Policy

National science and technology (S&T) policy isthe responsibility of the Minister of Arts, Culture,Science and Technology, Dr Ben Ngubane.

The intellectual framework for policy is theNational System of Innovation (NSI), in which aset of functioning institutions, organisations,individuals and policies interact in the pursuitof a common set of social and economic goals.

The White Paper on Science and Technology,published in 1996, sets the stage for processesto be implemented by the then Department ofArts, Culture, Science and Technology in itsmission to realise the potential of science andtechnology.

On 1 August 2002, the Department wassplit into two new departments, namely Artsand Culture, and Science and Technology.

S&T constituted 60% of the Department'sexpenditure in 2000/01.

Additional amounts of R30 million, R18 mil-lion and R22 million were allocated from thePoverty-relief Fund.

Over the past five years, the Science Votehas increased by 27,6%. The Innovation Fund isa major initiative introduced by the WhitePaper. It promotes large-scale projects, invol-ving participation from throughout the NSI. Itfocuses attention on the major themes of gov-ernment, namely competitiveness, quality oflife, environmental sustainability and the har-nessing of information technology (IT) toaddress the needs of society and the economy.

National Advisory Council onInnovation (NACI)Government has a constant need for in-formed advice on the development and imple-mentation of S&T policy and the stimulation ofinnovation. The NACI is responsible for carryingout inquiries, studies, policy research and con-sultations in respect of the functioning of theNSI as requested by the Minister.

The Council enables the Department toconsolidate and develop the NSI in aninformed and proactive manner. It provides afocused mechanism to access and target crit-ical S&T research and information for the pur-pose of socio-economic development.

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In April 2002, Mark Shuttleworth did South Africaproud by becoming the first African in space. OnFreedom Day, 27 April, President Thabo Mbeki spokewith Shuttleworth via satellite from the Free StateRugby Stadium in Bloemfontein shortly after he dockedat the International Space Station. Shuttleworth usesthe journey to promote science and mathematicseducation in South Africa.

Chapter 18

Science andTechnology

The members of the NACI are broadly rep-resentative of government and the highereducation, business and non-profit sectors.

Public understanding of science,engineering and technology(PUSET)Getting information about science across todifferent sections of the population is a bigchallenge. The Department’s efforts toimprove the situation include the following:• The Department of Science and Technology

and the American Association for theAdvancement of Science (AAAS) have estab-lished the Science Radio JournalismFellowship Programme with the objective ofbuilding a critical mass of science radiojournalists who can communicate scienceto the public in the South African indi-genous languages. In 2001, several fellow-ship awards were granted. During the four-week programme, fellows received state-of-the-art training in science radio journalismat the AAAS headquarters in WashingtonDC, United States of America (US). Fellowsfrom the journalism community learnedhow to research, write and produce sciencestories of the highest industry standard,while those from the science communitylearned how to communicate effectivelywith the media.

• The Reference Group of Women in S&T isaimed at the creation of an environment inwhich women contribute to, participate inand share benefits equally with their malecounterparts in the science, engineeringand technology (SET) fields, whether from apolicy-making or research perspective. Theinterim committee formed by theDepartment of Science and Technologycompleted all the necessary groundwork in2001 for the Reference Group to belaunched during 2002/03. The project,aimed at ensuring that girls are motivatedand influenced to choose mathematics andscience as subjects before they reach the

critical stage of choosing their careers, washosted by the Western Cape, Gauteng, andthe North West. Some 360 girls and 30educators were involved.

The Department of Science and Technologycontributed more than R12,86 million in thepast three years towards the National SET Week.

The Department has established partner-ships with business, parastatals, universitiesand technikons, non-governmental organisa-tions (NGOs) and community-based organisa-tions (CBOs) in various provinces to imple-ment the SET project.

An estimated 80 000 people visited exhibi-tion centres in the three provinces,Mpumalanga, Free State and Gauteng, thathosted the project in 2002.

The Department launched the HumanResource Development Project aimed atempowering local science, mathematics andtechnology teachers. A workshop, held inPretoria in July, explored the challenges asso-ciated with the presentation of scientific ideasat secondary school level while maintainingfocus on teaching for understanding.

International science andtechnology co-operation

Implementing S&T policy and the objectives of the NSIThe establishment of the interdepartmentalScience and Technology Co-operationCommittee (SATCCOM), representing all rel-evant departments, with the Chair andSecretariat provided by the Department ofScience and Technology, was approved byCabinet. It promotes and guides the participa-tion of government departments in interna-tional S&T co-operation.

Against this background the:• manual on bilateral S&T co-operation was

approved and distributed• survey of government departments’

approach to and conducting of interna-tional S&T co-operation was completed.

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This initiative gave SATCCOM an overview ofthe management, promotion and utilisation ofresearch and development (R&D) and S&Twithin government departments with an S&Tcomponent. These guidelines were submittedto Cabinet for approval.

The Department has embarked on theestablishment of a database on internationalco-operation in SET. Major international initi-atives include the South African CoelacanthConservation and Genome Resource Pro-gramme launched at Sodwana Bay, withresearch co-ordinated by the South AfricanInstitute for Aquatic Biodiversity (SAIAB) andinvolving several Southern African DevelopmentCommunity (SADC) neighbours, promoting co-operation in marine biodiversity conservation,environmental education and capacity-building.Countries such as Mozambique, Tanzania andMadagascar will participate. Another inter-national initiative is the establishment of along-term ecological research site in southernAfrica. This site will join an international net-work of ecosystem observatories which helpregions manage natural resources in a sustain-able manner. The Satellite Laser RangingSystem at Hartebeesthoek is operated in con-

junction with the National Aeronautics andSpace Administration (NASA) in the US. TheSystem’s annual operational costs are approxi-mately R1 million.

The South African Large Telescope (SALT)under construction at Sutherland in theNorthern Cape is a multimillion Rand projectinvolving Germany, Poland, the US, NewZealand and the United Kingdom (UK).

On completion in 2005, SALT will be thelargest single optical telescope in the south-ern hemisphere.

Science and Technology AgreementsCommittee (STAC) FundSince its inception in 1996, STAC has, throughthe offices of the National ResearchFoundation (NRF), effectively serviced inter-governmental S&T agreements and multi-lateral activities. For the period January 2000to March 2001, the STAC budget allocationexceeded R9 million and serviced over 27bilateral and multilateral agreements.

Lead Programmes FundThis Fund was established to enhance existinginternational co-operation in the fields ofbiotechnology, new materials, information andcommunication technology (ICT), environ-mental management, rural development andurban renewal. During the first period from1999 to 2001, the Lead Programmes Fundsuccessfully leveraged international R&D sup-port and established viable consortia betweenSouth African science councils, the Centre deCoopération Internationale en RechercheAgronomique pour le Développement(France), ALCOA (US), Rolls Royce (UK) and theIVL Swedish Environmental Research Institute,among others.

Southern African DevelopmentCommunity FundThe main priority areas previously identifiedinclude water management, cross-border pol-lution, food technology, indigenous knowledgesystems, ICT, soil management, HIV/AIDS, etc.

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On 25 April 2002, South African space tourist MarkShuttleworth blasted off in a Russian Soyuz shuttle fora 10-day trip to the International Space Station (ISS).The Soyuz TM-34 shuttle carrying Shuttleworth (28),Russian mission commander Yury Gidzenko and Italiancosmonaut Roberto Vittori, lifted off from the Baikonurcosmodrome in Kazakhstan. They docked at theStation within two days, and returned to the aridKazakh steppe on May 5. Internet entrepreneurShuttleworth is the second amateur to have paid hisway to the ISS, following United States millionaireDennis Tito's trip to the space outpost in 2001.

On his return to South Africa, Shuttleworth went ona roadshow to schools and other public venues acrossthe country as part of the Hip 2b Square Project. TheProject is aimed at encouraging children to takemathematics and science at school.

Shuttleworth was presented with a gold medal inrecognition of his public relations profile by the SouthAfrican Public Relations Institute in October 2002. Hewas also named Newsmaker of the Year by theJohannesburg Press Club.

Information

Technology diffusion and transferThe Department facilitates the promotion ofsmall, medium and micro enterprises(SMMEs) through the Tshumisano Programmefor technology stations.

These are being rolled out at various tech-nikons. Since January 2000, seven technikonshave been participating in the following sec-tors: • electronics (Technikon Pretoria)• chemicals (Mangosuthu and North West

technikons) • metals (Technikon Free State)• clothing and textiles-testing technologies

(Peninsula Technikon)• automotive components (Port Elizabeth

Technikon)• composites technologies (Vaal Triangle

Technikon).

Technology roadmapping exerciseSubsequent to the launch of the NationalResearch and Technology Foresight exercise,the then Department of Arts, Culture, Scienceand Technology embarked on technologyroadmaps.

While the Foresight exercise had providedthe country with a window into the futureregarding which technological futures willexist and what can be expected in terms ofemerging technologies in the 10 to 20-yeartime frame, a detailed mapping-out of thetechnological landscape is required. Road-maps provide a long-term strategy for attain-ing industry-wide goals by providing specificand quantifiable performance targets.

Three of the sectors were selected forroad-mapping, namely ICTs, biotechnologyand bio-informatics, and advanced manufac-turing.

These sectors’ highest priority is to con-tribute towards the growth and developmentof South Africa's economy.

The output of this exercise will be an indus-try-driven document outlining the following:• the industry vision for the future and its

possible realisation

• a strategy to create partnerships amongindustries, and other supporting institutionsto accelerate technology research develop-ment and deployment

• the key goals in the areas of products, mar-kets, materials technology, manufacturingtechnology, environmental technology andregulations, human resources and research,and development within the industry

• a roadmap of the technologies necessaryto reach the industry's goals.

