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SOUTHEASTERN BAPTIST THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY

CHART OF IMPORTANT NEW TESTAMENT SCHOLARS

IN THE HISTORY OF BIBLICAL INTERPRETATION

FROM THE ENLIGHTENMENT TO MODERN TIMES

SUBMITTED TO DR. ANDREAS J. KÖSTENBERGER

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF:

BTI9800 SEMINAR IN THE HISTORY OF BIBLICAL INTERPRETATION

BY

NOAH W. KELLEY

OCTOBER 30, 2015

2

Introduction

The following is a summary of important interpreters of the New Testament and their works. For each of the scholars I have listed his

or her name, dates of birth and death, major work(s), and contribution to the field. Important scholars are listed in bold; likewise with

the most important works.1

While I first thought of arranging the chart according to areas of research, I realized that this would require either duplication of

material (when a particular scholar was active in several fields), or missing information (if I record a scholar in one place where they

made multiple contributions). For that reason they are, for the most part, presented in the order in which they were discussed by

William Baird in his History of New Testament Research, Vols. 1–3.2 (Toward the end I have supplemented Baird’s list of scholars

with some evangelical scholars from Bible Interpreters of the Twentieth Century.3) This preserves the somewhat chronological and

topical arrangement that Baird used.

However, I have also included for each scholar a section marked “Area of Research” in which I list some key terms relating to their

work. This allows the user to search the document for a particular subfield (such as “Textual Criticism,” or “New Testament

Introduction”) to find which scholars contributed to that subfield.

1 The choice of which Scholars to place in bold admittedly reflects my own interests, which include Greek grammar, linguistics, New Testament

theology, the relation of history and theology, exegesis and hermeneutics. Likewise, regarding which books are listed in bold, they are either books that I wanted

to be familiar with because of their historical importance and influence, or books that reflect the development of my areas of interest. In addition, I also tried to

place in bold not only those scholars and books that pertain to my interests, but also those who were pivotal in the development of the field of New Testament

studies. 2 William Baird, History of New Testament Research, Vol. 1: From Deism to Tübingen (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1992); idem, History of New

Testament Research, Vol. 2: From Jonathan Edwards to Rudolf Bultmann (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2003); idem, History of New Testament Research, Vol. 3:

From C. H. Dodd to Hans Dieter Betz (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2013). 3 Walter A. Elwell and J. D. Weaver. Bible Interpreters of the Twentieth Century: A Selection of Evangelical Voices (Grand Rapids: Baker Books,

1999). Scholars drawn from this book will be marked by an asterisk (*).

3

Chart of New Testament Interpreters

Name Dates Major Work(s) Contributions

Lightfoot, John 1602

–

1675

Harmony of the Foure Evangelists (1644)

A Commentary upon the Acts of the Apostles: Chronicall

and Critical (1645)

Horae Hebraicae et Talmudicae (Hebrew and Talmud

Exercitations, 1658-1678).

Area of Research: Gospels, Jewish

Backgrounds

Contribution: His “primary contribution to

NT research is his pioneering use of

rabbinic literature to illuminate the

historical setting of the biblical texts.”4

His major work in this regard was his

Horae Hebraicae et Talmudicae (1658-

1678)

Simon, Richard 1638

–

1712

OT:

Histoire critique du Vieux Testament (1678)

NT:

Histoire critique du texte du Nouveau Testament (1689)

Histoire des versions du Nouveau Testament (1690)

Histoire critique des principaux commentateurs du

Nouveau Testament (1693)

Nouveau Testament de Notre-Seigneur Jesus-Christ

(1702)

Area of Research: Old Testament

Criticism, New Testament Criticism

Contribution: Simon influenced many

later thinkers through his scholarship. He

used historical criticism to undercut the

Protestant principle of sola scriptura. He

also wrote in the vernacular in order to

make biblical scholarship available to the

public. Baird calls him the “founder of

modern biblical criticism.”5

4 Baird, 1:12. 5 Baird, 1:17.

4

Mill, John 1645–

1707

Novum Testamentum (1707) Area of Research: Textual Criticism

Contribution: The great work of Mill’s

life was the critical edition of the New

Testament. The text is basically the same

as Stephanus (3rd ed., 1550), but he

provided important notes and a text-

critical apparatus.

Bentley, Richard 1662

–

1742

Area of Research: Textual Criticism

Contribution: Bentley proposed a

complete revision of the NT that was

never made. However, he rescued Codex

Alexandrinus from a fire in Cambridge.

