Soup for Corporate Souls:

Cognitive Assessments

Table of Contents

1Intelligence – As It Came to Be

3Aptitude – They come in all Shapes & Sizes

7Cognitive Assessments – Industrial Applications

9Cognitive Assessments – The Good. The Bad.

12Cognition– Common Myths Debunked

20Cognitive Assessments: Performance Predictors

23It’s Complicated: Aptitude & Creativity

25Parting Note

Hello There.

Intelligence As It Came to Be.

Smart, Genius, Intelligent – all words that describe someone a cut above the rest of the field. A man or woman separated by their mind from those less gifted if one had to say. Take the eccentric Leonardo Da Vinci for example; pundits and peers alike often likened him to being wildly intelligent.

However, what does Intelligence mean?

A standard dictionary definition states,

‘The ability to use memory, knowledge, experience, understanding, reasoning, imagination and judgement in order to solve problems and adapt to new situations.’

[in-tel-i-juh ns] intelligence

INTRODUCTION1

Nevertheless, the world did require a comparative scale to assess people. It was Alfred Binet, French psychologist and inventor of the first practical intelligence test – the Binet-Simon scale, who emerged with a heroic answer. In early 20th century, he altered the French schooling system by ascertaining intelligence levels of children, thereby grouping them into grades. Inadvertently, it was this assessment that revolutionized the education system to what we came to know of it.

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Then again, intelligence expanded to different meanings in different eras. During World War II, it meant espionage. Names such as Allied Intelligence Bureau, The American Black Chamber, MI5, and British Security Co-ordination among others topped off what later came to be known as Intelligence Services.

So, are all aptitude related?At the turn of the 19th century, Charles Edward Spearman, an English psychologist and pioneer of factor analysis, coined the ‘G’ or General Intelligence Factor – the underlying commonality to all aptitude. This implied that a candidate’s verbal ability could positively link to his or her score in numerical ability. Now, as with all theories derived from egotistical visionaries, not everyone agreed to this. Understandably so.

What one cannot deny is that all forms of Aptitude have their place in the cognitive ecosystem, and yes, they all reek of intelligence. While a certain type of intelligence enjoys high correlation, others simply do not.

Simply put, while said person in question may emerge a phenomenal poet, he or she may struggle with long division. However, this does not make the right brained chap any less intelligent. Hence, there is also the matter of Specific Distinct Intelligence.

As disputed as the Spearman ‘G’ factor was, however, it survived the cynicism, examination and contradiction of the Psychology Community. In fact, any effort made to divide intelligence into distinct forms found the reemergence of the General Intelligence Factor.

Two Hundred Years and the Spearman ‘G’ continues to baffle, having managed to stand the test of time oddly enough. So, what did we learn so far?

Intelligence is complicated, debated and teeming with multiple theories. Throughout history, we have devoted time and money to understand and apply it across schools, the military and as industrialization demanded it – organizations. And as with different bodies or people, the approach to cognitive intelligence differed.

INTRODUCTION2

Nevertheless, the world did require a comparative scale to assess people. It was Alfred Binet, French psychologist and inventor of the first practical intelligence test – the Binet-Simon scale, who emerged with a heroic answer. In early 20th century, he altered the French schooling system by ascertaining intelligence levels of children, thereby grouping them into grades. Inadvertently, it was this assessment that revolutionized the education system to what we came to know of it.

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Aptitude They come in all Shapes & Sizes.Now, while we spoke at length about intelligence in the last section, aptitude continued to make cameo appearances every now and then. It is about time we dig into some basic facts about Aptitude. Often used interchangeably, aptitude actually differs quite a bit from intelligence.

Bearing this in mind, there is also a long-standing debate about whether aptitude is an absolute product of heredity or environment. Of course, certain aspects of many aptitudes are inborn.

“An aptitude is a combination of characteristics indicative of an individual’s capacity to acquire, with training, some specific knowledge, skill or set of organized responses, such as the ability to speak a language, to become a musician, to do mechanical work.”

Freeman (1971)

What Freeman tried to explain was the predictive nature of aptitudes. When we say that Krishna or Radha has an aptitude for teaching, we imply that he or she has the capacity or ability to acquire proficiency in teaching under appropriate conditions.