National Biotechnology Strategy(NBS)As part of the implementation of the recom-mendations of the Foresight exercise, theDepartment was tasked by government to bethe lead department in the development ofthe NBS.

The Strategy is intended to inform government, industry and the broad researchcommunity in South Africa on the necessarysteps to be taken to realise the potential forbiotechnology to contribute to the economicdevelopment of South Africa.

The Strategy outlines the existing situationwith respect to legislation, practices or statuswith regard to research and technology devel-opment, resources for developing R&D inbiotechnology, and private and public supportfor the growth of skills and industry inbiotechnology. Areas of uncertainty, the ex-istence of knowledge gaps and varying per-spectives about the effects and benefits ofbiotechnology within the South African econ-omy are noted, as well as future trends anddevelopments in the field.

The Department is engaged in the imple-mentation of the Strategy, which will seethree Biotechnology Regional InnovationCentres established with R60 million each infunding between 2002 and 2003 as well asthe establishment of a National Bio-informa-tion Facility. The NACI will be setting up aBiotechnology Advising Centre and a Bio-ethics Committee.

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Godisa Programme The departments of Science and Technologyand of Trade and Industry with the support ofthe European Union (EU) have launched theGodisa National Incubation Programme. TheGodisa Programme aims at encouragingtechnology transfer and capacity to enablesmall business to compete in the globaleconomy.

Godisa aims to address:• outdated technologies employed by SMMEs• low engagement rates of SMMEs in value-

adding activities• high failure rate of start-up SMMEs• poor access to facilities for testing and pro-

moting SMMEs’ innovative ideas.By mid-2002, the following centres had beenestablished:• Softstart Software Technology Incubation in

Pretoria (IT)• KwaZulu-Natal Innovation Support Centre

in Durban (IT)• Zenzele Technology Demonstration Centre

in Johannesburg (mining)• Egoli Biotechnology Incubator in Johannes-

burg (biotechnology)• Mbombela Horticultural Incubator in Nel-

spruit (horticulture)• Arcon Technology Incubator (life science)• Chemin Fine Chemicals Incubator in Port

Elizabeth (chemicals).

Science councils

The statutory science councils are a key partof South Africa’s NSI. Through them, govern-ment is able to directly commission researchin the interest of the nation and support tech-nology development in its pre-competitivephase.

National Research FoundationAs the government’s national agency re-sponsible for promoting and supporting basicand applied research as well as innovation,the NRF upholds excellence in its invest-

ments in knowledge, people, products andinfrastructure. The NRF provides services andgrants to support research and postgraduateresearch training, vital to the development ofS&T in South Africa. It is the NRF's vision to bea key instrument in the creation of an in-novative and knowledge-driven society whereall citizens are empowered to contribute to aglobally competitive and prosperous SouthAfrica.

Funding from the NRF is largely directedtowards academic research, developing high-level human resources, and supporting thenation’s national research facilities. The NRF’stask is to advance research in all fields of thehumanities, social and natural sciences, en-gineering, and technology, including indige-nous knowledge. By forging strategic partner-ships locally and internationally, it extends theresources that researchers need to foster andexpand South Africa’s research capabilitiesand, ultimately, improve the quality of life forall.

Other areas of its core business are to pro-mote research capacity development, tounlock the full creative potential of theresearch community, and to establish equityand redress. The NRF fosters strategic part-nerships and knowledge networks to makeSouth Africa globally relevant and competitive.It provides research information and strategicadvice.

The NRF received 1 188 authorised grantapplications for 2001, of which 957 were inthe natural sciences and engineering, and 231in social sciences and the humanities. Thetotal amount requested by prospectivegrantholders was over R308 million, whichexceeded available funding.

The NRF's Research Support Agencyinvests funds, granted mainly by Parlia-mentary vote, to institutions, teams and individuals engaged in research. SouthAfrican researchers received research grantsto the value of more than R162 million in2001. The Parliamentary grant is supple-mented by joint ventures with other fundingpartners.

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Technology for Human Resources forIndustry Programme (THRIP)The flagship of such ventures is the THRIP, ajoint initiative of industry, research and edu-cation institutions and the Department ofTrade and Industry. During 2002, at leastR260 million was expected to be invested inR&D activities designed to improve the com-petitiveness of the South African industry.Some 200 THRIP projects have beenapproved for S&T research grants, rangingfrom R5 000 to R8 million.

Of the R260 million, government madeR130 million available through the Depart-ment of Trade and Industry, with the otherhalf comprising private-sector funds fromsmall and large industrial companies.Government and industry match each other’sfinancial support through THRIP due toresearchers tackling problems to find solu-tions to existing challenges facing industry.Projects supported by THRIP cover a widerange of technology areas, including agricul-ture, bioprocessing, food, forestry, health care,materials, mining, manufacturing, and powersystems.

THRIP addresses the expressed need forinterventions that focus on challenges inindustrial development and competitiveness.In addition to supporting focused researchand technology development with well-defined output, THRIP funds contributedtowards the training of more than 1 800 post-graduate students in 2002. Of these, morethan 700 were black students and more than550 were women.

Innovation FundThe administration of the Innovation Fundwas transferred to the NRF during 2001. TheFund is designed to encourage large-scale,collaborative research and technology devel-opment programmes, a multidisciplinaryapproach to problem-solving and application-based research. The Innovation Fund’s eco-nomic and S&T policies recognise the processof innovation, one of the agents driving tech-nological change. Many countries believe

innovation is primary to economic growth. TheInnovation Fund is an investment by govern-ment that gives effect to this concept.

Under the management of the NRF, theFund directs large grants (between R1 millionand R5 million per year) to consortia ofresearchers for the final-stage researchprocess in which knowledge is translated intonew or improved products, productivityprocesses and services. The Fund assists inthe conversion of research ideas into com-mercially useful end-products by funding ne-cessary items such as equipment, R&Dexpertise, access to managerial skills, thesecuring of intellectual property rights and theconstruction of prototypes.

The Innovation Fund is a policy instrumentto lever economic and social resources. Itseeks to address socio-economic challengesby harnessing South Africa's S&T com-petencies to simultaneously develop andmaintain cutting-edge global competitivenessand address the needs of citizens unable toassert themselves in the market-place.

The Fund has increased every year, and it isenvisaged that it will ultimately absorb a sig-nificant portion of the research budget ofcentral government. It focuses on specific pri-ority areas that are reviewed regularly. TheInnovation Fund will support projects to thevalue of R136 million over the next threeyears.

Research Support Agency focus areasThe NRF Research Support Agency has a suiteof funding programmes that are in line withSouth Africa's priorities and needs. The focusareas are: • unlocking the future: advancing and

strengthening strategic knowledge• distinct South African research opportunities• economic growth and international com-

petitiveness• sustainable livelihoods: the eradication of

poverty• conservation and management of ecosys-

tems and biodiversity• ICTs and the information society

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• the socio-political impact of globalisation:the challenge for South Africa

• education and indigenous knowledge sys-tems.

Cross-cutting themesFrom an organisational perspective, cross-cutting priorities include:• positioning, developing and strengthening

the social sciences and humanities• building research capacity• African interaction – specific targeted inter-

ventions to build strengths and exploitAfrican competitive advantages throughcollaboration with colleagues on the con-tinent

• evaluation and quality assessment• developing new business – the leveraging

of resources from sources other than theScience Vote

• positioning the NRF in the knowledge era• enhancing operational effectiveness.

Research Capacity Development (RCD)programmes Institutional RCD programmes focus onboosting historically black universities andtechnikons that are committed to theresearch process. In addition, the ThuthukaProgramme, launched in 2001, supports indi-vidual researchers. It comprises three subpro-grammes, namely Research in Training,Women in Research and Research Develop-ment for Black Academics. All the NRF's RCDinitiatives aim to boost the output of high-level black human resources (both academicsand research students at all higher educationinstitutions); develop a postdoctoral researchculture; strengthen weak, yet critically impor-tant disciplines; improve gender equity; andrenew outdated research equipment.

Student supportThe NRF provides two types of postgraduatestudent support that complement each other,namely: • free-standing bursaries, scholarships and

fellowships

• grantholder-linked bursaries. Free-standing bursaries, scholarships and fel-lowships are awarded directly to students ona competitive basis, while grantholder-linkedbursaries are granted to researchers withintheir NRF support package and may beawarded to students selected by the NRFgrantholder.

The NRF offers a limited number of travelgrants for a research period abroad.

Knowledge management The NRF's research information programmehas two main components:• The NEXUS database consisting of a set of

databases related mainly to the humanitiesand social sciences. It was expanded in2001 to include the natural sciences andengineering.

• The South African Data Archive is an archiveof computerised raw quantitative data oflarge-scale regional, national and interna-tional research projects mainly in thehumanities and social sciences.

The NRF makes these databases available tothe research community.

Strategic adviceThe NRF's Strategic Advice Unit ensures thatthe necessary data and recommendations areavailable to internal and external decision-makers.

International science liaisonInternational Science Liaison aims to forgeand maintain strategic and intellectualalliances between individuals, institutions andorganisations in the national and internation-al science research communities to supportthe international competitiveness of thecountry. Of special significance during2001/02 was the formalisation of bilateralresearch co-operation with Norway, Italy andIran. This brought to 19 the total number ofS&T agreements signed by South Africa andmanaged by the NRF.