Locke, John 1632

–

1704

Epistemology:

“An Essay on Human Understanding” (1690)

Christianity:

The Reasonableness of Christianity (1695)

“A Discourse of Miracles” (1702-3)

New Testament:

A Paraphrase and Notes on the Epistles of St. Paul

(1705)

Area of Research: Epistemology,

Philosophy

Contribution: Locke’s concern with

linguistics and the historical background

of the NT anticipated later NT

scholarship. However, his enduring

impact on the study of the NT is his

view of epistemology and his view of

revelation as that which we cannot find

out by reason, but what does not

contradict it. Deists would build upon this

view of knowledge and propose that

reason was sufficient for religion.

5

Spener, Philip Jakob

1635–

1705

Pia Desideria (1675)

Contribution: Advocated for the practice of the life of faith as more important than

mental assent to correct doctrine. The

church and society can be revitalized if

people will live by the Spirit and the

Word, rather than being content with

lifeless orthodoxy. His enduring NT

influence lies in his role as the founder of

Pietism.

Franke, August

Hermann

1663

–

1727

Manuductio ad lectionem scripturae sacrae (1693) Area of Research: Hermeneutics, Exegesis

Contribution: Franke believed that faith is

more important than reason for

understanding the Bible. He believed that

“the major goal in interpretation of the

Bible is to distinguish between the husk

and the kernel, the letter and the spirit.”6

The letter of the Bible is important

because the spiritual meaning can only be

reached through the literal meaning. His

exegetical method was a significant

contribution to NT research.

Bengel, Johann

Albrecht

1687

–

1752

Novum Testamentum Graecum (1734)

Gnomon Novi Testament (1742)

Area of Research: New Testament

Exegesis, Textual Criticism

Contribution: His Greek NT includes

important text-critical notes. He

developed a number of important text-

critical principles. His Gnomon is a series

6 Baird, 1:65.

6

of notes on the NT. He engages in careful linguistic and historical interpretation.

Wettstein,

Johann Jakob

1693

–

1754

Critical Edition of the Greek New Testament (1751–

1752; it uses the 1624 Elzevir edition text, but including

his own notes and critical apparatus)


Contribution: Wettstein advanced the

text-critical study of the GNT. His

prolegomena gives 19 principles for

evaluating textual variants. His apparatus

increased the number of variants available

to the text critic. His textual judgments

were less tethered to orthodoxy, and

represented a step toward the modern

critical text.

Ernesti, Johann

August

1707

–

1781

Institutio interpretis Novi Testamenti (Principles of

New Testament Interpretation, 1761)

Notes on the Books of the New Testament (1786)

Area of Research: Hermeneutics, Exegesis

Contribution: By training a classical

philologist, Ernesti’s “main contribution

to the history of NT research is apparent:

the rigorous use of linguistic and

grammatical analysis in the service of

historical interpretation.”7

Semler, Johann

Salomo

1725

–

1791

Abhandlung von freier Untersuchung des Canon

(1771–1775)

Four volume work on theological hermeneutics: Vol 1

and 2: Vorbereitung zur theologischen Hermeneutik

(1760–1761); Vol 3 and 4: Hermeneutische Vorbereitung

(1765–1769)

Paraphrases on NT books (1769–1792)


Criticism, Canon, Hermeneutics

Contribution: Semler divorced faith from

reason. His most important work was his

writing on the canon, in which he argued

for the free investigation into the books of

7 Baird, 1:114.

7

the Bible. He denied that Scripture was all God’s word; rather, he thought that

Scripture contained God’s word, and

historical research was necessary to

discern what was truly inspired. Semler is

most important because he made a

division between the Bible and the

Word of God. This wedge becomes a

continual problem in the history of

interpretation. He was also one of the

first scholars to dispute the unity of some

NT books (Romans and 2 Corinthians).

He also anticipated the work of F. C. Baur

by positing a Pauline Gentile faction and

Petrine Jewish faction in the early church.

He was influenced by S. J. Baumgarten

who was also the professor of F. C. Baur.

Michaelis,

Johann David

1717

–

1791

Einleitung in die göttlichen Schriften des Neuen

Bundes (1788; English trans. Introduction to the New

Testament, 1802)


Introduction

Contribution: Michaelis established the

science of New Testament Introduction as an independent discipline.

His Introduction was intended as a

conservative defense of the Bible, but

ended up undercutting its authority. He

distinguished between inspired and

reliable. Matthew and John were apostolic

and inspired, while Mark and Luke were

not. He then tried to discern how Matthew

and John relate, and was concerned that

they conflicted. He resolved it by positing

8

that Matthew was a translation, and that conflicts are with the translation, not the

original (which we do not have). His work

is the result of a combination of orthodox

and Enlightenment presuppositions.

