south asia tourism development

ViewpointslReports

powerful. That is why ‘A Vision for England’ is being enthusiastically backed by the Department of Employ- ment. That is why while, paradoxical- ly, many cultural facilities are being starved of capital funds - both heritage facilities like museums and galler- ies, and the performing arts - the Tourism Development Fund had an increase of 28% for the 1988189 finan- cial year and the English Tourist Board’s grant-in-aid rose by fl million.

But there comes a time - it may already be here - when Heritage the Market comes into conflict with Herit- age as stewardship and scholarship, and when it is satisfied with degraded and Disneyfied versions of what were key moments in the UK’s national story. We already have a changed language in which we talk about the

arts. We no longer discuss them as expressions of imagination or creativ- ity, we talk about ‘product’; we are no longer moved by the experiences the arts have to offer, we ‘consume’ them. Culture has become a commodity. As we can see in the new breed of independent museums and heritage centres, the owners and entrepreneurs struggling for a slice of the cake are being forced away from their primary responsibility to preserve and inter- pret the materials of the past, and more and more towards being pur- veyors of empty spectacle and meretri- cious entertainment. History is being bent into Heritage.

There has been one anniversary this year that has had bitter results. It is 50 years since 1938, the year of the Anschfuss, and Hitler’s occupation of Austria. Ever since the end of the war

Austria has been forgetting its history, and promoting itself as the land of Mozart, chocolate and whipped cream. But history will not go away, even if. like Austria’s President. you pretend it never happened. Austria has been brought up against its real past. and the response has been either blustering anger, or honest humilia- tion.

Of course, that could never happen here. Just like Elizabeth l’s speech at Tilbury.

This is an edited version of a paper given to the UK Tourism Society in May 1987.

Robert Hewison Fetter Lane London, UK

Reports

South Asia tourism development Graham Brown, Senior Lecturer in the Department of Tourism, Dorset Institute of Higher Education, describes the responses of three disparate countries to opportunities for growth in their tourism industries. Within the context of increasing demand for long-haul holidays in Europe, the report focuses on government policies toward tourism in India, the Maldives and Bhutan -policies which are reflected in initiatives taken by the respective national tourism departments.

Long-haul tourism from Europe is experiencing considerable growth, and specialist tour operators have responded predictably. Bales Tours has almost doubled the size of its Worldwide brochure to 80 pages following a 52% surge in sales in 1987.’ Kuoni is hoping for sales of 100 000 holidays in 1988 as long-haul rates become increasingly competitive with the upper-end of the Mediterranean price range.2

Destinations in Asia and the Indian Ocean are well located to benefit from the increased demand and many feature prominently in the expanded programmes offered by tour oper-

ators. Kuoni is strongly promoting Mauritius and is offering direct charter flights from the UK to the Maldives for the first time. Other countries in the region are actively seeking to gain a larger share of the market. The South Asia marketing consortium comprising Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka, was formed in 1986 as a cooperative venture in tourism promotion, aimed initially at the British market.3

The ability of many countries in this region to host and benefit from tourism is often impaired by a poorly- developed infrastructure and a lack of commitment to tourism as a credible

industry. For these reasons, the role and degree of support given to the national tourism offices can be critical.

In August 1987, discussions were held by the author with the directors of tourism in India, Bhutan and the Maldives. The information provided illustrates tourism trends within these countries and the range of initiatives undertaken by these public sector agencies to direct the nature of their tourism industries.

India

Prospects for the tourism industry in India improved considerably in 1986. The number of international visitors passed one million for the first time - an increase which has continued in 1987 with the first six months register- ing an increase of 9.3% over the equivalent period in 1986 (Table 1). This upturn in visitor numbers has coincided with a new political commitment toward tourism.

Social unrest following the assas- sination of Mrs Gandhi created an image abroad which produced low

240 TOURISM MANAGEMENT September 1988

Table 1. Foreign tourist arrivals to India.