The South African International Council forScience (ICSU) Secretariat serves the South

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African scientific community and most of theICSU unions and affiliates that South Africaadheres to. The Secretariat is administered by the NRF as part of its science liaison activities.

National research facilitiesThe NRF is responsible for managing SouthAfrica's five national research facilities. Theseare:• Hartebeesthoek Radio Astronomy Observ-

atory (HartRAO) near Krugersdorp, Gauteng• SAIAB in Grahamstown• iThemba Laboratory for Accelerator-based

Sciences in Faure, Western Cape• South African Astronomical Observatory

(SAAO) in Cape Town, Western Cape, andSutherland in the Northern Cape

• Hermanus Magnetic Observatory (HMO).

Hartebeesthoek Radio Astronomy ObservatoryHartRAO uses a 26-m radio telescope tocarry out research in radio astronomy andrelated fields, serving local and internationalscience communities. When arrayed with tel-escopes on other continents, HartRAO formspart of a network of super telescopes able tosee details hundreds of times smaller thancan be seen using the best optical tele-scopes.

Because of its unique location, HartRAO isin great demand for international projectssuch as studies of the dynamics of theearth's crust and variations in its rate of rota-tion.

A new, state-of-the-art facility at HartRAOenables South Africa to measure with pin-point accuracy the orbits of satellites and themovement of continents. The satellite laser-ranging equipment – named Moblas-6 – pro-vides accurate measurement of the physicalchanges of sub-Saharan Africa, and allowsscientists to better monitor the potentiallydevastating El Niño effect. Moblas-6 formspart of an international network of 40 meas-uring stations in different parts of the globe.The US’ NASA developed Moblas-6, while the

Department of Science and Technology isfunding the operation of the instrument.

South African Institute for Aquatic Biodiversity Previously the JLB Smith Institute, the SAIAB isa leading centre for the study of fish and bio-diversity in Africa and the surrounding seas.The Institute is responsible for the nationalcollection of fish (more than 450 000 speci-mens) and promotes knowledge and aware-ness of fish and aquatic conservation. The col-lection catalogue includes a computeriseddatabase, a library and information services.Researchers at the Institute played a role inthe discovery of a population of coelacanthsoff Sodwana Bay in KwaZulu-Natal inNovember 2000.

In April 2002, the South African CoelacanthConservation and Genome Resource Pro-gramme was officially launched at SodwanaBay by the Minister of Arts, Culture, Scienceand Technology. The SAIAB co-ordinates thisresearch project, which promotes co-operation in marine biodiversity conservation,environmental education and capacity-build-ing. Countries such as Mozambique, Tanzaniaand Madagascar will participate. TheInstitute’s educational programme for pupilsand the public includes illustrated lecturesand guided tours of, among other things, theexperimental fish farm.

iThemba LABSPreviously the National Accelerator Centre,iThemba LABS provides modern research facil-ities to users in science, medicine and indus-try. From being a facility facing possible shut-down just a few years ago, iThemba LABS hasestablished itself as a major commercialcentre for radiation medicine and is forgingstrategic partnerships with the private andpublic sectors to leverage capital, as well asthe skills and expertise required for an initia-tive of this magnitude. By establishing a majoroncology centre, this national facility has cre-ated more space for training in physics andradiation sciences. An example of iThemba

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LABS boosting its income sources is itsradionuclide sales, which hit record levels ofover R6,5 million in 2001/02. The income gen-erated from such initiatives is ploughed backinto research, infrastructure and humanresource development in radiation science.Valuable experience in using sophisticatedequipment is gained by senior students inmany experimental sciences at iThemba LABS.Much of the research is carried out in collab-oration with scientists from local and foreignuniversities.

South African Astronomical ObservatoryThe SAAO in Cape Town and Sutherland hasseven telescopes at Sutherland, used for opti-cal and infra-red observations. It provides aninternational facility for research in astronomyin Africa, and educates and informs the com-munity.

Construction on the multimillion Rand,10 m SALT in Sutherland is well under wayand will be completed in 2005. SALT will col-lect light and infra-red rays with a mirrormosaic of 91 hexagonal segments, each 1 mwide, making it the largest single optical tele-scope in the southern hemisphere. It is beingfunded by five international partners and theSouth African government, which has com-mitted R50 million over five years.

Hermanus Magnetic ObservatoryThe HMO was declared a national researchfacility in July 2001. The HMO was transferredto the NRF from the Council for Scientific andIndustrial Research (CSIR) as a result of astudy on the future of the Observatory. Thestudy emphasised the importance of the HMOas a national asset and suggested that it beupgraded to a national facility. High-levelhuman resource training and research cap-acity-building are top priorities to transformthe Observatory into a national facility.

The expertise vested in the HMO is of greatstrategic importance, and it will become asignificant player in space and earth sciences,as well as geospatial information. The chal-lenge is to reposition the HMO within the NRF

and the NSI to improve the quality of life of allthe people of South Africa.

The Agricultural Research Council (ARC)The ARC is a statutory parastatal body estab-lished in terms of the Agricultural ResearchAct, 1990 (Act 86 of 1990). It is committed tothe promotion of agriculture and related sec-tors through research, technology develop-ment and technology transfer.

Through its wide network of research insti-tutes and experimental farms, the ARC pro-vides a strong scientific base and a broadlydistributed technology-transfer capacity forthe entire agricultural industry in South Africa.In support of national and household foodsecurity, ARC research empowers both com-mercial and resource-poor farmers.

Farmers are provided with appropriatetechnologies to improve production. Trainingof farmers and agricultural extension staff innew technologies is an integral component ofthe ARC’s activities.

Rural developmentThe ARC collaborates with government andthe Independent Development Trust in thedevelopment of an Integrated SustainableRural Development Strategy for South Africa.The ARC advises the M-17 group of Ministersunder the Chairpersonship of the DeputyPresident on the development of a planningtool, based on geographic information sys-tems (GIS).

To share information and assess the use-options of resources in a particular area, theSouth Africa Integrated Spatial InformationSystem is being developed to provide a user-friendly framework for informed decision-making.

The relevant basic data, interpreted plan-ning information and decision-support sys-tem will provide a number of rural-develop-ment options for a specific area, but will alsoindicate constraints.

Information can be geographically/spatially

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illustrated within the system and accessed viathe Internet. It has the advantage of a singleinterface from which relevant data/informa-tion from all departments can be accessedand integrated.

The proposed Decision Support System willencapsulate the principles of multicriteriadecision-making and expert systems by cap-turing political and scientific thinking in astructured environment.

The impact and wide scope of the ARC sus-tainable rural development thrusts are evidentin all provinces. The ARC empowers peoplethrough research, information and appropri-ate training that address economic and socialchallenges.

ARC-generated technologies also underpinSMMEs that aim to create new job opportun-ities through agribusiness. Its researchimpacts on agriculture and related disciplinessuch as applied S&T, health and nutrition,food safety, education, the environment andnatural resource conservation.

The ARC interfaces with national, provincialand local governments as well as various agri-cultural unions and farmers' associations inSouth Africa. Apart from research collabora-tion with these stakeholders, the ARC alsopartners with other science councils.

More than 90 joint research projects areconducted with local universities.

Since becoming a member of the Consul-tative Group on International AgriculturalResearch in 1996, the ARC has had anincrease in international contacts.

On a regional level, the ARC is involved inagricultural research activities of the SADC,with links to other African role-players in theSpecial Programme for African AgriculturalResearch.

The ARC is active in over 50 regional net-works, and has 47 research projects in Africa,involving one or more countries. Some of theregional initiatives include SARRNET (root andtuber network), SAFRINET (network to promoteentomological taxonomic capacity) andMWIRNET (maize and wheat research net-work).

The ARC is also active in international col-laboration, especially with universities in theUS, UK, Europe, Australia, New Zealand andAfrica. The ARC has contracts and researchagreements with over 112 organisations in 35countries. At present, the ARC hasMemoranda of Understanding with numerousscientific role-players in other countries.

Other international collaborators anddonors include the Commonwealth Scientificand Industrial Research Organisation, Centrede Coopération Internationale en RechercheAgronomique pour le Développement, Foodand Agricultural Organisation, EU, InstitutNational de la Recherche Agronomique,Natural Resource Institute, CAB International,Department for International Development,Network Organisation for Research andDevelopment, Deutsche Gesellschaft fürTechnische Zusammenarbeit, Danish Agencyfor Development Assistance and the SwedishInternational Development Co-operationAgency.

South Africa is recognised globally as oneof the five leading countries in the field of thebiological control of alien invasive plants, withthe highest success rate in terms of controlper numbers of agents released. Thisresearch, to guard the country's natural biodiversity from being systematicallyreduced and replaced by alien vegetation, isdriven by the ARC and, apart from the localimpact, has benefited many other Africancountries.

Research activities are governed by fiveresearch programmes that are in line with theprecepts of the White Paper on Science andTechnology as well as the government'snational agricultural priorities. The pro-grammes are:• public support services • sustainable rural livelihoods• grain and industrial crops• horticulture• livestock.The ARC supports agricultural developmentthat promotes sustainable natural resourceutilisation.

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Biodiversity is promoted through the ARC'sguidance regarding the conservation, man-agement and sustainable use of South Africa'sunique fauna and flora. The ARC encouragesindigenous knowledge systems, promotes thesustainable use of indigenous plants andanimals, and is conducting research to ensuremaximum benefit to all communities in SouthAfrica.