Griesbach,

Johann Jakob

1745

–

1812

Synopsis (1774)

“Inquiry into the sources from which the Evangelists

drew their narratives of the resurrection of the Lord”

(1783)

“Treatise by which it is demonstrated that the entire

Gospel of Mark was extracted from the records of

Matthew and Luke” (1789)

Novum Testamentum (1796, 1806)

Lectures on the Hermeneutics of the New Testament

(posthumously, 1815)

Area of Research: Textual Criticism,

Gospels: Synoptic Problem, New

Testament Exegesis

Contribution: Griesbach was the first

Enlightenment scholar to attempt a

revision of the Greek New Testament.

He also advocated for Matthean priority

as a solution to the synoptic problem.

Eichhorn, Johann

Gottfried

1752

–

1827

Einleitung in das Neue Testament (Introduction to the

New Testament, 2nd ed. 1820–1827)


Introduction, Hermeneutics, Gospels

Contribution: Eichhorn used a “mythical

method of interpretation” in order to

explain away the supernatural elements in

the Bible (for example, Gen 1-3).

His critical Introduction proposed that an

early lost Gospel was the source for the

canonical Gospels, and that they represent

mythical expansions on the earlier

apostolic document (an “UrGospel”).

Lessing, Gotthold

Ephraim

1729

–

1781

Nathan the Wise (n.d.)

“On the Proof of the Spirit and of Power” (n.d.)

Area of Research: Literature and Drama,

Philosophy, Gospels

9

“A New Hypothesis Concerning the Evangelists Regarded as Merely Human Historians” (n.d.)

Published The Wolfenbüttel Fragments (1774–1778,

written by H. S. Reimarus)

Contribution: Nathan the Wise argued for religious tolerance. In “Proof,” Lessing

posits his famous “‘ugly ditch’—the

chasm between faith and history.”8 This

demonstrates the influence of German

idealism. In “New Hypothesis,” Lessing

posits an Urgospel upon which the

canonical Gospels are dependent.

Lessing caused great controversy by his

publishing of the The Wolfenbüttel

Fragments (see below).

Reimarus,

Hermann Samuel

1694

–

1768

Apology for the Rational Worshippers of God,

published as Fragments of an Unknown, or The

Wolfenbüttel Fragments (published by Lessing)

Area of Research: Historical Jesus/History

of Early Christianity

Contribution: Published posthumously by

Lessing in seven parts, this essay is anti-

supernatural similar to the writings of

Deists. In the seventh part, Reimarus

writes that Jesus taught a moral message

of the Kingdom, but his disciples made

up Christianity by stealing the body

and lying about it.

Herder, Johann

Gottfried

1744

–

1803

Ideen zur Philosophie der Geschichte der Menscheit (4

vols., 1784-1791)

Area of Research: Philosophy of History,

Historical Backgrounds, Gospels

Contribution: Herder interprets the history

of humanity according to an evolutionary

model, with Jesus as a central figure in

bringing human religion to a higher, more

8 Baird, 1:168.

10

spiritual level. He emphasizes the human dimension in hermeneutics, and

anticipates the history of religions school

by advocating for the study of Persian

religion as New Testament background.

He proposes an oral Gospel that becomes

an Urgospel that is the basis of the

synoptics.

Gabler, Johann

Philipp

1753

–

1826

Updated Eichhorn’s two volume Urgeschichte.

His most important work is “Discourse on the Proper

Distinction between Biblical and Dogmatic Theology,

and the Right Determination of the Aims is of Each”

(l787)

Area of Research: Biblical Theology

Contribution: In his “Discourse,” he

argued for a “distinction between

Biblical and Dogmatic Theology.” He

suggested that historical exegesis would

solve many doctrinal disputes. He also

used the categories of accommodation and

myth to separate between what the

biblical authors taught (true BT) and the

universal truths that could be distilled

from those teachings (pure BT).

Kant, Immanuel 1724

–

1804

Critique of Pure Reason (1781).

Kant is one of the most important philosophers of this

time. He separated between the metaphysical and the

experiential and focused on morality. He was influenced

by Descartes. He argued that you cannot know about a

thing in itself, including God. But there is a universal

moral law.

Area of Research: Philosophy

Contribution: God becomes non personal

“supreme being” as the last figure in a

syllogism that starts with our experience.

This is the root of existentialism as well.

This division between reason and

experience is the foundational problem for

modern man. However, God has crossed

the gap in revelation and incarnation.