Left brain

accurate

linear

analytical

strategic

practical

e=mc2F=ma

Nevertheless, the world did require a comparative scale to assess people. It was Alfred Binet, French psychologist and inventor of the first practical intelligence test – the Binet-Simon scale, who emerged with a heroic answer. In early 20th century, he altered the French schooling system by ascertaining intelligence levels of children, thereby grouping them into grades. Inadvertently, it was this assessment that revolutionized the education system to what we came to know of it.

ABOUT APTITUDE3

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For example, it is very likely for a person showing musical aptitude to possess a musical throat, and someone showing an aptitude for typing or carpentry to have long and dexterous hands.

However, this is merely one side of the picture. It is equally possible that said person’s aptitude for music is a result of his or her living in the company of good musicians. Therefore, it is safer to conclude that the aptitude of an individual at a particular moment in all probability remains dependent upon both heredity and environment.

Now that you know this, it is easy to assume you feel cheated. Yes. Aptitude by no means is restricted to trying to solve English comprehension, numerical ability and data interpretation. In fact, aptitude is diverse – musical, clerical, art, law, and medicine among others. In all honesty, there is no end to it, because aptitudes simply vary.

Right braincreative

free spirit

passionte

vivid

sensual

Nevertheless, the world did require a comparative scale to assess people. It was Alfred Binet, French psychologist and inventor of the first practical intelligence test – the Binet-Simon scale, who emerged with a heroic answer. In early 20th century, he altered the French schooling system by ascertaining intelligence levels of children, thereby grouping them into grades. Inadvertently, it was this assessment that revolutionized the education system to what we came to know of it.

ABOUT APTITUDE4

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Nevertheless, the world did require a comparative scale to assess people. It was Alfred Binet, French psychologist and inventor of the first practical intelligence test – the Binet-Simon scale, who emerged with a heroic answer. In early 20th century, he altered the French schooling system by ascertaining intelligence levels of children, thereby grouping them into grades. Inadvertently, it was this assessment that revolutionized the education system to what we came to know of it.

ABOUT APTITUDE5

However, the more important question to ask is how cognitive and aptitude tests step into the organizational atmosphere.

Alfred BinetThe inventor of the IQ test.

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Nevertheless, the world did require a comparative scale to assess people. It was Alfred Binet, French psychologist and inventor of the first practical intelligence test – the Binet-Simon scale, who emerged with a heroic answer. In early 20th century, he altered the French schooling system by ascertaining intelligence levels of children, thereby grouping them into grades. Inadvertently, it was this assessment that revolutionized the education system to what we came to know of it.

The answer lies within when all psychological inventions had begun development. We have World War I to thank for that by the way; humankind always did progress well ahead of the natural curve during conflict. Robert Yerkes, American psychologist, ethologist, and primatologist, used his time then to devise an Alpha Test, which the army later used to test for basic aptitude in their recruits. Not very surprisingly, this test found industrial application for hiring employees much later.

To add to that further, renowned psychologist David Wechsler, renowned psychologist did not fully acknowledge the ‘G’ factor despite studying under its inventor, Spearman. During World War I, he worked with the United States Army to develop psychological tests. By splitting the verbal and non-verbal components, and incorporating factors like education and socio-economic background into the mix, he improved upon the General Intelligence Test, or so he believed. Unsurprisingly, this also found its way to corporate use in the future.

With the turn of the 21st century, the application and implications of cognitive tests evolved to a level far beyond the comprehension of a non-professional. Cognitive tests no longer remained limited to sheer basic formats, but specific fields.

Simply put, Oxford tests aptitude in history, astronauts test spatial aptitude, while pilots are tested on psychomotor aptitude to ascertain fitness for the sky. After all, with air routes most commonly used as a mode of transport, our lives remain largely in a pilot’s hands. We had better hope the test made sure he is competent enough to be up there with us.

All in all, aptitude testing has been one of humankind’s most important inventions; it helps put the right people on the job, and also doubles up as a crystal ball through which a candidate’s future growth is somewhat assessed while measuring current potential.

Now let us have a look at some of its Industry Applications.

ABOUT APTITUDE6

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“I tried being a mechanic and I tried catering, but I realized I had even less aptitude for semi-skilled labor than I did for academic work.”