The ARC maintains numerous plantgenebanks for the benefit of farmers and toexpand the food and feed base in SouthAfrica. These genebanks include:• indigenous vegetables, cassava, other

vegetables, sweet potato and potato• an oil-seeds collection comprising ground-

nuts, sunflower, soya beans, dry beans,lupines and cowpeas

• a subtropical crops collection comprisingavocado, banana, citrus, coffee, granadilla,guava, litchi, macadamia, mango, pecanand pineapple

• a small grains collection comprising wheat,barley, oats, rye, triticale and durum

• a deciduous fruit collection comprisingapples, peaches, plums, pears, berry fruits,tree nut crops, rooibos tea, dates, olives,kiwi fruit and hops

• table, raisin and wine grapes, and a yeastgenebank.

Other crops conserved in genebanks are cot-ton and fibre crops, indigenous plants, medi-cinal plants, bulb flowers and fynbos. Theseplants offer small-scale farmers new com-mercial opportunities. In support of animalproduction, a plant voucher specimen collec-tion, a vegetation database and a foragegenebank are maintained.

ARC research contributes to food security.The quality of healthy and nutritious foods ismaintained through improved shelf life, post-harvest technologies, monitoring spoilagepoints in production lines, safe use of prod-ucts, and general hygiene recommendations.New products and market opportunities areidentified. Processing technologies for foodand industrial crops are developed. Researchinto sanitary and phytosanitary issues facil-

itates access to domestic and export markets.ARC technologies and prototypes enhanceSMME development.

One of the ARC's largest contributionsinvolves the breeding of new plant cultivarsthat are better adapted to South African pro-duction conditions than imported cultivars orraces.

The ARC currently holds registered plantbreeder's rights on 273 cultivars of all themajor plant types that are commercially pro-duced in South Africa. Export figures over thelast 20 years indicate the growth in produc-tion and international demand for SouthAfrican cultivars.

ARC institutes have localised research anddemonstration trials at about 40 sites. Theseinclude strategic research farms and satellitestations located within some provincial agri-culture departments.

ARC-Institute for Soil, Climate and Water The ARC-Institute for Soil, Climate and Waterin Pretoria, Gauteng, promotes the character-isation, sustainable utilisation and protectionof natural resources.

Research activities cover soil science, agro-meteorology, water utilisation and analyticalservices. Through remote sensing and GIS, theInstitute applies computer technology to cap-ture and store maps (spatial) and alpha-numerical data (non-spatial) in integrateddatabases to provide decision-making sup-port to farmers and policy-makers.

ARC-Institute for AgriculturalEngineering Situated in Pretoria, the Institute is active inagricultural mechanisation, resource conser-vation, farm structures, irrigation, alternativeenergy, aquaculture and product-processing.

Research is directed at a wide range ofclients from subsistence farmers using animaltraction to commercial farmers and manufac-turers requiring scientific performance evalu-ations of advanced equipment. Innovativeenergy sources and applications are devel-

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oped for rural areas. Prototypes and pilotequipment with numerous applications, especially for resource-poor agriculture, arealso developed.

ARC-Plant Protection Research Institute The ARC-Plant Protection Research Institute inPretoria concentrates on national agriculturaland environmental problems. It is committedto the promotion of economic and environ-mentally acceptable pest control. Researchfocuses on biosystematics, ecology and epi-demiology of vertebrates, as well as fungi,pathogenic and useful bacteria and viruses.

The Institute researches the control of pestsand invasive plants through effective pesticidemanagement, as well as biological and in-tegrated control strategies. A variety of servicesare provided, ranging from quarantine ofimported biocontrol agents, advice on apicul-ture, quality control of legume inocula, provisionof cultures of biocontrol agents and identifica-tion of organisms important in agriculture, tospecialised information on pesticide application, biological control and forest entomology.The Institute also houses the Plant GeneticResource Unit that centralises and co-ordinatesplant genetic resource activities. It liaises withregional and international agencies and isresponsible for the documentation of ARCgermplasm and safety-base collection facilities.

ARC-Grain Crops InstituteThis Institute, situated in Potchefstroom, NorthWest, is responsible for research into theimprovement and cultivation of grain cropssuch as maize, sorghum and millet as well asoil-and-protein seeds such as sunflower,groundnut, soya beans, dry beans, cowpeas,sweet white lupin and bambara. Researchactivities involve plant-breeding, evaluation ofcultivars, grain quality, plant physiology andother production factors.

ARC-Small Grain Institute The ARC-Small Grain Institute in Bethlehem,Free State, concentrates on the improvementand cultivation of small grain crops such as

barley, wheat, oats, triticale and rye. Researchactivities include plant-breeding, evaluation ofcultivars, grain quality, plant physiology, tillage,weed science, plant pathology, entomologyand yield potential.

ARC-Institute for Industrial Crops This Institute in Rustenburg, North West, isinvolved in all fundamental and appliedresearch in the interest of the tobacco and cot-ton industries. Research is also conducted onother fibre crops such as hemp, sisal and flaxthat have potential as new crops in rural areas.

ARC-Institute for Tropical and Subtropical CropsThe ARC-Institute for Tropical and SubtropicalCrops in Nelspruit, Mpumalanga, is respon-sible for research into all aspects of the culti-vation of tropical and subtropical fruits suchas citrus, pineapple, banana, avocado, mango,litchi, guava, papaya and granadilla. Othercrops on which production research is con-ducted include tea, coffee and spices, as wellas pecan, macadamia and cashew nuts.Lesser-known exotic crops with potential arealso evaluated, such as cocoa, coconut, feijoa, annona types, carambola, jaboticabaand white sapote.

Research activities comprise horticulture,cultivar development, plant nutrition and irrigation.

ARC-Roodeplaat Vegetable andOrnamental Plant InstituteSituated outside Pretoria, this Institute con-centrates on a wide range of horticulturalcrops. Research is conducted on commercialvegetables such as onions, potatoes, toma-toes and sweet potatoes. Traditional andindigenous vegetables receiving attentioninclude amaranthus, cassava, plectranthus,Zulu round potato, pigeonpeas, cowpeas andbambara.

Research on the production and develop-ment of ornamentals and indigenous florasuch as fynbos, woody ornamentals and bulbshas led to a new growth industry.

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ARC-Infruitec/Nietvoorbij ARC-Infruitec/Nietvoorbij in Stellenbosch,Western Cape, is responsible for research onthe cultivation and post harvest technology ofdeciduous fruit such as apples, peaches,plums and pears. Other assigned crops areberry fruits, tree nut crops, rooibos tea, honey-bush tea, dates, olives, kiwi fruit and hops. It isalso responsible for research on the cultiva-tion of table, raisin and wine grapes as well asthe production of wine and brandy.

ARC-Animal Improvement InstituteThe ARC-Animal Improvement Institute atIrene, outside Pretoria, provides the livestockindustry with technologies for the improvedquality of animals.

It has established genetic and physiologicalmethods to identify and study superior breed-ing material to improve the efficiency of thenational herd.

ARC-Animal Nutrition and AnimalProducts Institute Situated near Irene, this Institute develops environment-friendly technologies to promoteanimal production through improved nutrition.

Research is conducted on beef and dairycattle, sheep, pigs, goats and poultry. It alsoevaluates technologies to enhance the quality of meat and dairy products.

ARC-Onderstepoort Veterinary InstituteThe ARC-Onderstepoort Veterinary Institute,north of Pretoria, is responsible for the pre-vention and control of animal diseases. It alsoprovides a public health service with regard toanimal products such as milk, meat and eggs.

The Institute conducts research on spe-cialised diagnostics, parasitology, toxicologyand related disciplines. Various vaccines andother biological products are developed andproduced. The Institute also houses a high-security facility for research into infectiousdiseases such as foot-and-mouth disease andAfrican swine fever. It serves as a regionalcentre for diagnostic services, advice andtraining.

ARC-Range and Forage InstituteThe Institute, situated in Pretoria, focuses onthe development of holistic and integratedland-use strategies. It provides guidelines forsustainable livestock and rangeland manage-ment systems. Research is conducted on veg-etation, rehabilitation ecology, animal nutri-tion and management, pasture agronomy andvegetation biology.

Council for Scientific andIndustrial ResearchThe CSIR is the largest community and indus-try-directed scientific and technologicalresearch, development and implementationorganisation in Africa.

It delivers scientific and technological services in areas where industry, parastatalsor government clients require support, as wellas innovative leadership in the developmentof new technologies, which can be furtherdeveloped and exploited by the private sector.

The CSIR has major offices in Pretoria,Johannesburg, Cape Town, Stellenbosch, PortElizabeth and Durban, with representatives inall other provinces.

Approximately 7 000 clients are served everyyear, and 60% of the CSIR's income is fundedexternally. The CSIR's functions are centred ineight market-oriented business units: • Food, Biotechnology and Fine Chemicals

Technology • Building and Construction Technology• Defence Technology• Water, Environment and Forestry Technology• ICT• Manufacturing and Materials Technology• Mining Technology• Roads and Transport Technology.The activities of the business units are aimedat the following:• supporting the technological competitive-

ness of South African industry in both theformal and informal sectors

• providing technological solutions to im-prove the quality of life of urban and ruralcommunities

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• providing scientific and technological sup-port for decision-making in the private andpublic sectors.

The CSIR focuses on team work, building rela-tionships, forging strategic alliances and work-ing with consortia:• the client-contractor principle always

applies (for both external income and par-liamentary grant-funded projects)

• it invests to build competence, and todevelop innovative product/service offer-ings

• as an honest broker, it provides independ-ence and objectivity

• it harnasses the integrated power of theorganisation, which is underpinned by IT inits offerings and operations.