Arrivals from countries other than Pakistan

Year and Bangladesh

1981 853148 1982 860178 1983 884731 1984 835503 1985 838908 1986 1080050 1987(upto June) 538580

Source: Department of Tourism, Government of India.

visitor numbers in 1984 and 1985. This

unfortunate climate did not deter Ra-

jiv Gandhi’s desire to encourage tour-

ism development. With his support,

the National Development Council

accorded to tourism the status of an

‘industry’ in the seventh five year

plan. By mid 1987. 14 state govern-

ments had ratified the proposal, there-

by extending concessions to tourism

which are available to other indus-

tries. Tourism now qualifies for incen-

tives such as subsidies on land for

hotel construction. on the consump-

tion of power and interest on loans.

Political support has also been trans-

lated into an increase in the budget of

the Indian Department of Tourism.

The level of funding for the single year

of 1987-88 totalled 230 million rupees

(f9.3 million) which compares with a

figure of only 209 million rupees (f8.5

million) for the entire five-year period

of the sixth plan (1980-81 to 1984-85).

The Indian Department of Tourism

is pursuing a vigorous campaign in a

bid to attract 2.5 million visitors a year

by 1990. The cost of overseas publicity

is shared between the department and

Air India on the basis of 80% : 20%

with much of the attention being

focused on the growing European

market. The strategy is designed to

counter India’s history-orientated im-

age and to promote tourism through-

out the year. The Indian government

is hoping to persuade wholesalers to

package adventure and wildlife tours

and to offer a range of sporting

programmes which feature activities

such as trekking, ski-ing and waters-

ports. Advertisements advancing this

message have appeared in travel trade

publications and on British television

during 1987. The objective is to direct

more visitors to lesser-known areas

such as Srinigar in the north and

Kerala in the south, at times of the

year which take advantage of favour-

able seasonal variations.

The role of budget tourism has also

been recognized. It is felt that it

complements the industry’s stage of

development. Budget tourists will use

low-cost means of transport to visit

villages and introduce tourism to new

areas. They bridge the gap between

domestic and traditional forms of in-

ternational tourism. In an attempt to

encourage the construction of budget

Reports

class hotels, the Indian government

has increased the rate of interest

subsidy from 1% to 2% on loans

granted for one- and two-star category

hotel projects.

Tourism development in India will

require appropriate planning which, in

turn, demands access to relevant in-

formation. During 1987, the Depart-

ment of Tourism has instigated a

number of large-scale surveys to pro-

duce an accurate database (see, eg

Table 2). A survey of foreign tourists,

repeating a similar exercise under-

Figure 1. The South Asia region

TOURISM MANAGEMENT September 1988 241

Reports

Table 2. 1996 tourist arrivals to India - the top 10 countries.

Rank Country Tourists

1 UK 160 685 2 USA 125364 3 Sri Lanka 75 631 4 France 65 940

: West Canada Germany 61 39 397 637 7 Italy 38 548 8 Japan 36 402 g Australia 33 264

10 United Arab Emirates 20 084

% change 198Cl966

34 30 9

50

37 37 66 19 50 35

source: Department of Tourism. Government of India.

taken in 1982, is designed to assess market characteristics, estimate ex- penditure and determine the spatial pattern of tourist activities. A study of the environmental and cultural impact of tourism is being made at places such as Varanasi and Puri while ‘tourism potential’ surveys are underway in five areas including Goa and Kashmir. The latter surveys attempt to identify potential resources, factors which might inhibit growth and investment requirements. Also in 1987, the National Sample Survey Organisation will be focusing on the subject of domestic tourism for the first time. Their annual survey, which involves 50 000 interviews in villages and 38 000 within urban areas should pro- vide a new level of understanding about the volume and pattern of domestic tourism movement. It is indicative of the current attention which is being paid to tourism in India.

this period (Table 3). The winter months are the most popular period (Table 4).