Toby Young,

Nevertheless, the world did require a comparative scale to assess people. It was Alfred Binet, French psychologist and inventor of the first practical intelligence test – the Binet-Simon scale, who emerged with a heroic answer. In early 20th century, he altered the French schooling system by ascertaining intelligence levels of children, thereby grouping them into grades. Inadvertently, it was this assessment that revolutionized the education system to what we came to know of it.

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Cognitive Assessments Industrial Applications

Renowned British Journalist And Educationalist

Think someone with the right attitude, aptitude, someone with an ability to stomach the demands of the job, an inherent trainable quality, and an absolute thirst for excellence. Would it not be simply amazing if there were some way to assess all that?

While Psychometric Assessments handles the heavy task of assessing personality, the inherent trainable quality falls under the Cognitive Assessments purview by design. Industries and companies should really begin looking into the latter, and very seriously at that.

INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS7

Why care, you might ask?Primarily because the cost of hire increases on a yearly basis. Ah, those starry-eyed young graduates, all ready to take the corporate world by a storm. Just one problem, however. While they are well intentioned, they are more often than not uncertain as to how and where they can apply their talents.

Nevertheless, the world did require a comparative scale to assess people. It was Alfred Binet, French psychologist and inventor of the first practical intelligence test – the Binet-Simon scale, who emerged with a heroic answer. In early 20th century, he altered the French schooling system by ascertaining intelligence levels of children, thereby grouping them into grades. Inadvertently, it was this assessment that revolutionized the education system to what we came to know of it.

Have you ever heard of that one corporate adage? “What I lack in experience, I make up with enthusiasm.”

While quotes serve as a great source of inspiration, companies are beginning to understand, the hard way, that enthusiasm is not nearly enough. According to a host of industrial psychologists, aptitude will be marked as a key determining factor for success. Passion & Inclination are components not to be taken lightly, but assessments backed by science and numbers tend towards reliability more than an employer’s instinct on successful hires.

So, how do you think cognitive and aptitude assessments will make it worth your while?

Good talent does not remain far from employment, even in the worst of economies. You can quote that. Aptitude Testing ensures the right skillset. With the right aptitude comes the ease with which you can train them for the future.

Get them early, train them fast.

If you hire right, you place them right. Leaps of faith are for the soul, not corporate life. Use logic in assuming they are the more likely fit for the job.

Easier Enculturation.

General Aptitude matters, most definitely. Nevertheless, overriding it for specific aptitude will not yield you the crème de la crème of candidates. For job roles of high specificity and specialization, specific aptitude tests to measure what matters is more than reasonable, and even worth the cost incurred.

Focus on what matters.

Primarily because the cost of hire increases on a yearly basis. Ah, those starry-eyed young graduates, all ready to take the corporate world by a storm. Just one problem, however. While they are well intentioned, they are more often than not uncertain as to how and where they can apply their talents.

Having made it this far, it is easy to assume that you think rather highly of aptitude testing. True. False? We are not here to judge. However, it is always essential to have a look at when cognitive tests work, and when they do not.

INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS8

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Cognitive Assessments. The Good. The Bad.

Is One Size Fits All Valid?

We have to reiterate every chance we get. It is nice to believe that there is a test out there with a singular answer to any and all hiring problems. If that were the case, however, we would truly be misjudging most of the test takers.

Simply put, you are adding a living, breathing, complicated human being with a lot of baggage to your existing talent base, and said person would come with a unique set of skills. To reach a conclusion with merely an aptitude assessment is equivalent to psycho-blasphemy. If such a term existed, even.

PROS & CONS9

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When is it a good idea?

A larger candidate base often requires filter. Aptitude testing is always an easier, faster and more efficient process to narrow down the candidate pool. In fact, at Mettl, we have stepped up our game to introduce a remote proctoring technology for the assessments in question for a much larger outreach.

FiltrationWhen the job is more technical in nature than managerial, the measurement of a candidate’s aptitude will provide a much better understanding of his or her potential.

Nature of the job

When said job requires specific technical skills. For example, we expect content writers to weave some magic with their words, which is why they test for high verbal comprehension. A physically demanding job would require a physical fitness test. Therefore, if the skills are specific, measuring aptitude in that domain improves the validity of that result.