In line with its mandate, the CSIR is stronglycommitted to serving the national imperativesof crime prevention, HIV/AIDS, humanresource development, job creation, regionalintegration, rural development and urbanrenewal. In these endeavours, it draws onskills from across the organisation and collab-orates with partners in science councils andother agencies, including local, provincial andnational government.

The CSIR is empowered by the MeasuringUnits and National Measuring Standards Act,1973 (Act 76 of 1973), as amended by Act 24of 1998, to maintain all national measurementstandards through its National MetrologyLaboratory.

Internationally, the CSIR works with 18African countries, has co-operation agree-ments with major R&D organisations andcompanies, and is a registered consultantwith the World Bank, African DevelopmentBank, United Nations Development Pro-gramme and others.

The CSIR is well-positioned to provide ser-vices to Africa in support of the AfricanRenaissance and its delivery programme, theNew Partnership for Africa’s Development(NEPAD). The combination of its scientific andtechnical expertise, its understanding of theAfrican continent and its developing strategicrelationship network with key African private,

public and official development-assistancesectors make the organisation an ideal part-ner to support Africa’s economic develop-ment through specific interventions. These areprimarily aimed at the environment, ICTs,infrastructural services and manufacturing.The CSIR also supports the utilisation ofindigenous knowledge systems as well ascapacity-building to secure Africa’s position inthe knowledge economy.

A five-year compound growth of almost26% in international external income has re-sulted from long-term relationships withmultinational companies and knowledge-intensive organisations.

MintekThe mining and metallurgical industry is awell-developed and economically significantcluster in South Africa. Not only does itaccount for approximately 8% of the grossdomestic product and close to half of thecountry’s exports, but it is also a majoremployer. The significance of Mintek's workstems from the need to maintain andstrengthen South Africa's position as a majorsupplier of mineral commodities, and touphold the country's reputation as a leadingsource of scientific and engineering skills inthe field of metals and minerals.

Mintek strives to be the global leader in thefield of mineral and metallurgical R&D andtechnology transfer. It develops and appliesimproved technology to facilitate new industri-al operations and improve the cost-effective-ness of existing ones on a world-wide basis. Itis also closely involved in identifying anddeveloping applications and markets for min-erals and mineral products. Particular empha-sis is placed on increasing earnings from min-erals by turning them into higher-value prod-ucts before they are exported. Much of thework is done in close liaison with the SouthAfrican mining and metallurgical industries,and a number of co-operative programmesare carried out with international partners.

In terms of the Mineral Technology Act,1989 (Act 30 of 1989), Mintek is an auto-

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nomous organisation whose core activitiesare financed by the State. It is, however,responsible for financing an increasing pro-portion of its own activities through opera-tional income earned from industry clients.Mintek's annual income is about R188 million,of which the State provides about R78 million,with the balance being made up of operatingincome from R&D contracts, consulting inves-tigations and joint ventures, and the market-ing of technological products. Just under halfof this operating income derives from interna-tional sources.

Mintek employs some 430 permanent staff,about 260 of whom are scientists, engineers,technicians and associated professionals.

Technology developmentMintek is engaged in the full spectrum ofminerals research, from the mineralogicalexamination of ores, to extraction and refiningtechnologies and the manufacture of endproducts. To ensure focus and market ori-entation, Mintek's R&D activities are groupedinto programmes that are based largely onindustry structure.• The gold industry programme focuses on

developing and introducing improved tech-nologies, such as biotechnology and ion-exchange processes to simplify processingand increase recoveries, particularly fromores that are difficult to treat. A major jointventure with industry and other researchgroups is exploring new industrial uses ofgold.

• The platinum-group metals (PGMs) industryprogramme aims to increase the cost-effectiveness of PGM production and stim-ulate industrial demand for PGMs. Muchtestwork is carried out for new mining pro-jects and expansions in South Africa.

• The ferrous metals industry programmedevelops products and technical servicesto increase the cost-effectiveness of steel,stainless steel and ferro-alloy production,as well as improved alloys.

• The non-ferrous metals industry pro-gramme includes the processing of alu-

minium, cobalt, copper, lead, magnesium,nickel and zinc. A major emphasis is on theintroduction of cleaner technologies.

• The industrial minerals industry pro-gramme includes a major R&D efforttowards the beneficiation of titaniferous rawmaterials, which constitutes one of thecountry's most significant mineral re-sources. Mintek's research into waste man-agement and environmental problems alsofall under this programme.

• A sixth programme, opportunity enhance-ment, deals with cross-cutting projectslargely of a regional or educational nature.

Promoting industrial growthMintek is engaged in a number of initiatives topromote major new industrial projects, basedon mineral beneficiation and utilising bothexisting and newly developed technologies,with the aim of boosting the economy andcreating employment opportunities. Theseprojects include the:• production of hot briquetted iron from

Sishen ore fines, utilising natural gas as thefuel and reductant

• recovery of PGMs from chromite tailings.Mintek has demonstrated a flotation pro-cedure that can produce a saleable con-centrate, and is carrying out a pre-feasibili-ty study in conjunction with an industrialpartner

• establishment of a new electrolytic man-ganese dioxide (EMD) plant in South Africa.Mintek has developed considerable expert-ise in production technology for high-purityEMD, which is a key ingredient in the man-ufacture of dry cell batteries, particularlyalkaline batteries.

• production of ferronickel from im-ported ores using Mintek's DC-arc smeltingtechnology. This project can be consideredsimilar to the production of aluminium at Richards Bay, in that it would be animportant foreign exchange earner, whilemaking South Africa self-sufficient in nick-el for stainless steel and nickel-bearingalloys.

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• establishment of a local magnesium indus-try, using a novel thermal production routebeing developed in conjunction with indus-try partners.

Extensive work has been done in support of newmineral projects in Africa south of the Sahara.

A number of studies have been undertakenin support of the government's spatial devel-opment initiatives, with the aim of encourag-ing investment in the metallurgical and min-eral industries both in South Africa and theSADC.

Small-scale business development and supportMintek is a founder member of the NationalSteering Committee (NSC) of Service-providers to Small Mines, which includes theDepartment of Minerals and Energy, other sci-ence councils and private-sector organisa-tions. Mintek also undertakes projects on anindividual basis, by providing high-qualityexperimental and consulting services with theemphasis on the transfer of knowledge andskills, and refers projects needing follow-up tothe NSC.

Mintek's specialised Small-scale MiningUnit develops and sources simplified equip-ment and assists with flowsheet development,as well as proactively searching for opportuni-ties from which artisanal and small-scaleminers can benefit. The aim is to establishsmall-scale mineral-beneficiation projectswith the emphasis on adding maximum valueto the raw materials by manufacturing end-products.

The Zenzele Technology DemonstrationCentre, which was established in 2001 in co-operation with the EU and the thenDepartment of Arts, Culture, Science andTechnology, demonstrates mineral beneficia-tion techniques and assists with their imple-mentation in the field, hosts workshops andseminars, and assesses likely deposits forsmall-scale exploitation.

EnvironmentMintek continues to focus on the develop-

ment of environmentally responsible tech-nologies for the recovery and recycling ofmetals from metallurgical residues. Theemphasis remains on jigging technology, DC-arc furnace treatment of metallurgicalwaste, the bioleaching of base metal sulphideores and residues, and technologies for gold refining for the small-scale miningindustry.

Work on effluent treatment has expandedto include waste and recycle streams fromindividual processing plants. A major pro-gramme is in place to monitor cyanidespecies after discharge in various locationsaround gold-plants, from both an environ-mental and a processing point of view.Mintek’s environmental technologies andservices are provided to industry via a co-operative agreement with an established en-vironmental consulting group.

EducationThere is a shortage of engineers and scientistswithin Mintek’s field of expertise in SouthAfrica. Mintek sees a strong and definite rolefor itself to ‘train the nation’ to maintain anddevelop the country's expertise base in theseareas. The undergraduate bursary schemeassists in supplying Mintek with a steadystream of suitable new graduates, and also infulfilling Mintek's commitment to promoteeducation in the minerals-related engineeringdisciplines. The postgraduate bursary schemeis a source of top-class researchers at MSc,MTech and PhD levels.

The EnqTrain and TechTrain programmesfocus on university and technikon studentswho require in-service training to completetheir qualifications.

Mintek continues to support pre-tertiaryactivities to encourage young people to pur-sue careers in S&T. The two primary efforts inthis regard are Minquiz, an annual scientificquiz for science pupils on a national basis,and the Edumap programme, which affordsyoung people from disadvantaged education-al backgrounds the opportunity to prepare fortertiary education.

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Human Sciences ResearchCouncil (HSRC)The HSRC is an independent statutory organ-isation established in 1968. As one of the sci-ence councils in South Africa, the HSRCfocuses its research on social sciences.

The HSRC has 11 national research pro-grammes, initially called ‘new priority areas’during the restructuring process. Three of theprogrammes are led from the Cape Townoffice, and one from Durban (where theHSRC's new office will be opened soon).

The three programmes led from Cape Townare Knowledge Management, Social Aspectsof HIV/AIDS and Health, and Social Cohesionand Integration.

Knowledge Management concerns itselfwith the way that organisational knowledge isharnessed toward innovation. Through thisnew programme, the HSRC will be assistinggovernment to better utilise its informationresources towards more effective services. Theprogramme will also give careful considera-tion to the workings of the NSI. In particular itwill, with partners, conduct the national surveyof R&D in South Africa on behalf of theDepartment of Science and Technology.