11

Schleiermacher,

Friedrich Daniel

Ernst

1768–

1834

On Religion: Speeches to Its Cultured Despisers (Über die Religion: Reden an die gebildeten unter ihren

Verächtern. 1799).

Brief Outline of the Study of Theology (Kurze

Darstellung des theologischen Studiums; 1810, Eng.

Trans. 1850).

The Christian Faith (Der Christliche Glaube nach den

Grundsätzen der evangelischen Kirche im

Zusammenhang dargestellt. 1821–1822).

Hermeneutics (n.d.).

Introduction to the New Testament (Einleitung ins neue

Testament, from lectures in 1829–1832).

Life of Jesus (Das Leben Jesu. 1864).

Area of Research: Systematic Theology, Hermeneutics, New Testament

Introduction, Historical Jesus

Contribution: His most important work

is The Christian Faith. He is often called

the father of modern liberal theology.

Baird says that he is “the most

important theologian of the nineteenth

century.”9 In terms of New Testament, he

had a huge impact through his

hermeneutics in that he pushed beyond

exegesis and inquired into the nature of

understanding. His Introduction

continued the general trends in critical

studies. His Life of Jesus was an

interpretation of Jesus according to

Schleiermacher’s view of religion as

“dependence upon God” and Jesus as the

perfect example of “God-consciousness.”

(This is the seed form of Bultmann’s later

existentialism. Religious experience is not

dependent on historicity.) However, on

many important issues, he continues the

enlightenment trend of trying to

rationalize and de-mystify the miraculous.

de Wette, Wilhelm

Martin Leberecht

1780

–

1849

Theodore, or the Skeptic’s Conversion (Theodor, oder

des Zweiflers Weihe; Eng. Trans., 1841).

De morte Jesu Christi expiatoria commenlatio (1831).

Area of Research: Old Testament, New

Testament, Systematic Theology.

9 Baird, 1:208.

12

Lehrbuch der historisch-kritischen Einleitung in die Bibel Alten und Neuen Testamentes. Vol. 1: Lehrbuch

der historisch-kritischen Einleitung in die kanonischen

und apokryphischen Bücher des Alten Testamentes. 7th

rev. ed (1852). Vol 2: Lehrbuch der historisch-kritischen

Einleitung in die kanonischen Bücher des Neum

Testaments. 5th rev ed. (1848; English translation: An

Historico-Critical Introduction to the Canonical Books

of the New Testament. Translated from the 5th ed.;

1858). Concise Exegetical Handbook to the NT (Kurzgefasstes

exegetisches Handbuch zum Neuen Testament, 4 vols.,

1845–1848)

Biblical Dogmatics (Biblische Dogmatik Alten und

Neuen Testaments, 1831).

Contribution: He tried to occupy a middle ground between rationalism and

supernaturalism. For de Wette, “The

essence of religion is feeling.”10 With

regard to the Gospels, he preferred John to

the synoptics and was generally skeptical

about the authorship of many New

Testament books.

Strauss, Davis

Friedrich

1808

–

1874

Life of Jesus (1835).

Defense of My Life of Jesus (1836–7).

Glaubenslehre (1940–1).

Life of Jesus for the German People (1864).

The Christ of Faith and the Jesus of History (1865).

The Old Faith and the New (1872).

Area of Research: Gospels: Historical

Jesus/History of Early Christianity,

Hermeneutics

Contribution: Embraced radical

Hegelianism and rejected Theism. He

criticized any attempt to reconstruct a

historical Jesus from the Gospel accounts.

He attacked rationalism and

supernaturalism and advocated for a

mythological interpretation in which the

whole of the Gospel narratives were

considered basically non-historical

narratives that were written to give shape

to the early church’s faith in Jesus.

10 Quoted in Baird, 1:223.

13

Baur, Ferdinand

Christian

1792

–

1860

Paul the Apostle of Jesus Christ (1845).

Critical Investigations of the Canonical Gospels (1847).

Die Epochen der kirchlichen Geschichtschreibung (On

the Writing of Church History, trans., 1968)

Geschichte der christlichen Kirche (1853–62; trans.,

The Church History of the First Three Centuries).

Das Markusevangelium nach seinem Ursprung und

Charakter. Nebst einem Anhang über das Evangelium

Marcion’s (1851).

Vorlesung über neutestamentliche Theologie (1864).

Area of Research: History of Early

Christianity

Contribution: Embraced moderate

Hegelianism. Baur’s philosophy of

history viewed data and interpretation to

be working together in dialectical

relationship.11

Reconstructed early Christianity

around a conflict between Jewish

(Petrine) and Gentile (Pauline)

Christianity that was reconciled in

early Catholicism.

