hibiscus, coco plum, Including hibiscus, coco plum,

black olive, weeping fig, wax black olive, weeping fig, wax myrtle, buttonwood, sand live myrtle, buttonwood, sand live oak, and fichusoak, and fichus

P. lobata lobata is difficult to control.P. lobata lobata is difficult to control. It is the pest largely responsible for

the sooty mold on the large fichuses in this area.

Used with permission from the Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services, Florida State College of Arthropods, Division of Plant Industry (FSCA-DPI) (reference no. 10)

The Lac Scale Family: The Lac Scale Family: KerriidaeKerriidae

Best-known species: Best-known species: Kerria lacca Kerria lacca laccalacca

– These true lac scale insects have These true lac scale insects have been utilized for centuries in been utilized for centuries in making lacquer.making lacquer.

Most species of the family, Most species of the family, including including P. lobata lobataP. lobata lobata, do not , do not produce any material of known produce any material of known commercial value. commercial value.

No species of Kerriidae is native to No species of Kerriidae is native to Florida and adjacent land areas. Florida and adjacent land areas.

The Kerriidae is confined mostly to The Kerriidae is confined mostly to the tropics.the tropics.

The majority of the species of this The majority of the species of this family of scales are distributed in family of scales are distributed in the eastern hemisphere. the eastern hemisphere.

Used with permission from the University of Florida, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences (IFAS) Extension, Lobate Lac Scale, Paratachardina lobata lobata (Chamberlin)(Hemiptera: Sternorrhyncha: Coccoidea: Kerriidae (reference no. 11).

(Photo by : F.W. Howard, University of Florida)

Appearance of the Lobate Lac Appearance of the Lobate Lac ScaleScale

Mature females are 1.5 to 2 mm long and Mature females are 1.5 to 2 mm long and about the same width. about the same width.

The body has two pair of prominent lobes The body has two pair of prominent lobes giving the body a unique x-shaped giving the body a unique x-shaped appearance. appearance.

As the scale matures, individuals tend to As the scale matures, individuals tend to merge and may loose this distinctive shape. merge and may loose this distinctive shape.

The outer covering is very hard, glossy, and The outer covering is very hard, glossy, and dark reddish-brown. dark reddish-brown.

Coloring may appear black because of the Coloring may appear black because of the coating of sooty mold. coating of sooty mold.

The first instars (crawlers) are elongate-oval, The first instars (crawlers) are elongate-oval, deep red, and about 0.2 mm long. deep red, and about 0.2 mm long.

The characteristic lobate pattern develops in The characteristic lobate pattern develops in the second instar. the second instar.

The second instar female presumably molts to The second instar female presumably molts to the adult female as in other scale insects. the adult female as in other scale insects.

Males of this species have not been observed Males of this species have not been observed in Florida. in Florida.

Host Plants of the Lobate Lac Host Plants of the Lobate Lac ScaleScale

Lobate Lac Scales Lobate Lac Scales have primarily have primarily been found on been found on woody woody dicotyledonous dicotyledonous plants, but have plants, but have also been found on also been found on one coniferous one coniferous species (southern species (southern red cedar) and on a red cedar) and on a palm (Phoenix palm (Phoenix roebele).roebele).

As of October As of October 2002, more than 2002, more than 120 species in 44 120 species in 44 families of woody families of woody plants have been plants have been determined to be determined to be hosts of hosts of P. lobata P. lobata lobatalobata in Florida in Florida

These include 39 These include 39 plant species plant species native to Florida native to Florida (see adjacent (see adjacent table).table).

Hosts Highly Susceptible to the Lobate Lac Hosts Highly Susceptible to the Lobate Lac Scale Scale On highly susceptible hosts, the Lobate On highly susceptible hosts, the Lobate

Lac Scale insects crowd on twigs and Lac Scale insects crowd on twigs and branches of trees or shrubs forming a branches of trees or shrubs forming a contiguous mass that appears as a dark, contiguous mass that appears as a dark, lumpy crust. lumpy crust.

Sooty mold covers the branches, the Sooty mold covers the branches, the insects themselves, and occurs in patches insects themselves, and occurs in patches on the foliage. on the foliage.

Dense infestations are associated with Dense infestations are associated with branch dieback of some plant species and branch dieback of some plant species and in severe cases, highly infested shrubs in severe cases, highly infested shrubs and small trees have died. and small trees have died.