This survey will feed into the overall set ofindicators that government uses to direct andmeasure policy-making and implementation,economic growth and service delivery. In par-ticular, it would permit measurement of thestrengths and weakness of the S&T system, aswell as the impact of S&T on the developmentof a knowledge-based economy, enhancingquality of life, economic growth by leveragingtechnical progress (improvement and innova-tion) and the development of human resourcesfor S&T. Components of this system, whichinclude internationally bench-marked surveysof R&D, innovation and other statistical meas-ures of S&T input and output, will form an inte-gral part of the National Statistics System asconceived by Statistics South Africa.

Social Aspects of HIV/AIDS and Healthfocuses on studying key socio-cultural, polit-ical, economic and demographic determi-nants that increase or reduce vulnerability to

HIV-infection. It also includes the study ofsocial epidemiology of major public healthconditions in South Africa and the SADC. Thepublic health component also focuses onhealth system issues necessary for diseasecontrol within a social development context.This national programme also generatesknowledge that will be used in designing HIVprevention, care and impact-mitigation. One ofthe key studies the programme is undertakingis to evaluate the impact of HIV/AIDS on thehealth sector. This study is being carried out inhealth facilities located in all provinces.

To optimise its collaborative outreach, thisprogramme has set up what is called SAHARA(Social Aspects of HIV/AIDS ResearchAlliance). SAHARA is a flexible alliance of sub-Saharan research partners, who are commit-ted to conducting or supporting qualityresearch specifically to inform policy and pro-gramme development.

The research programme on SocialCohesion and Integration operates in theareas of the arts, sport, religion, history, family,education, media and the social dimensionsof science. Its principal concerns are aboutunderstanding, celebrating and actively build-ing leadership that encourages new and moredurable forms of social cohesion, based onthe country’s history, constitutional values andnorms of ordinary human civility. A major proj-ect is the Africa Human Genome Initiative andan international conference on the Social,Ethical, Legal, Educational and Biotech-nological Implications of the Human GenomeDiversity Project, which will be held at theSpier Estate in the Western Cape in March2003.

Medical Research Council (MRC)The MRC was established in 1969. Its missionis to improve the nation's health status andquality of life through relevant and excellentresearch aimed at promoting equity anddevelopment.

The MRC is an autonomous body butreports to the national Department of Health.

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It receives 60% of its budget from the govern-ment Science Vote.

The MRC’s research activities are aligned tothe health priorities of the nation, in line withthe national S&T Imperatives and the healthpriorities defined by the Department of Healthunder the philosophy of Essential NationalHealth Research, and are grouped into the fol-lowing six national programmes:

National programme for research in molecules to diseaseThis group undertakes research on humanand microbial genetics, genomics, bio-infor-matics, cell and molecular biology, tissueengineering and clinical research.

National programme for health systems and policy researchThe scientists in this programme conductresearch on health systems, clinical epidemi-ology, biostatistics, health policy, burden ofdisease and telemedicine.

National programme for infection and immunity researchThe research units in this programme areinvolved in research on tuberculosis (TB),malaria, immunology of infectious disease,diarrhoeal diseases, inflammation and amoe-biasis.

It also incorporates the MRC NationalHIV/AIDS Lead Programme, whose divisionsco-ordinate the South African AIDS VaccineInitiative, various aspects of biomedicalresearch including mother-to-child transmis-sion and microbicides, and prevention oftransmission through behavioural change.(See chapter: Health.)

National programme for non-communicable disease researchThis group undertakes research on heart dis-ease (both laboratory, clinical and publichealth research), nutritional intervention, dia-betes, sports science, crime, violence andinjury, anxiety and stress disorders, dentalissues, bone disease and medical imaging.

National programme for environmentand development researchIn this entity, research on health promotion,health and development, sports science andtechnology transfer is undertaken.

National programme for women and child health researchThis programme undertakes research onmany aspects of women's health, includinghigh blood pressure during pregnancy, health-care strategies in maternal and infant health,and perinatal mortality.The MRC’s 47 research units within these sixnational programmes employ over 300 scien-tists engaged in 600 research projects, sup-ported by 200 support staff.

Twenty-seven of the units are situated atmedical schools and research institutes – sixof these in historically disadvantaged insti-tutes. The MRC also funds 350 short-termresearchers at academic institutions through-out South Africa.

It has a new research grants managementsystem, using electronic databases and soft-ware to ensure equitable and efficient dis-bursement of health-research funding.

The MRC is increasingly Africanised interms of its research and organisational phil-osophy, its gender and ethnic profile, and itscollaboration with other African countries. It is also increasingly internationalisedthrough collaboration with most of the world'sleading health research agencies, includingthe National Institutes of Health and Centresfor Disease Control and Prevention in the US,the Gates Foundation, the World HealthOrganisation, the Wellcome Trust, the PasteurInstitute, the Kenya Medical Research Instituteand the Blair Institute in Zimbabwe.

It works with national and provincialdepartments of health to ensure its researchfindings feed into policy formulation andhealth-care practice.

South African National HealthKnowledge Network The South African National Health Knowledge

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Network was established in 1999 at the MRCwith funding from the government's Inno-vation Fund.

It operates under the tradename SAHealthInfo and is available on the Internet athttp://www.sahealthinfo.org, providing a one-stop interactive forum or resource for quality-controlled and evidence-based health re-search information.

The Knowledge Network's Modules serve asstrategic mini-portals, and the following mod-ules (information clearing-houses for focusedareas) are available: Alcohol and drug abuse;Bio-informatics; Chronic diseases of lifestyle;Ethics in health research; Evidence-basedmedicine; HIV/AIDS; Malaria; Medical inven-tions; Mental health; Nutrition; Traditionalmedicine; TB; and Violence and injury surveil-lance.

This Internet portal caters for three types ofaudiences: health researchers and health-care professionals; health consumers andrelated organisations; and policy-makers. Italso serves as a gateway to other trustedhealth resources.

In July 2001, a high-level meeting ofHIV/AIDS role-players was held in Durban,where it was recommended that the MRCshould provide a centralised information ser-vice on HIV/AIDS research, with the necessarydatabases and access via the Web. A new por-tal for HIV/AIDS in southern Africa –AfroAidsInfo (www.afroaidsinfo.org) – is beingdeveloped. The project has secured externalfunding from the XIII International AIDSConference organisers and BMS Secure theFuture. The HIV/AIDS portal has beenendorsed by the Department of Health andwill be developed at the MRC with the involve-ment of various southern African and otherinternational partner organisations.

In response to the needs of researchersand in line with government’s biotechnologyfocus, as well as NEPAD, the MRC has initiat-ed a process to establish an AfricanBiotechnology Information Centre, in collabo-ration with a consortium of universities.

The Knowledge Network also provides a

unique access point to online full-text pub-lications.

Council for Geoscience (CGS)The CGS is a statutory body established on 1 November 1993, in terms of the GeoscienceAct, 1993 (Act 100 of 1993), to manage thefunctions of the Geological Survey of SouthAfrica. The main functions of the CGS are:• the systematic documentation of the

surface of the earth within the borders ofSouth Africa; the compilation of geo-logical, geophysical, geochemical and othergeoscientific information; and the publica-tion of this information in the form of mapsand documents

• geoscientific research on rocks, minerals,ores, fossils, etc. in South Africa, and thepublication of research results in nationaland international journals

• collection and conservation of all geosci-entific information and data on South Africain national collections and electronic data-bases

• supply of geoscientific services and adviceto the national and provincial governmentsto ensure informed decisions regarding theoptimal and efficient use of the surface ofthe earth.

The objectives of the CGS are to:• minimise the geological and geoscientific

investment risk for national and internation-al entrepreneurs in the South African miningsector (the quality of available geologicalinformation, which is known as the ‘geolog-ical risk grading', contributes to about 61%of the investment risk in any country)

• supply the country with basic geosciencedata to establish a safe, cost-effective phys-ical infrastructure without sterilising valu-able mineral resources

• supply basic knowledge to ensure safe,cost-effective and environmentally accept-able urbanisation and housing development

• carry out research on raw materials need-ed to clothe, transport, feed and provideshelter for the nation.

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To accomplish these functions and objectives,the CGS maintains a specialised work-force,consisting of earth scientists supplementedby technical, support and administrative staffat its headquarters in Pretoria, as well asbranch offices in the nine provinces.

To perform its functions, the following nation-al institutions are maintained by the CGS:• The National Geoscience Library in Pretoria

is probably the most comprehensive geo-science library on the African continent. Itincludes the National Geoscience MapLibrary, which contains a collection of SouthAfrican and African geoscience maps.

• The National Core Library contains a rep-resentative stratigraphic borehole core col-lection, representing most of the lithologicalunits located within the borders of SouthAfrica. This collection is housed in a mod-ern facility at Donkerhoek, east of Pretoria.

• The Geoscience Museum in Pretoria con-tains a unique collection of minerals andfossils, catering for the earth-science edu-cation of the public, especially schoolchild-ren.

• An extensive laboratory to analyse rock andsoil samples, using various specialisedtechniques.

The geoscience information and services pro-vided by the CGS are particularly importantfor sustainable development. In South Africa’sarid region, the management of groundwaterresources (both the quantity and qualitythereof) is aimed at providing enough cleanwater to communities.

A new map series, the 1:50 000 geotech-nical map series, covering the rapidly devel-oping areas of South Africa, can be used tolocate land that is geotechnically suitable fordevelopment and free of geohazards such assinkholes. These maps also show the loca-tions of building-material resources.

Through its membership of the NSC, theCGS helps mining entrepreneurs, particularlythose from previously disadvantaged groups, toexploit South Africa’s mineral resources in acost-effective and environmentally friendly way.