Baur also proposed that only Romans, 1

and 2 Corinthians and Galatians, are

authentically Pauline.

Baird says that Baur’s legacy is mixed: he

is known for his creative energy and his

all-encompassing theory, but he made

many historical errors and is guilty of

circular reasoning.12

He pioneered tendency criticism.

Gieseler, Johann

Carl Ludwig

1792

–

1854

Historical-Critical Experiment Concerning the

Formation and Earliest Fate of the Written Gospels

(1818).

Area of Research: Gospels: Synoptic

Problem

Contribution: Advocated for common

oral tradition as a solution to the

Synoptic Problem.

11 Baird, 1:260. 12 Baird, 1:262, 268–269.

14

Marsh, Herbert 1758–

1839

“Dissertation on the Origin and Composition of Our Three First Canonical Gospels” (1789).

Area of Research: Gospels: Synoptic Problem

Contribution: Advocated for a common

written Gospel as a solution to the

Synoptic Problem. Also “gives tacit

support to the two-document hypothesis”

in supposing that the Evangelists used

“Aleph” (a narrative document) and

“Beth” (a sayings document).13

Wilke, Christian

Gottlob

1786

–

1854

Die Hermeneutik des Neuen Testaments systematisch

dargestellt, 2 vols. (1843).

Der Urevangelist, oder exegetisch kritische

Untersuchung über das Verwandtschaftsverhältniss der

drei ersten Evangelien (1838).


Problem

Contribution: Advocated for the Markan

Priority as a solution to the Synoptic

Problem. One of the most extensive

treatments of the subject in the history of

research. He said that Matthew used Mark

and Luke.

Weisse, Christian

Hermann

1801

–

1866

Philosophical Dogmatics (1855–62).

Contributions to the Criticism of the Pauline Epistles to

the Galatians, Romans, Philippians and Colossians

(1867).

The Gospel History Critically and Philosophically

Investigated (1838).

The Question of the Gospels in the Present Situation

(1856).


Problem

Contribution: An idealist philosopher, he

advocated for the two-document

hypothesis as a solution to the Synoptic

Problem. Though he was skeptical about

the historical veracity of the Gospel

accounts and sounds at times like Strauss,

13 Baird, 1:300–301.

15

he believes that Mark gives the memories of Peter.

Bretschneider,

Karl Gottlieb

1776

–

1848

Probability Concerning the Character and Origin of the

Gospel and Epistles of John, the Apostle, Modestly

Submitted to the Judgment of the Erudite (1820).

Area of Research: Gospel of John

Contribution: Argued against Johannine

authorship of the Gospel. Pitted the

Synoptics against John, and suggested that

the author of John was not an eyewitness,

not a Palestinian, and not a Jew. He was

part of the beginning of a rejection of

Johannine authorship. Many of his

arguments were later rejected, but the

overall view has prevailed.

Lachmann, Karl 1793

–

1851

“De ordine narrationum in evangeliis synopticis,”

Theologische Studien und Kritiken 8 (1835).

Produced a critical Greek New Testament:

1st edition (1831).

2 vol. critical edition (1842, 1850).


Problem, Textual Criticism

Contribution: He worked in the classics

(Homer), but also the NT. He wrote an

essay on the Synoptic problem, in which

he focused on the order of the narratives,

in which he proposed that, which

Matthew and Luke did not use Mark,

Mark was closer to the primitive tradition

than the others. With regard to Textual

criticism, his key accomplishment was to

break away from the Textus Receptus. He

produced a critical text with an extensive

list of variants, though manuscript

evidence is limited.

16

Tischendorf,

Constantin von

1815–

1874

When Were Our Gospels Written? 4th ed. (1880). Produced a critical Greek New Testament:

1st edition (1841).

2nd Leipzig edition (1849).

8th edition, with prolegomena (1884).


Contribution: Baird says that Tischendorf

was “perhaps the greatest text critic of all

times.”14 He defended the authenticity of

the Gospels. He discovered Codex

Sinaiticus. Copied Codex Vaticanus.

Produced a critical Greek New

Testament.

Stuart, Moses 1780

–

1852

Grammar/Philology:

Exegetical Essays on Several Words Relating to Future

Punishment (1830).

A Grammar of the New Testament Dialect (1834).

Commentaries:

A Commentary on the Epistle to the Hebrews, 2 vols.

(1828).

A Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans (2nd ed.

1835).

A Commentary on the Apocalypse, 2 vols. (1845).

Translated:

Georg Winer’s Grammatik des neutestamentlichen

Sprachidioms (1825).