Specificity of Technical Skills For a highly complex job, cognitive ability is a better indicator of performance than other non-cognitive factors. Take spy work, for example. Being an asset to RAW is by no means an easy task; an agent trained to be the eyes and ears of their country outside its borders requires superior intelligence. It is not all fancy Bond gadgets and cars. In fact, agents of RAW are screened through several intelligence tests – physical, language, logical, to name the few.

High Job Complexity

THE PROS10

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When is it a bad idea?

Cognitive assessments are only one piece of the bigger picture. Making decisions about anything based solely on one, or even a series of aptitude tests, leave much to be desired for in a candidate. There are competencies. Intrapersonal skills. These assessments are not one bit a substitute for all forms of pre-employment testing.

One Big Piece of a PuzzleYou must have heard about succession planning. How about hires made due to performance shown in specific situations? Meritocracy trumps hard numbers sometimes. Tim Cook rightfully succeeded Steve Jobs for that very reason. Hiring in certain cases should value experience over scores in an assessment.

When Experience Trumps Numbers

Sure, intelligence is a factor, but for a role heavily dependent on competencies such as leadership, influence, and networking, cognitive assessments will provide no more than half-baked results.

For Managerial Roles

THE CONS11

Overall, it is important to understand that hiring is part science and part art. While instinct is not something to ignore, people, more often than not, get the science bit wrong. Cognitive Assessments give a good criterion for evaluating candidates, but can never stand alone as the only one for a hire.

Then again, aptitude tests were often associated with several myths, primarily because cognitive studies by itself were subject to dispute. Let us take a look at those, shall we?

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Cognition Common Myths DebunkedWhat can we say today that we could not have said only ten years ago? That what neuroscience pioneer Santiago Ramón y Cajal claimed in the 20th century may well be a reality in the 21st, and influence education, health, training, and hiring in the process.

We have only scratched the surface of what science based structured cognitive exercise can do for brain health and productivity. This birthed a new industry that crossed traditional sector boundaries, and helped understand, assess and train our brains. Even Cognitive Assessments emerged from these very studies, and for that reason, it becomes imperative to debunk myths, still too prevalent, that may prevent us from seeing the full potential of these assessments.

“Every man can, if he so desires, become the sculptor of his own brain.

Santiago Ramon, Spanish pathologist, histologist, neuroscientist and Nobel laureate.

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Myths about Cognition

#2

On-job training is the best way for employees to learn - the fastest way.

It is all about the genetic make-up.

Reality. This is far from the truth; actually, it is nowhere near the realm of truth. While the concept is still popular with most organizations,

cognitive scientists are beginning to unravel that computer simulated programs are the best way to train employees.

You may wonder why, and understandably so. However, simulation-based training aims to reduce errors, cost, and address knowledge & skill gaps. Such a method makes training and assessment more consistent and skill oriented as compared with traditional training sessions.

In fact, in its assessment of the effectiveness of simulation based training, Alelo Inc. found that its trainees performed as well as or better than seasoned professionals. This is because simulation based exercises often allow learners to explore multiple outcomes, and thus obtain a better understanding of the scenario and available solutions in a more immediate manner.

Reality. A big component of our lifelong brain health and development is largely dependent on what we do with our brains. Our own actions, not only our genes, influence our lives. It is important to remember that genes predispose us, not determine our fates.

#1

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#3

There is a reason why Albert Einstein’s son failed to live up to his father’s reputation and name. Of course, it is natural to assume that the progenies of a great person also take root in successive generations, but rarely does it ever happen.

Truthfully, if genes defined or limited our intelligence, there is much to fret about here. However, that is not the case. An instinctive example is how no two siblings are alike despite emerging from the same gene pool. Our environment equally influences our intelligence.

Joe Hillstrom KingAn accomplished author & the son of Stephen King.and Nobel laureate.

“I don’t think there have ever been many writers like my dad. He looms over American fiction now, becoming a figure almost like Agatha Christie or Dickens, and I’m pretty at peace with the idea that I don’t have it in me to rise to that level,”

Left-brain is purely associated with logical and analytical reasoning, while right brain is more inclined towards creativity and intuitive thinking.