Certain native species appear to be Certain native species appear to be highly susceptible:highly susceptible:

– wax-myrtle, cocoplum, buttonwood, wax-myrtle, cocoplum, buttonwood, strangler-fig, myrsine, red bay, and wild-strangler-fig, myrsine, red bay, and wild-coffeecoffee

Certain popular exotic ornamental plants Certain popular exotic ornamental plants also appear to be highly susceptible:also appear to be highly susceptible:

– black-olive, Indian laurel, Benjamin fig, black-olive, Indian laurel, Benjamin fig, and fruit trees (e.g., lychee, mango, and and fruit trees (e.g., lychee, mango, and star-fruit) star-fruit)

Used with permission from the University of Florida, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences (IFAS) Extension, Lobate Lac Scale, Paratachardina lobata lobata (Chamberlin)(Hemiptera: Sternorrhyncha: Coccoidea: Kerriidae (reference no. 11).

Spread of Lobate Lac ScaleSpread of Lobate Lac Scale

Since the mature females of scale Since the mature females of scale insects are wingless, they play no role insects are wingless, they play no role in the dispersal of populations to in the dispersal of populations to occupy new host plants.occupy new host plants.

Scale insects rely mostly on passive Scale insects rely mostly on passive dispersal of the crawler stage via air dispersal of the crawler stage via air currents. currents.

A key factor in spreading scale insect A key factor in spreading scale insect pests in urban areas is the movement pests in urban areas is the movement of infested host plants from one of infested host plants from one location to another. location to another.

Melaleuca serves as a good host for Melaleuca serves as a good host for the Lobate Lac Scale. Infested trees the Lobate Lac Scale. Infested trees can act as breeding grounds where can act as breeding grounds where large numbers of larvae are free to large numbers of larvae are free to spread onto native and non-native spread onto native and non-native trees and plants.trees and plants.

From the TAME Melaluca website: http://tame.ifas.ufl.edu

Managing Lobate Lac Scale –Managing Lobate Lac Scale – The Difficult Task Ahead The Difficult Task Ahead

The Lobate Lac Scale has rapidly become a major pest in The Lobate Lac Scale has rapidly become a major pest in southeastern Florida.southeastern Florida.

There is no evidence that this scale insect species has natural There is no evidence that this scale insect species has natural enemies in Florida. enemies in Florida.

Studies are being conducted to test horticultural oils and Studies are being conducted to test horticultural oils and additional chemical control methods. additional chemical control methods.

Because it is predicted that with time a very large percentage Because it is predicted that with time a very large percentage of trees and shrubs in both the urban and natural areas of of trees and shrubs in both the urban and natural areas of Florida will become infested with this scale insect, biological Florida will become infested with this scale insect, biological control is being investigated as the only viable option for control is being investigated as the only viable option for control in the long term. control in the long term.

The United States Department of Agriculture – Agricultural The United States Department of Agriculture – Agricultural Research Service’s Research Service’s Invasive Plant Research LaboratoryInvasive Plant Research Laboratory in in Davie, Florida is conducting extensive research on this scale Davie, Florida is conducting extensive research on this scale insect.insect.

References

1.1. Kenneth J. Kessler, Principal Plant Pathologist. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, North Central Research Station, Kenneth J. Kessler, Principal Plant Pathologist. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, North Central Research Station, How to How to Recognize Sooty Mold, 1992Recognize Sooty Mold, 1992..http://www.na.fs.fed.us/spfo/pubs/howtos/ht_sooty/ht_sooty.htm

2.2. F.F. Laemmlen, University of California, Cooperative Extenion, Santa Barbara Co., F.F. Laemmlen, University of California, Cooperative Extenion, Santa Barbara Co., Pest Notes: Sooty MoldPest Notes: Sooty Mold, UC ANR Publication 74108, 2003., UC ANR Publication 74108, 2003.http://axp.ipm.ucdavis,edu/PMG/PESTNOTES/pn74801.html

3.3. Mary Ann Hansen and Eric Day, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Virginia Cooperative Extension, Mary Ann Hansen and Eric Day, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Virginia Cooperative Extension, Plant Disease Fact Sheet, Plant Disease Fact Sheet, Sooty Mold of Conifers and HardwoodsSooty Mold of Conifers and Hardwoods, Publication No. 450-618W, 2000., Publication No. 450-618W, 2000.http://www.ext.vt.edu/pubs/plantdiseasefs/450-618/450-618.html