Ernesti’s Institutio (Engl. Elements of Interpretation,

1827).

Gesenius’s Hebrew Grammar (1851).

Area of Research: Hermeneutics,

Exegesis, Grammar/Philology,

Commentary

Contribution: Stuart was a conservative

scholar with great abilities. His major

works were his commentaries on

Romans, Hebrews, and Revelation.

However, he also translated some

important grammatical and linguistic

works into English.

14 Baird, 1:322.

17

Robinson, Edward 1794–

1863

The Bible and Its Literature; An Inaugural Address (1841).

Biblical Researches in Palestine . . . A Journal of Travels

in the Year 1838 (1856).

Later Biblical Researches in Palestine . . . A Journal of

Travels in the Year 1852 (1871).

Area of Research: Historical Backgrounds: Archeology

Contribution: Robinson Studied under

Stuart. He contributed to an understanding

of biblical geography. “He properly

identified more than one hundred biblical

sites.”15 His vivid description “may have

done more to promote the study of the

Bible than hosts of academic lectures on

higher criticism.”16

He also contributed to the area of biblical

linguistics.

Hodge, Charles 1797

–

1878

Systematic Theology, 3 vols. (reprint, 1952).

Commentaries:

A Commentary on the Epistle to the Ephesians (n.d.).

Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans (Rev. ed.,

1873).

An Exposition of the First Epistle to the Corinthians,

(1894).

An Exposition of the Second Epistle to the Corinthians

(1859).

Area of Research: Systematic Theology,

New Testament Exegesis, Commentary

Contribution: Hodge’s commentaries

have been very influential. His doctrine

of inspiration was “refined by his

disciples” and played “a crucial role in the

ongoing study of the NT in America.”17

Schaff, Philip 1819

–

1893

“The Principle of Protestantism” (controversial

Mercersburg address, 1844).

What Is Church History? A Vindication of the Idea of

Historical Development (1846).

Area of Research: Church History,

Historical Theology (dabbled in other

fields), New Testament Theology

15 Baird, 2:30. 16 Baird, 2:31. 17 Baird, 2:37.

18

The Person of Christ: His Perfect Humanity as Proof of His Divinity, with Impartial Testimonies to His

Character (1865, Rev. ed. 1913).

History of the Apostolic Church; with a General

Introduction to Church History (1874).

A Companion to the Greek Testament and the English

Version (1883).

Christ and Christianity: Studies on Christology, Creeds

and Confessions, Protestantism and Romanism,

Reformation Principles, Sunday Observance, Religious

Freedom, and Christian Union (1885).

Contribution: His most important works were in church history. He was dedicated

to critical research, but also committed to

his faith. He also supervised the

translation of J. P. Lange’s commentary

into English and accomplished many

other NT works. He led in the formation

of SBL. Schaff’s work is a “massive

accomplishment.”18

Hort, Fenton

John Anthony

1828

–

1892

With Westcott: The New Testament in the Original

Greek (1881–1882).

With Lightfoot and Westcott: The Revised Version of the

NT (1881).

Commentaries (incomplete):

The Apocalypse of St John I-III: The Greek Text, with

Introduction, Commentary, and Additional Notes (1908).

The Epistle of St James: The Greek Text with

Introduction, Commentary as far as Chapter IV, Verse 7,

and Additional Notes (n.d.).

The First Epistle of St Peter, 1.1–II. 17: The Greek Text

with Introductory Lecture, Commentary and Additional

Notes (1898).

Judaistic Christianity: A Course of Lectures (1894).

Prolegomena to St Paul’s Epistles to the Romans and the

Ephesians (1895).


Commentary

Contribution: He is primarily known as a

textual critic. The Westcott and Hort

edition of the Greek New Testament is

his enduring legacy. It looks like much of

the work fell on Hort.

18 Baird, 2:52.

19

Westcott, Brooke

Foss

1825–

1901

With Hort: The New Testament in the Original Greek

(1881–1882).

With Hort and Lightfoot: The Revised Version of the NT

(1881).

A General Survey of the History of the Canon of the New

Testament, 7th ed. (1896).

The Gospel of Life: Thoughts Introductory to the Study of

Christian Doctrine (1892).

The Gospel of the Resurrection: Thoughts on Its Relation

to Reason and History (1906).

An Introduction to the Study of the Gospels, 7th ed.

(1888).

Commentaries:

The Epistle to the Hebrews: The Greek Text with Notes

and Essays (1889).

The Epistles of St John: The Greek Text with Notes and

Essays, 2d ed. (1886).