There was a 5% drop in tourists in 1986 following the bomb explosion at Colombo airport. The adverse effect was, in part, due to a reduction in flights operated by Air Lanka and. in part, to a negative impact on the twin-centre concept which linked the Maldives with Sri Lanka. It would seem that the downturn was a tempor- ary reversal as the first six months of 1987 have registered a 10% increase on the equivalent period of the previous year.

supported the latter by regularly increasing the budget of the Maldivian Department of Tourism in recent years. The Department of Tourism was formed in 1978, following a reor- ganization made by the President upon his election. During the 1980s. the department has been the instru- ment through which the Maldivian government has attempted to impose standards on the tourism industry. It has been active in sanctioning the nature of resort development, including the suitability of architectural design, and has the power to close resorts if, after the imposition of tines, operating standards have not improved. The department also has an integrating function. It holds meetings twice a year which are designed to coordinate the activities of resort owners. tour operators and specialist staff such as diving instructors.

The tourism industry currently em- ploys 3000 Maldivians and its importance has been recognized by President Maumoon Gayoom. Having stated that the country’s economy is dependent upon fishing and tourism he has

Each of the small resort islands is self-contained - insulated from islands inhabited by the host community. It may therefore seem contradictory that much of the work of the Maldivian Department of Tourism involves attempts to control the impact of tourism on the Maldivian way of life. One of its prime functions is to imple- ment environmental protection policies. The coral island ecosystem is extremely fragile and all activities in the Maldives, not least the important fishing industry. are dependent upon its preservation. Measures to conserve the islands’ sea life include a ban on

The Maldives Table 3. Resort development and tourist arrivals in the Maldives.

The Maldives archipelago in the Indi- an Ocean, to the south-west of Sri Lanka, comprises about 1200 islands of which 200 are inhabited. Tour operators, notably from West Ger- many and Italy, started to feature the islands within their programmes from the late 1970s and direct charters from Europe, using wide-bodied planes, were made possible by the completion of the runway at Male International Airport in 1981. The process of resort development has continued during the past 15 years with visitor numbers rising almost continuously throughout

Year Resorts 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1995 1966

2 6 7 6 6

11 17 25 5i 37 44

2 55 55

Bed capacity

280 766 660 908 940

1034 1300 1690 2402 3228 3964 4456 4724 5375 5395

7 593 9 013

12477 16666 29 325 33 124 42 007 60 356 74411 74 163 63 614

114554 113953

Some: Department of Tourism, Republic of Maldives.


Reports

spear fishing and on taking live coral. staff working in the resorts come from

There are also plans to declare zones the southern atolls - they have to

where the turtle will be protected, a spend 11 months away from their

measure which would affect the turtle families and almost all want to take

shell souvenir trade. It is, however, their one month leave over Ramadan,

the control of pollution, particularly the Muslim religious holiday. Man-

dumping within the inner reefs, which power planning problems and a high

is the focus of most environmental turnover of staff are the inevitable

policies. To this end, private yachting result. During 19S7, staff of the Maldi-

has been prohibited and regulations vian Department of Tourism have

have been introduced which require been undertaking confidential inter-

the installation of sewage systems, views with resort workers in an

incinerators and compactors for rub- attempt to identify potential solutions

bish. to the labour problems.

During the past three years, the

department has mounted a campaign

to improve attitudes toward tourism

among the host population. The main

message referred to tourism’s econo-

mic importance and the environmen-

tal conscience of those involved in the

industry. Visits were made to schools

by staff of the department but the

most valuable medium was the radio

which plays an important role in com-

munication throughout the islands.

An indication of the success of the

campaign is a big increase in the

number of school leavers applying to

work in the tourism sector.

Currently about 500 foreign nation-

als occupy tourism jobs in the Mal-

dives but the Department of Tourism

is reluctant to grant permission for the

figure to increase because the coun-

try’s unemployment rate is quite high.