The CGS plays a leading role in the SADC,

and has been chairing the GeologicalSubcommittee for several years. Several geo-science publications covering the region havebeen produced by this Subcommittee.

An exciting service is provided by twomicrolight aircraft capable of performing high-resolution aerial geophysical surveys. Thisdevelopment is breaking new ground and isunique in the world.

In addition to its national responsibilities,the CGS is also active internationally, mainlyin Africa. Geological and metallogenic mapsof, among others, Angola, the DemocraticRepublic of the Congo, Mozambique, Gabonand Morocco have been produced.

A map indicating seismic activity in sub-Saharan Africa has been produced, as well asa publication on the gold deposits of theSADC region.

A digital edition of the Metallogenic Map ofSouth Africa, at a scale of 1:1 000 000, hasbeen released recently. The product givesinformation on all known mineral depositsand occurrences in South Africa in a handyCD-ROM format.

A metallurgic map of Africa, at a scale of 1:5 000 000, is in press and a digital versionof this map will also be available in CD-ROMformat.

South African Bureau of Standards (SABS)The core business of the SABS is the produc-tion, maintenance and dissemination ofstandards. In terms of the Standards Act, 1993(Act 29 of 1993), the objectives of the SABSinclude:• promoting standardisation in industry and

commerce• undertaking educational work in connec-

tion with standardisation• administering compulsory standards on

behalf of the State• collaborating with relevant international

organisations to protect and advance SouthAfrica’s interests

• assisting government departments, public

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bodies, provincial and local government inthe preparation of any specification or codeof practice they require.

The Certification Strategic Business Unit ofthe SABS runs a product certification scheme,several quality system certification schemessuch as the SABS ISO 9000 QualityManagement Certification Scheme and SABSISO 14001 Environmental ManagementCertification Scheme, and a consignmentinspection service.

The extensive state-of-the-art testing cap-ability of the SABS forms the backbone of theorganisation’s commercial activities and con-tributes a significant portion of turnover.Goods can be inspected, tested and analysedagainst private, voluntary or compulsorystandards while precision-measuring and sci-entific equipment can be tested and cali-brated for clients in both the public and pri-vate sectors.

Consequently, most of the 66 testing la-boratories within the SABS are accredited bythe South African National AccreditationSystem for the competent performance oftests in accordance with ISO/IEC Guide 25,the general requirements for the competenceof calibration and testing laboratories.

The SABS is a founding member of theindependent South African Quality Institute,which was established in 1991.

By means of its focused training pro-grammes, the SABS actively assists industry increating an overall awareness of quality andthe environment. It provides a country-wideservice in training quality-system and environ-mental auditors.

The core business units of the SABS arefinanced by monies allocated for that purposeunder the Science Vote, and administered bythe Department of Science and Technology.Inspections and tests, which are carried outfor the private sector, industry, national,provincial and local government, as well asthe certification of products and systems arefunded on a commercial basis by feescharged for services rendered.

The mission of the Institute is to foster the

economic and technological development ofSouth Africa through the promotion of design,and to establish it as a centre of design pro-motion in southern Africa. It focuses on indus-try, education and information.

The SABS is increasingly involved in anumber of activities that flow from the gener-al transformation process in the country,including the introduction of SMMEs to stan-dardisation, and projects undertaken onbehalf of the State. These include adoptingschools and helping them with science andmathematics projects. It is collaborating withcompanies such as ABSA and DaimlerChrysler in a multimillion Rand project in theEastern Cape and Limpopo (formerly theNorthern Province). The project supports theDepartment of Education’s effort to showcasemathematics, science and technology inschools.

Other research organisations

SasolAlthough the Sasol Group is best known for itspetrol, diesel, kerosene, liquid petroleum gas,power paraffin, illuminating paraffin, fuel oilsand gas, it is also a major producer of ethy-lene, propylene, ammonia, phenols, sulphur,road tar, pitch, creosote, alcohols, ketones,solvent blends, alpha olefins, fertilisers, ex-plosives and waxes.

Sasol Technology's R&D Division is res-ponsible for the R&D function of the SasolGroup.

Sasol's unique technology, which producesboth fuel and chemical components fromcoal in a single step, provides it with a signif-icant cost advantage in the production ofpetrochemical feedstocks. The recovery of thehigh-value chemical components and placingthem in high-value chemical markets is thusan ongoing priority.

Continuous R&D in recent years hasenabled Sasol to launch two major, more cost-effective technological innovations: the SasolAdvanced Synthol Process and the Sasol

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Slurry Phase Distillate (SSPD) Process. TheSSPD process technology evolved from Sasol'sextensive expertise in the field of low-temper-ature FischerTropsch process technology.

Besides the production of high-quality andmore environmentally friendly diesel, the pro-prietary technology can also manufacturehigh-quality kerosene and naphtha from nat-ural gas.

IscorThe technology arm of the minerals and metals company Iscor Limited, ITEC, providestechnical and research support for the company.

Areas of operation include minerals benefi-ciation, new extraction methods, and high-temperature metallurgical processes. ITEC isalso involved in environmental controlthrough research into novel warp recyclingand effective use of waste material.

EskomEskom's Technology Services Internationalgroup is a multidisciplinary industrial laborat-ory and consulting organisation. It undertakestesting, investigation studies, project manage-ment, engineering services and appliedresearch for Eskom and other customers.

National Health LaboratoryService (NHLS)The NHLS conducts research into the preven-tion and treatment of human diseases.

The NHLS was established on 1 October2001 to form a single public health laborat-ory service in South Africa. The NHLS com-prises about 260 laboratories country-wide,including the former South African Institutefor Medical Research, the National Institute forVirology, all provincial diagnostic pathologylaboratories (excluding those in KwaZulu-Natal) and tertiary laboratories used by theuniversity medical schools. It has approx-imately 4 000 employees and consists of four

divisions: research, diagnostic laboratory ser-vices, production (serum and laboratoryreagents), and teaching and training. TheNHLS conducts medical research as well aspathology laboratory tests for all provincialhospitals, excluding those in KwaZulu-Natal.Research is conducted on diseases andhealth dangers that are of specific importanceto South Africa.

Bureau for Economic ResearchThe Bureau for Economic Research at theUniversity of Stellenbosch, Western Cape, isan independent and objective economicresearch organisation rendering a service toorganisations ranging from small one-personbusinesses to policy-makers at the highestlevel of government.

National Institute for Tropical DiseasesThe National Institute for Tropical Diseases atTzaneen in Limpopo is responsible for theongoing assessment of the malaria controlprogrammes carried out by various author-ities in South Africa.

Control methods are assessed, and recom-mendations made to the appropriate author-ities with regard to equipment, insecticideusage and application. A malaria referenceservice is also provided. Tests for malaria arecarried out by the Institute, and statisticalanalysis of data pertaining to the programmeis undertaken.

General research areas

Antarctic researchResearch on this southern continent is under-taken by the South African National AntarcticProgramme (SANAP) through the Directorate:Antarctica and Islands of the Department ofEnvironmental Affairs and Tourism.

South Africa has been involved in Antarcticresearch since 1957, and is one of 12 original

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signatories to the Antarctic Treaty. The countryalso ratified the Madrid Protocol onEnvironmental Protection to the AntarcticTreaty, which was implemented on 14 January1998.

The South African National AntarcticExpedition (SANAE) IV base at Vesleskarvet canaccommodate 20 over-wintering team mem-bers and 60 summer take-over personnel.

SANAP allocated R3,6 million to 19 scienti-fic research projects. It supported the SouthAfrican Weather Service in maintainingstations on Marion and Gough islands, and incompleting numerous activities contributing tothe database that the Weather Services uses.

The main research conducted from thebase is Antarctic magnetosphere, ionospheregroundbase observations and research intocosmic rays. SANAP also conducts researchactivities on Marion Island, which cover thewhole spectrum of the Island's ecology, andoperates a meteorological station on GoughIsland.

The Marion Island relief voyage was success-fully undertaken in April/May 2001. TheDirectorate is planning the construction of anew research base on Marion Island, the largerof the two sub-Antarctic islands known as thePrince Edward Islands, which are situatedabout 1 770 km south-east of South Africa inthe Southern Ocean. The Prince Edward Islandswere designated as a Special Nature Reserve interms of Section 18 of the EnvironmentConservation Act, 1989 (Act 73 of 1989).

A research base was established on MarionIsland shortly after its annexation in 1947, andsince then the base has been expanded andchanged on an ad hoc basis. The base is usedfor collecting weather data, as well as forresearch into the exceptional biodiversity andnatural systems of the two islands.

Due to the extreme climatic conditions onMarion Island, some of the existing buildingshave deteriorated to such an extent that theymay be dangerous to inhabit in the shortterm. The Directorate: Antarctica and Islandstherefore proposed that a new modernresearch base be build to cater for the safe

accommodation of personnel and for scienti-fic research.

To ensure that the environmental impact ofthe new base is minimised, the Directoratehas appointed independent environmentalconsultants to carry out environmentalscoping.

The 2001/02 Antarctic voyage was a multi-national undertaking as Norwegian and SouthAfrican scientists were deployed on BouvetIsland; a German contingent took airbornegeophysical measurements from the SouthAfrican Emergency Base; and a team of Britishscientists operated a twin-otter aircraft fromthe SANAE IV research base.

Mine-safety researchThe activities of the Safety in Mines ResearchAdvisory Committee are aimed at theadvancement of the safety of workersemployed on South African mines. TheCommittee is a statutory tripartite subcom-mittee of the Mine Health and Safety Council.It has a permanent research managementoffice managing the fields of research, name-ly rock engineering, engineering and mineoccupational health.