The Gospel According to St John: The Authorized

Version with Introduction and Notes (1894).

The Gospel According to St. John: The Greek Text with

Introduction and Notes, Edited by A. Westcott, 2 vols.

(1954).

Saint Paul’s Epistle to the Ephesians: The Greek Text

with Notes and Addenda (1950).

Area of Research: Textual Criticism, Commentary

Contribution: His “major contribution to

NT research is . . . his commentaries.”19

He wrote on the Gospel of John, John’s

Letters, and Hebrews.

He also helped Hort with the Greek New

Testament (most of the work fell on

Hort).

Lightfoot, Joseph

Barber

1828

–

1889

With Hort and Westcott: The Revised Version of the NT

(1881).

Historical Works:

Area of Research: History of Early

Christianity, Patristics, Historical

Interpretation, Commentary

19 Baird, 2:77.

20

The Apostolic Fathers. Part I. S. Clement of Rome: A

Revised Text with Introductions, Notes, Dissertations,

and Translations. 2 vols. (1890).

The Apostolic Fathers. Part II. S. Ignatius. S. Polycarp:

Revised Texts with Introductions, Notes, Dissertations,

and Translations. 3 vols. 2d ed. (1889).

The Christian Ministry (1901; originally published as an

excursus in his Philippians commentary)

Dissertations on the Apostolic Age: Reprinted from

Editions of St Paul’s Epistles (1892).

Commentaries:

The Epistle of Paul to the Galatians: With Introductions,

Notes and Dissertations (n.d.).

Notes on the Epistles of St Paul (I and II Thessalonians, I

Corinthians 1-7, Romans 1-7, Ephesians 1:1-14): Based

on the Greek Text from Previous Unpublished

Commentaries (1957).

Saint Paul’s Epistles to the Colossians and to Philemon:

A Revised Text with Introductions, Notes, and

Dissertations, 3d ed. (1879).

Saint Paul’s Epistle to the Philippians: A Revised Text

with Introduction, Notes, and Dissertations (1927).

Contribution: He was primarily a historian. He wrote commentaries on

Paul’s letters (including Galatians,

Philippians, Colossians and Philemon).

He also made important contributions to

early church history. His major work,

the Apostolic Fathers, undermined the

reconstruction of early church history

proposed by Tübingen.20

Ritschl, Albrecht 1822

–

1889

The Christian Doctrine of Justification and

Reconciliation (1874).

Area of Research: Systematic Theology,

New Testament Theology

Contribution: Though he was largely

conservative on critical issues, he

emphasized ethics over metaphysics. This

spiritual/ethical view of the kingdom

20 Baird, 2:71.

21

was influential for later liberal

theology. He rejected inspiration, the

wrath of God and substitutionary

atonement.

Weiss, Bernhard

1827

–

1918

Die Geschichtlichkeit des Markusevangeliums (1905).

Das Leben Jesu, 4th ed. 2 vols. (1902; Engl. The Life of

Christ).

Lehrbuch der Einleitung in das Neue Testament (1886;

Engl. A Manual of Introduction to the New Testament).

Lehrbuch der Biblischen Theologie des Neuen

Testaments, 3d ed. (1880; Engl. Biblical Theology of the

New Testament).

Das Marcusevangelium und seine synoptischen

Parallelen (1872).

Das Matthäusevangelium und seine Lucas-Parallelen

(1876).

Das Neue Testament: Handausgabe der Griechischen

Texte, 3 vols. (1896–1905).

Der Philipper-Brief ausgelegt und die Geschichte seiner

Auslegung kritisch dargestellt (1859).

A Commentary on the New Testament, 4 vols. (1906).

Contributions to the Meyer commentaries:

Commentaries on Matthew, Mark, Luke, John, Romans,

Pastoral Epistles, Hebrews, Johannine Epistles

Area of Research: Gospels: Historical

Jesus, Synoptic Problem, Textual

Criticism, New Testament Theology,

Commentary

Contribution: He published a number of

works on the synoptic problem that

basically affirmed the two-source view.

He also produced a mountain of other

works, including works on textual

criticism, introduction, biblical theology,

and commentaries. He also produced a

popular life of Jesus. He practiced BT as a

historical discipline. His text-critical

work is important as well, being one of

the three base texts for the Nestle text

(after 1901).

Baird concludes that Weiss was

immensely productive, through his

pictures of Jesus and Paul are slightly out

of focus.

Holtzmann,

Heinrich

1832

–

1910

Geschichte des Volkes Israel und der Entstehung des

Christenthums, with Georg Weber (1867).