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Reality. According to the theory of left-brain or right-brain dominance, each side of the brain does control different types of thinking. Additionally, people are said to prefer one type of thinking over the other. Does one side of the brain control specific functions? Are people either left-brained or right-brained? As with many popular psychology myths, this one grew out of observations of the human brain that were dramatically distorted and exaggerated.

Logic and creativity somehow seem to contradict each other here. There is neither proof nor reason behind the claim of one having to override the other. Yet, time and again, we continue to stereotype analytical minds as lacking in creativity and vice versa. In fact, there is no correlation between creativity and the right hemisphere or logic and the left hemisphere.

Research has shown that the brain is not nearly as dichotomous as was once thought. For example, abilities in subjects such as math are strongest when both hemispheres of the brain work together. In fact, neuroscientists know that the two sides of the brain collaborate to perform a broad spectrum of tasks through the corpus callosum – the link between the two hemispheres.

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Pablo Picasso

Albert Einstein

The Creative

The Logical

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#4Calculation | Mathematical Skills | Logical Reasoning

Reality. If you are fast with numbers, it is only natural to assume that you must be good with logic and/or logical reasoning of the kind. What’s important to understand is that such is not the case. Calculations are in actuality about perceptual speed, while logic uses a combination of different cognitive abilities. Yes, you can still beat high speed mental mathematicians in logical reasoning.

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Myths about Cognitive Ability TestingOften referred to as general mental ability tests (GMA), there are many myths surrounding cognitive ability testing. It makes sense to progress onto this topic having briefly discussed the myths around cognition in general.

Quite recently, the prestigious official journal of the American Psychology Association highlighted in an article the four myths that surround GMA testing.

GMA Tests Do Not Predict That Well.

#1Reality. From some very large scale studies that often appear in professional literature, the authors of the article on review found that the research consistently yielded favorable results with respect to the effectiveness of GMA tests.

For instance, when the authors took a combined look at studies involving 1.1 million job applicants, the research showed a sizeable relationship between individual cognitive ability and the acquisition of job skills through training. Additionally, the effectiveness of these tests at predicting future job performance with studies involving 300,000 job applicants proved “quite strong”. Now that is prediction on par with a crystal ball.

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#2GMA Tests Are Only Predictive of the Early Stages of Employment.

#3The Effectiveness of GMA Tests Is Limited to Very Low Ability Levels.

Reality. In reality, there is “strong” evidence that the predictive power of GMA tests extends well beyond the short-term when used as a hiring tool.

This conclusion was based on large scale research validated by a study that tracked employees’ performance over the course of ten years. Here the researchers determined that across various occupations, test validity was relatively constant through the ten-year period.

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Based on this information, it is easy to conclude that GMA test scores are predictive of a variety of long-term indicators of academic & career success.

Reality. Another common criticism often levied against GMA is that they are useful only in screening out applicants with very low ability levels. With this idea afloat, it made no sense to prefer higher-scoring individuals to low-scorers once a minimal score was achieved.

Addressing this issue, researchers looked at 174 studies involving about 36,000 individuals. Based on this review, they concluded with certainty that there is “strong” evidence that higher scores are associated with higher levels of job performance throughout the range of test scores.

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Myths: Conclusion

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Reality. Are they fair? That is, does a specific test score have the same meaning regardless of subgroup, or will employees who perform at the same level tend to earn similar test scores even when they are from different subgroups?

To answer the question, there is “extensive” evidence, particularly from the educational domain that indicate that GMA tests are not biased. This is regardless of an individual’s racial subgroup status.

#4GMA Tests Are Not Fair to Racial Minorities Overall, a cognitive assessment is the most predictive test of

employee performance. Whether you are hiring a Zen gardener likely to arrange rocks and water plants or a top-line executive likely to learn and solve complex daily problems, you would be foolish not to include some form of GMA testing.

But the important point is the matter of predictors. Throughout this chapter, we mentioned at length a correlation between high scores and high performance. What are these performance predictors? Now, this is where things get interesting. Move on to the next chapter, why don’t you?

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Cognition Assessments: Performance PredictorsWe have discussed Cognitive Assessments in their multitude of forms and glory. However, the most relevant question that you would see any Organizational Psychology major ask is, “What performance regarding work can cognitive or aptitude tests predict?”