Energy researchThe Chief Directorate: Energy of the Depart-ment of Minerals and Energy manages a policy-directed research programme. Thisincludes transport energy, renewable energyand energy for developing areas, coal, elec-tricity, energy efficiency, energy economy andintegrated energy policy formulation.

Agricultural researchAgricultural research is conducted by the ARC,several universities and a variety of organisa-tions in the private sector. Provinces areresponsible for farm management and tech-nological development. These activities areaimed at improving managerial efficiency onfarms.

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The Directorate: Agricultural Water UseManagement of the national Department ofAgriculture co-operates with provinces tosteer research in the engineering aspects ofagriculture.

Biannual meetings are held to debate andagree on research needs, programmes andbudgeting. Efforts are made to ensure that thebulk of research serves the needs of small-scale producers.

Research initiatives have been integratedamong the various industries in line with theoverall objectives of the particular part of theagricultural sector.

Water researchWater research in South Africa is co-ordinatedand funded by the Water ResearchCommission (WRC) in Pretoria. The WaterResearch Act, 1971 (Act 34 of 1971), providedfor the establishment of the Water ResearchFund, which derives income from levies onwater consumption. The funds are collectedfor the WRC on a commission basis by theDepartment of Water Affairs and Forestry.

The WRC does not undertake researchitself, but enters into agreements with otherspecialist organisations, such as various uni-versity departments and institutions, the CSIRdivisions, water boards and governmentdepartments to carry out research projects.

In terms of the Water Research Act, 1971,the WRC is responsible for promotingresearch and encouraging the application ofresearch results. In 2000, the WRC’s financialsupport to 318 different research projectstotalled R62,1 million.

The WRC also financially supports thedevelopment of the Waterlit bibliographicdatabase as well as the Computing Centre forWater Research in Pietermaritzburg, KwaZulu-Natal.

The organisations most active in waterresearch are:• universities (51,57% of the total number of

contracts)• consultants (21,97%)

• the CSIR (11,32%)• water boards (3,77%)• the ARC (4,14%)• technikons (2,83%)• government departments (3,46%) • municipalities (1,26%).The main areas of research are surfacehydrology, groundwater, hydrometeorology,agricultural water utilisation, water pollution,municipal effluents, industrial water andeffluents, drinking water, membrane technol-ogy, water ecosystems, hydraulics, mine-water management, water policy, developingcommunities, and the transfer of IT.

The Division: Water, Environment andForestry Technology (Environmentek) of theCSIR specialises in research into water qual-ity, including technology to meet effluent andwater-quality standards and to establishreclaimed water as an additional watersource. Environmentek is a world leader inresearch into activated sludge processes andthe biological monitoring of water to detectpotentially toxic substances. It is alsoinvolved in research on the effects ofafforestation and veld management on thequantity and quality of catchment wateryield.

Environmental researchThe Chief Directorate: EnvironmentalManagement of the Department of Environ-mental Affairs and Tourism annually financesseveral research and monitoring programmes.

The programmes comprise subjects suchas waste management and pollution, natureconservation, river management, the coastlineand marine environment, and the atmo-sphere.

Some programmes are conducted in col-laboration with the NRF, while others areundertaken on behalf of the Department bythe CSIR. Universities also carry out researchon behalf of the Department.

Research on human-environment interac-tion sponsored by the Department is co-ordinated by the HSRC.

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In addition, institutes of the ARC are con-cerned with environmental research insofar asenvironmental problems impact on agricultureor are caused by agricultural practices.

The Department's National EnvironmentalPotential Atlas (ENPAT) provides a visualoverview of South Africa's environmentalresources. The most important advantage ofENPAT is that environmental implications ofland-use decisions are available before anyactions are initiated. ENPAT-National containstwo main data types, namely environmentaland population data. The Atlas also identifiespossible conflict areas in the utilisation of nat-ural resources.

The South African Weather Service func-tions under the Department of EnvironmentalAffairs and Tourism.

The Weather Service delivers public goodservices, mainly for the protection of life andproperty, as well as commercial services tothe private sector as stipulated in the WeatherService Act, 2001 (Act 8 of 2001).

The public good services are funded bygovernment and commercial services arepaid for by the user. The public good servicesinclude weather and climate forecasting, aweather disaster warning system, services tosubsistence farmers and fishers, the provisionof information and advice to government,meeting regional and international treaty andagreement obligations, maintaining a nationalmeteorological library, technical and scientifictraining in meteorology, and undertakingresearch to improve services.

The Weather Service operates the GlobalAtmosphere Watch (GAW) station, situated atCape Point in the Western Cape. The GAW isan initiative of the World MeteorologicalOrganisation, and serves as an early warningand forecasting system for changes in thebackground chemical composition and relat-ed physical characteristics of the atmosphere.

Atmospheric ozone monitoring at Irene,near Pretoria, is maintained throughout theyear.

The NRF directs a multidisciplinary Con-servation and Management of Ecosystems

and Biodiversity Focus Area, primarily in col-laboration with universities and museums, topromote and support research on livingresources and the terrestrial, freshwater,marine, coastal and atmospheric ecosystems.

Some 170 projects are approved annually,and global issues such as climate change andbiological diversity are also included. The sus-tainable use of natural resources is a priorityarea resulting in a growth of projects relyingon sociology and the humanities. The NRFalso supports a range of environmentalresearch network organisations such as theArid Zone Ecology Forum, the Fynbos Forum,the Indigenous Plant Use Forum, the SouthAfrican Network for Coastal and OceanicResearch (SANCOR) and the Savanna EcologyForum.

Fisheries researchResearch into South Africa's fish resources,their conservation and judicious exploitationis carried out by research personnel of theChief Directorate: Marine and CoastalManagement, a division of the Department ofEnvironmental Affairs and Tourism, and byseveral universities and NGOs. Research isdesigned, among other things, to provideparameters for estimates of stock sizes and sustainable yields for the different fish-eries.

The Branch: Marine and Coastal Manage-ment Co-ordination commissioned a large-scale study on the socio-economics of thefisheries industry through the NRF, acting asits research management agency.

Coastal and marine researchThe Chief Directorate: Marine and CoastalManagement advises on the utilisation ofmarine living resources and the conservationof marine ecosystems by conducting andsupporting relevant multidisciplinary scientificresearch and monitoring the marine environ-ment. Sustainable use and the need to pre-serve future options in the utilisation of

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marine ecosystems and their resources areguiding objectives in the research and adviceof the organisation.

The NRF supports marine and coastalresearch in partnership with the Departmentof Environmental Affairs and Tourism and theSANCOR.

Private-sector involvementSouth Africa's gold-mining industry works atdeeper levels and under more difficult cir-cumstances than any other mining industry inthe world. The research on gold-mining con-ducted by the CSIR's Mining Technology isconcerned primarily with ensuring the healthand safety of the work-force, and covers,among other things, the areas of rock engi-neering and the underground environment.Mining Technology's coal-mining researchtakes place on a smaller scale than that ofgold-mining, because the coal-mining indus-try can make use of various overseas devel-opments. Areas in which research is under-taken include strata control, mining, maximis-ing extraction of coal, and the undergroundenvironment.

Research is also carried out by a largenumber of industrial companies with facilitiesto meet their specific needs.

The more important ones are AngloAmerican Corporation of South Africa (appliedmetallurgy, processing of precious metals,base metals and coal); Agricura (synthesis andtesting of veterinary remedies, insect-icides, herbicides and entomology); CullinanHoldings (refractories and electrical por-celain); De Beers Industrial Diamond Division(manufacture and application of synthetic dia-monds and other super-hard materials);Johannesburg Consolidated InvestmentCompany (metallurgy, mineralogy, chemistryand chemical engineering); National ChemicalProducts (chemistry, microbiology and animalnutrition); Metal Box Company of South Africa(corrosion mechanism and microbiology);Tellumat (development of electronic instru-ments); Rembrandt Group (development andimprovement of tobacco and liquor products);South African Pulp and Paper Industries(wood technology, paper manufacture andwater treatment); and Standard Telephonesand Cables SA (long-distance transmission ofinformation, and lightning protection).

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AcknowledgementsAgricultural Research CouncilChamber of Mines of South AfricaCouncil for GeoscienceCouncil for Scientific and Industrial ResearchDepartment of Environmental Affairs and Tourism Department of Science and TechnologyEskomEstimates of National Expenditure 2002, published by the National TreasuryHuman Sciences Research CouncilIscorMedical Research CouncilMintekNational Department of AgricultureNational Health Laboratory ServiceNational Research FoundationSasolSouth African Bureau of StandardsWater Research Commission

Suggested reading

Austin, B. Schonland. Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University Press, 2001.Basson, N. Passage to Progress: The CSIR's Journey of Change, 1945 – 1995. Johannesburg: Jonathan Ball,

1995.Crouch, M, ed. Sparkling Achievements. Johannesburg: Chris van Rensburg Publications, 2001. Department of

Arts, Culture, Science and Technology. The Year of Science and Technology: Calendar 1998. Pretoria:DACST, 1998.

Kingwill, D. The CSIR: The First 40 Years. Pretoria: CSIR Docel, 1990.Kok, P. and others. Development Research in South Africa. Pretoria: Human Sciences Research Council, 1994.Liebenberg, L. Tracking: The Origin of Science. Cape Town: David Philip, 1990.Macrae, C. Life Etched in Stone: Fossils of Southern Africa. Johannesburg: Geological Society of South Africa,

1999.Sasol. Sasol Facts 1998. Johannesburg: Sasol Corporate Communications, 1998.

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