Maldivians do not like full-time, regu-

lar employment. Labour problems are

caused by the pattern of migration to

the main resort islands of the central

atoll, around the capital, Male. Most

A new model of tourism develop-

ment has been proposed which takes

account of the unique characteristics

and needs of the Maldive islands. It

will be incorporated in the next zone

of island development. Starting in

1988, 1-l resorts will be opened in Ari

Atoll and, with Maldivian government

assistance, a tourist ‘centre’ will be

established on an inhabited island

close to the new resorts. At the centre,

houses will be built for the families of

resort employees. and facilities such as

banking and postal services, will be

provided. The existing population will

be given priority in applications for

jobs created through the islands’ de-

velopment and will be offered special

concessions at a boat repair service

and at other enterprises which are to

be established. The extent to which

the Maldives will benefit from tourism

development, with an envisaged in-

crease in bed capacity to about 10 000

in the next five years, will be deter-

mined by the success of appropriate

socioeconomic planning of this kind.

Bhutan Table 4. 1986 Bed-night capacity utilization in the Maldives.

Month Utilization fate (96)

January 74.2 February 71.7 March 70.9 April 56.0 May 32.5 June 23.5 July 37.1 August 50.0 September 39.5 October 43.3 November 57.1 December 61.4

Annual 50.9

Until recently, Bhutan had been iso-

lated from the outside world. The

Himalayan kingdom, sandwiched be-

tween India and China, allowed tour-

ists to enter the country following the

coronation of the present king in 1974.

Hotels which housed royal guests

attending the ceremony were used to

accommodate the tourists who total-

led 280 in the first year. The objectives

of tourism at the time of its introduc-

tion were:

Source: Department of Tourism, Republic of Maldives.

0

0

to generate revenue, especially

foreign exchange;

to publicize the culture and tradi-


Table 5. Tourists to Bhutan.

Year Tourists

1974 280 1966 1267 1981 1503 1982 1611 1963 1979

Source: Bhutan Tourism Development Master Plan, World Tourism Organisation. 1966.

a

tion of the country to the outside

world; and

to play an active role in the

country’s socioeconomic develop-

ment.

Bhutan’s isolation and the popula-

tion’s close adherence to Buddhism

caused concern about the potential

impact of tourism on the country’s

way of life. It was decided to restrict

the scale and control the nature of

tourism. The policy devised by the

Bhutan government allows high quali-

ty guided tours to the western part of

the country. All tourists join a group

programme and pay a daily rate of

either $130 (March-May, Scptember-

December) or $90 for standard tours.

The number of tourists gradually

rose during the 1970s and has con-

tinued to grow in the 1980s (Table 5).

In 1986, the figure had risen to 2405.

of whom 80% joined cultural tours

(Table 6). The USA. West Germany

and Japan were the main markets

(Table 7) and foreign exchange earn-

ings totalled $2.2 million.

During the period of the fifth

National Plan (1981-87). the Bhutan

Tourism Corporation (BTC) was

established to manage the operational

side of the industry on a commercial

basis. A loan was obtained from the

government of India to complete the

construction of two hotels and two

guest houses. It was also decided to

seek foreign expertise, through the

agency of the World Tourism Orga-

nisation, to formulate a long-term

tourism development plan. The Mas-

ter Plan, which was financed by the

United Nations Development Prog-

ramme, was prepared in 19S-I. It

proposed that, following the comple-

tion of projects currently underway

such as the hotel construction. there

Reporrs

Table 6. Tourist activities in Bhutan 1966.

January February March April

May June July August September October November December

33 45

312 123 83 47 67

292 240 464

74 114

Total 1094

Cultural tour3 Trekking

10

97 49 51

2 17 14 87

109 38 18

Mountaineering expeditions Total

43 45

409 172 134 49 92

306 338 573 112 132

2405

should be three phases of develop-

ment:

short-term (1986-90) - the estab-

lishment of a basis for future

growth, the improvement of stan-

dards with a higher utilization of

existing tourism infrastructure,

and an extensive marketing/

promoting campaign;

medium-term (1991-95) - prefer-

red strategy is development of an

airport, hotel and three lodges in

central Bhutan and the expansion

of tourism into the central area;

and

long-term (post 199.5) -extension

of tourism to the east and de-

velopment of winter wildlife tour-

ism in the south.