The answer is actually bound to bewilder you. General Aptitude Tests can predict performance across levels, departments, and to a certain extent impact our behavior even. We reiterate, backed by a plethora of research, that high aptitude correlates to high performance in terms of long time career achievement and academic achievement.

In fact, compared to other indicators like education, work experience or good old interviews, cognitive assessments possess the most significant predictive ability. Does it not sound instinctually correct? After all, it is an intelligence test in its basest form and intelligent people are quick to learn, adapt, and perform better. All in all, they are simply better assets for the company.

Paul the Octopus,an octopus that supposedly predicted the results of association football matches. He made many accurate predictions in the 2010 World Cup which brought him worldwide attention as an animal oracle.

PREDICTORS20

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0.130.18

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0.50Predictive Validity of Various Employee Selection Criteria

EDUCATIONLEVEL

JOB EXPERIENCE

INTERVIEWS COGNITIVEAPTITUDETESTS

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Doubts About These StudiesDespite having made a strong case for Cognitive Assessments, it is important to look at the dark side of things as well. A good researcher presents his or her facts without bias, such is duty. While whatever stated above is largely true, there is no fun without some nitpicking now, is there?

Let’s take a look at the old Latin saying, “Post hoc ergo propter hoc.” It focuses on the key difference between correlation and causation, i.e. “Correlation does not mean Causation.”

The point is, the presence of high intelligence, good academic performance and career achievement is very likely of a coincidental nature. That is to say, one does not cause the other.

PREDICTORS21

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The meta-analysis of putting scores on one axis, and life achievements on the other are systematic, but limited in terms of studies conducted. For all we know, we are like blind men or women, taking the trunk of the elephant as the whole elephant.

Another major flaw is how a correlation between high intelligence and job performance is supervisor rating dependent. Now, we all know that this is rarely bias free. Research on something as vibrant and ever changing as assessments should always be taken with a pinch of salt. Now we know.

There’s more actually. You’ll know when we highlight the one thing that Cognitive Assessments falter at completely. Keep turning the pages.

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Let us simplify a long and contentious issue that has historically divided cognitive scientists. The answer is yes, there is some credible relation between creativity and high intelligence. Some have even gone on to claim that an IQ greater than 120 reflects high creativity. This is what many refer to as ‘Threshold Hypothesis’, which continues to remain a hypothesis till date.

What does the research have to say?

It’s Complicated: Aptitude & Creativity

One of the harshest reasons to remain critical of Cognitive Assessments is its inability to determine creativity of future employees. A score at the end of the sheet does not necessarily imply a mind of innovation, let alone out-of-the-box thinking. Considering the world of today, where matters of visionary thinking, foresight and creative adaptability reign supreme, it is easy to wonder about the usefulness of a test that measures none of the mentioned.

Why? Simply, because the score of 120 is about as arbitrary as the sorting hat in Harry Potter, and an unproven threshold to boot. However, in spite of these claims, there is also overwhelming research that point towards a correlation between high intelligence and creative potential.

IT ’S COMPLICATED23

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It implies that creativity is not defined by your intelligence score. There is a correlation, yes, but there is nothing to suggest that one cannot exist without the other.

What does the research not mean?

If it is ‘creative genius’ you seek, rely on more than the score. It is near impossible for a single test to unilaterally provide the best candidate. So, use your own creativity when selecting a creative candidate.

What does it mean when testing candidates?

Why? Simply, because the score of 120 is about as arbitrary as the sorting hat in Harry Potter, and an unproven threshold to boot. However, in spite of these claims, there is also overwhelming research that point towards a correlation between high intelligence and creative potential.

IT ’S COMPLICATED24

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A Parting Note.

Thank You.

This small book has been a sincere attempt to not state the obvious, but state in obvious terms. Our intention was to reach readers far and wide, irrespective of one’s educational or professional background; know that cognition is important for everyone. After all, in the human body, nothing is about as mystifying as how our brain works.

Inclusive of the business implications, we hope that you enjoyed the read – a humble attempt from our end. In an ecosystem as diverse and intricate as that of the assessments space, it is essential for all test makers to remain on their toes, adapt, and recalibrate. You now have the information you seek. What are you going to do with this information?

Godspeed.

CONCLUSION25

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