4.4. Jose M. Amador, Extension Plant Pathologist, Texas A& M University System, Texas Agricultural Extension Service, Jose M. Amador, Extension Plant Pathologist, Texas A& M University System, Texas Agricultural Extension Service, Diseases Affecting Diseases Affecting Localized Parts of TreesLocalized Parts of Treeshttp://aggie-horticulture.tamu.edu/citrus/l2315.htm

5.5. Texas Nursery and Landscape Association, Texas A & M University System, College Station, Texas, Texas Agricultural Extension Service, Texas Nursery and Landscape Association, Texas A & M University System, College Station, Texas, Texas Agricultural Extension Service, Departments of Entomology and Horticultural Sciences, Departments of Entomology and Horticultural Sciences, Pest Profiles: AphidsPest Profiles: Aphids..http://hortipm.tamu.edu/pestprofiles/sucking/bartaphid/bartaphid.html

6.6. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Whitefly Knowledgebase (Developed at the University of Florida in cooperation with scientists at Texas A&M U.S. Department of Agriculture, Whitefly Knowledgebase (Developed at the University of Florida in cooperation with scientists at Texas A&M University, the University of California, and Cotton Incorporated), 1995.University, the University of California, and Cotton Incorporated), 1995.http://whiteflies.ifas.ufl.edu

7. D. E. Short and J. L. Castner, University of Florida, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences (IFAS) Extension, Ornamental Insect Sheet 2, Document SP125, 1992.http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/BODY_IN024

8. M.A. Hoy, A. Hamon, and R. Nguyen, University of Florida, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences (IFAS) Extension, Pink Hibiscus Mealybug, Maconellicoccus hirsutus (Green), Document EENY-029, 2002.http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/IN156

9. S. H. Futch, C. W. McCoy, and C. C. Childers, University of Florida, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences (IFAS) Extension, A Guide to Scale Insect Identification, Document HS-817, 2001.http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/CH195

10. Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services, Florida State College of Athropods, Division of Plant Industry (FSCA-DPI)http://www.doacs.state.fl.us/pi/enpp/ento/paratachardina.html

11. F. H. Howard, R. Pemberton, A. Hamon, G. S. Hodges, B. Steinberg, C.M. Mannion, D. McLean, and J. Wofford, University of Florida, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences (IFAS), Extension, Lobate Lac Scale, Paratachardina lobata lobata (Chamberlin)(Hemiptera: Sternorrhyncha: Coccoidea: Kerriidae, Document EENY-276, 2002.http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/IN471

12.12. L. Williams, Department of Horticulture, Okaloosa County Cooperative Extension Service, University of Florida, L. Williams, Department of Horticulture, Okaloosa County Cooperative Extension Service, University of Florida, Sooty Mold: Control Sooty Sooty Mold: Control Sooty Mold on Plants by Stopping it Before it StartsMold on Plants by Stopping it Before it Starts, 2002., 2002.http://okaloosa.ifas.ufl.edu/sootymold.htmlhttp://okaloosa.ifas.ufl.edu/sootymold.html

References (Continued)

13.13. W. C. McCrone and J. G. Delly, W. C. McCrone and J. G. Delly, The Particle Atlas: An Encyclopedia of Techniques for Small Particle Identification, Edition TwoThe Particle Atlas: An Encyclopedia of Techniques for Small Particle Identification, Edition Two, Ann Arbor , Ann Arbor Science Publishers, Inc., Ann Arbor, MI, 1973.Science Publishers, Inc., Ann Arbor, MI, 1973.

14.14. S.C.E.P.M.A.B., S.C.C.E.S. AND S.C.M.C.D., University of Florida, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences (IFAS) Extension, S.C.E.P.M.A.B., S.C.C.E.S. AND S.C.M.C.D., University of Florida, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences (IFAS) Extension, What’s What’s Bugging Me?- A Guide for Environmental Landscape Pest Control by HomeownersBugging Me?- A Guide for Environmental Landscape Pest Control by Homeowners, Document ENY292, 1997., Document ENY292, 1997.http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/In043http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/In043