The plan was ratified by the Bhutan

government in May 1986 with an

instruction to formulate a plan of

action, within the sixth National Plan,

based on its recommendations. The

Bhutan government expressed a de-

sire to accelerate the growth and

economic benefits of tourism, subject

to safeguarding the Bhutanese way of

life, with a target of SO00 tourists per

year by 1989-90.

This positive political climate would

seem to have changed in 1987. The

clause concerning impact upon the

national way of life has become a

considerable obstacle to growth.

Buddhist leaders, who continue to

exert considerable influence have ob-

jected to certain forms of tourism

activity, particularly those which bring

tourists into contact with religious

shrines. The situation is now some-

what confused because the Ministry of

Finance has recently requested the

BTC to increase its foreign exchange

earnings. It suggested the need for a

promotional campaign to attract more

tourists. In April 1987, however, a

Table 7. International tourists to Bhutan In 1966.

January February March April

May June July August

E%Zber November December

14

:5 46 58 47 33 58

189 193 59

7

Total 776

USA West Germany

6

2 31

11 z

115

14 16

360

Rest of Europe

4 6

127 7

18

;

:: 86

2;

Other countries Total

80 54 15

1 17 58 67

115 21 15

43 45

409 172 134 49 92

:: 573 112 132

380 441 2405

Sources: Bhutan Tourism Corporation

meeting of the Royal Civil Service

Commission (an important advisory

body) decided that marketing should

be unnecessary - only those who wish

to visit the country in the absence of

promotion should be accommodated.

Accordingly, the main foreign offices

of the BTC in Calcutta and New York.

were closed.

In July 1987, at the National Assem-

bly, a special commission on tourism

reported in unfavourable terms. It

referred to the long-term moral im-

pact on sons and daughters who wit-

ness behaviour from tourists which

belittles the mystic power of the coun-

try’s religion. The consequence has

been a Royal command to the BTC to

impose prohibited areas. such as cer-

tain temples and monasteries, from

which tourists will be barred. This will

come into effect in 19%89 and, in

view of the prime importance of cultu-

ral tourism, is likely to be a consider-

able setback to plans for tourism

development.

Conclusion

Tourism has played an increasingly

important role within these different

countries in recent years. The reaction

to development opportunities has

varied according to the cultural. eco-

nomic and political characteristics

which exist within each of them. Yet

there would seem to be lessons to

learn and it is possible to propose a

sequential plan of action which would

incorporate the need for adaptation to

local situations. Issues would be

addressed in the following stages:

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

The cultivation of political com-

mitment for tourism develop-

ment.

Research and evaluation to pro-

duce a relevant database and to

identify product weaknesses.

Planning for the integration of

tourism within an overall de-

velopment strategy.

Public relations to gain a consti-

tuency supportive of plans and to

stimulate confidence in the indus-

try.

Product enhancement through

catalytic public sector investment.

The attraction of private sector

investment in strategically impor-


(7)

(8)

tant sectors through selective con-

cessionary incentives.

Tourism promotion to target mar-

kets and involvement of foreign

tour operators.

Monitoring of development and

re-evaluation.

Ultimately. it is the integration of

tourism in an appropriate way within

the existing socioeconomic structure

which is of paramount importance.

Graham Brown Depanment of Tourism

Dorset Institute of Higher Education Wallisdown Road, Poole

Dorset, BH12 5BB, UK

Notes:

The author would like to thank Mr Ramesh Chendra. Additional Director General, De- partment of Tourism, Government of India, Mr Ahmed Zahir. Director General, Depart- ment of Tourism, Republic of Maldives and Mr Jigme Tshultim. Director, Bhutan Tour- ism Corporation, Royal Government of Bhutan.

‘Travel Trade Gazette, No 1772. p 30, September 1987. 2Travel Trade Gazette. No 1770. D 2. . August 1987. 3The South Asia Marketing Consortium is made up of the heads of the region’s NTOs. who act as ‘members’ of the consortium (although the NTOs are acting on behalf of their governments’ ministers). The consortium’s campaign has aimed at improving the region’s image as a tourist destination through a consumer and trade public relations campaign.

Pre-travel planning orientations Muzaffer Bodur, Associate Professor of Marketing at Bogazici University, and Ugur Yavas, Professor of Marketing at East Tennessee State University, describe the results and implications of a study carried out in Istanbul, Turkey, to distinguish between two tourist market segments - those preferring to travel in groups organized by travel agencies, and those preferring to make their own arrangements. The findings indicate differences in age, economic status and travel motivation between the two segments. Marketing by the travel agencies could be targeted at the independent-minded sector so as to encourage them to make use of travel agency facilities.

The literature and research on tourism

are a fascinating mixture, covering

contributions from a broad spectrum

of disciplines including marketing. A

stream of notable normative and

theoretical writings from this field

relate to the all pervasive concept of

market segmentation. The accelerated

interest given to market segmentation

in the tourism industry is not without

reason. Segmentation allows a more

precise definition of the market in

terms of consumer needs, and streng-

thens marketers’ abilities to meet

these needs.

Since the 1960s. considerable re-

search has been done to find the best

ways to segment tourism markets. The

segmentation variables used in past

research include travel motives,

lifestyle/psychographic characteristics,

purpose of trip, travel benefits. appeal

of holiday types, past travel patterns

and destination choice factors, ’ These

studies have augmented our under-

standing of the travelling public and

yielded invaluable insights into how

the travel industry might better target

their services.

The study reported in this article

contributes to this growing body of

literature by contrasting the pre-travel

planning orientations of a group of

Turkish travellers. A sample of Tur-

kish travellers is used, classified

according to the form of travel they

prefer (group versus independent).

These segments are compared in

terms of:

0 0 0


sociodemographic profiles;

travel motives;

information search behaviour;

and

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a criteria used in the planning of a

trip.

The study differs in one respect from

previous research. While earlier seg-

mentation studies have been con-

ducted among domestic travellers in a

developed country or among interna-

tional travellers from developed coun-

tries visiting other developed (or de-

veloping) countries, the current study

focuses exclusively on domestic

travellers in a developing country. It is

contended that the tourist typology

generated here lends itself to a more

rigorous analysis in a domestic setting.

This is because tourists travelling in

their home country are much more

familiar with the tourism environ-

ment, hence the decision between

independent versus group travel be-

comes a more significant preference

criterion under these circumstances.

The rest of the report is organized

into three sections. The first section

presents some background informa-

tion on the tourism sector in Turkey.

Attention will be drawn to the recent

downward trend in international tour-

ism activities and to the necessity of

revitalizing domestic tourism. The

second section discusses the design

and findings of the behavioural seg-

mentation study conducted in Turkey.

In the concluding section, the implica-

tions of the study are highlighted.

Turkish tourism sector

Despite its natural and historical

attractions to tourists, and a state

policy that encourages the develop-

ment of the tourism industry, Turkey’s

share of the world tourism market is

small and as shown in Table 1 has

been declining continuously.

The ratio of tourism receipts to

GNP has remained in the 0.4-0.8%

range since 1977 and when compared

with Greece (4.3%), Portugal (4.6%).

and Spain (3.6%), it is low.’ Furth-

ermore, Turkey’s net tourism reieipts

in comparison to export earnings, have been rising at a slower pace. In

198-1 tourism receipts accounted for

7.7% of total export earnings. This

ratio had reached its highest level in

1975 when the share of tourism re-

ceipts in exports was l&A%.’

south asia tourism development

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