15.15. Karen L. Snover, Director, Plant Disease Diagnostic Clinic at Cornell University, Karen L. Snover, Director, Plant Disease Diagnostic Clinic at Cornell University, Sooty MoldSooty Moldhttp://www.plantclinic.cornel.edu/FactSheets/sooty/sootymold.htmhttp://www.plantclinic.cornel.edu/FactSheets/sooty/sootymold.htm

16.16. Stephen Nameth, Jim Chatfield, and David Sheltar, Ohio State University, Ohio State University Extension Stephen Nameth, Jim Chatfield, and David Sheltar, Ohio State University, Ohio State University Extension Fact Sheet, Plant Pathology, Sooty Fact Sheet, Plant Pathology, Sooty Mold on Trees and Shrubs Fact SheetMold on Trees and Shrubs Fact Sheet, Document HYG-3046-96, 1996., Document HYG-3046-96, 1996.www.ohioline.osu.edu/hyg-fact/3000/3046.htmlwww.ohioline.osu.edu/hyg-fact/3000/3046.html

17.17. Ken Pernezny and R.B. Marlatt, University of Florida, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences (IFAS) Extension, Ken Pernezny and R.B. Marlatt, University of Florida, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences (IFAS) Extension, Some Common Diseases of Some Common Diseases of Tahiti Lime in FloridaTahiti Lime in Florida, Document PP24, 1993., Document PP24, 1993.http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/BODY_VH049http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/BODY_VH049

18.18. Scott C. Nelson, Ph.D. Associate Specialist in Plant Pathology, University of Hawai’I at Manoa, College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Scott C. Nelson, Ph.D. Associate Specialist in Plant Pathology, University of Hawai’I at Manoa, College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources, Resources, The Noni Website, Pest and Diseases, Noni Sooty Mold. The Noni Website, Pest and Diseases, Noni Sooty Mold. 20052005http://www.ctahr.hawaii.edu/noni/sootyMold.asphttp://www.ctahr.hawaii.edu/noni/sootyMold.asp

19.19. Agricultural Research Organization, The Volcani Center, Israel Department of Entomology, The United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Organization, The Volcani Center, Israel Department of Entomology, The United States Department of Agriculture, Systematic Entomology Laboratory, Agriculture & Agri Food Canada, Eastern Cereal & Oilseed Research Centre, and the United States-Israel Systematic Entomology Laboratory, Agriculture & Agri Food Canada, Eastern Cereal & Oilseed Research Centre, and the United States-Israel Binational Agricultural Research and Development Fund, Binational Agricultural Research and Development Fund, Scale NetScale Net (This is a site about scale insects), 2005 (This is a site about scale insects), 2005http://www.sel.barc.usda.gov/scalenet/scalenet.htmhttp://www.sel.barc.usda.gov/scalenet/scalenet.htm

20.20. Minnesota Department of Natural Resources, Minnesota Department of Natural Resources, Sooty MoldSooty Mold website, 2005 website, 2005http://www.dnr.state.mn.us/fid/july 98/07319801.htmlhttp://www.dnr.state.mn.us/fid/july 98/07319801.html

21.21. University of Florida, Institute of Food and Agricultural Science ExtensionUniversity of Florida, Institute of Food and Agricultural Science Extension, , TAME Melaluca ProjectTAME Melaluca Projecthttp://tame.ifas.ufl.eduhttp://tame.ifas.ufl.edu

22.22. Robert W. Pemberton, Robert W. Pemberton, Potential for Biological Control of the Lobate Lac Scale, Paratachardina Lobata Lobata (Hemiptera: Kerriidae),Potential for Biological Control of the Lobate Lac Scale, Paratachardina Lobata Lobata (Hemiptera: Kerriidae), Florida Florida EntomologistEntomologist 86(3), pp 353 – 360, September 2003. 86(3), pp 353 – 360, September 2003.http://www.fcla.edu/FlaEnt/fe86p353.pdf#search='control%20of%20P.%20lobata%20lobata%20indiahttp://www.fcla.edu/FlaEnt/fe86p353.pdf#search='control%20of%20P.%20lobata%20lobata%20india‘‘

23.23. United States Department of Agriculture – Agricultural Research Service’s United States Department of Agriculture – Agricultural Research Service’s Invasive Plant Research LaboratoryInvasive Plant Research Laboratory website. website.http://www.ars.usda.gov/main/site_main.htm?modecode=66-29-00-00http://www.ars.usda.gov/main/site_main.htm?modecode=66-29-00-00