Introduction to the New Testament (1886).

The Messianic Consciousness of Jesus (1907).

Lehrbuch der neutestamentlichen Theologie, 2d ed. 2

vols. (1911).


Introduction, Commentary

Contribution: According to Baird,

Holzmann represented the critical

consensus: “. . . he articulated an

22

Commentaries on the Pastoral Epistles, Synoptic

Gospels, Acts, John, Johannine Epistles, Revelation

emerging critical consensus that was to prevail among liberal scholars for a

century: the two-document hypothesis; the

pseudonymity of Ephesians and the

Pastoral Epistles; the questionable

reliability of Acts; the problematic

authorship of the Catholic Epistles; the

theological, rather than historical,

character of the Fourth Gospel; the

importance of Hellenistic backgrounds for

the understanding of Paul and John.”21

He was massively important and

influential in the next century.

von Harnack,

Adolf

1851

–

1930

History of Dogma, 3 Vols. (1886–1890; Engl., 7 Vols,

1958).

What is Christianity? (1900; Engl. 1957).

The Mission and Expansion of Christianity in the First

Three Centuries (1906).

The Constitution and Law of the Church in the First

Two Centuries (1910).

Beiträge zur Einleitung in das Neue Testament (1909;

Engl. New Testament Studies).

Area of Research: Theology, History of

Early Christianity, Pauline Studies

Contribution: Harnack produced

numerous works on the historical

development of the early church and

Christian doctrine. He represents the high

point of Liberal theology, and famously

defined the “essence” of Christianity as

“Firstly, the kingdom of God and its

coming. Secondly, God the Father and the

infinite value of the human soul. Thirdly,

the higher righteousness and the

commandment of love.”22 He argues that

Catholic, ecclesial Christianity and

doctrine is a distortion of the pure religion

taught by Jesus. He contributed to Pauline

21 Baird, 2:121. 22 From What is Christianity? Quoted in Baird, 2:125.

23

studies in his investigation of the Pauline Letter Collection.

Wrede, William 1859

–

1906

Über Aufgabe und Methode der sogenannten

Neutestamentlichen Theologie (1897; Engl. “The Task

and Methods of ‘New Testament Theology,’” 1973).

Die Entstehung der Schriften des Neuen Testaments

(1907; Engl. The Origin of the New Testament, 1909).

Das Messiasgeheimnis in den Evangelien: Zugleich ein

Beitrag zum Verständnis des Markusevangeliums

(1901; Engl. The Messianic Secret, 1971).

Paulus (2nd ed., 1907; Engl. Paul, 1908).

Primary Area of Research: History, New

Testament Criticism, “New Testament

Theology,” Gospel of Mark, Pauline

Studies

Contribution: He reaffirmed the historical

nature of Biblical Theology, in a radical

sense in which it should be strictly

historical (“The appropriate name for the

subject-matter is: early Christian history

or religion, or rather: the history of early

Christian religion and theology”).23 His

most important contribution is raising the

issue of the “Messianic Secret” in Mark.

He proposed that Mark portrays Jesus and

hiding his messianic identity, but in

reality Mark is giving theology, not

history. This derailed the “Lives of Jesus”

based on Mark. He wrote that Paul

replaced the religion and person of Jesus

with a preexistent, heavenly being and this

changed the direction of Christianity.

Wrede was fairly radical.

Jülicher, Adolf 1857

–

1938

“The Religion of Jesus and the Beginnings of

Christianity,” in History of Christianity (1906).

Paulus und Jesus (1907).

Gleichnisreden Jesus (1886–1910, on parables).

Primary Area of Research: Historical

Interpretation, New Testament

Introduction

23 Baird, 2:145.

24

Introduction to the New Testament (1901; Engl. 1904).

Contribution: He is most well-known for his work on parables in that he argued

forcefully against allegorizing them. His

Introduction became the standard for

students at the end of the 19th century.

Deissmann, Adolf 1866

–

1937

The New Testament in the Light of Modern Research

(1929).

Die neutestamentliche Formel “in Christo Jesu” (1892).

Bibelstudien (1895).

Neue Bibelstudien (1897).

Bible Studies: Contributions Chiefly from Papyri and

Inscriptions to the History of the Language, the

Literature, and the Religion of Hellenistic Judaism and

Primitive Christianity (1901; republication/translation of

the two previous works).

Die sprachliche Erforschung der griechischen Bibel

(1898; Engl. The Philology of the Greek Bible, 1908).

Die Urgeschichte des Christentums im Lichte der

Sprachforschung (1910).

Die Hellenisierung des semitischen Monotheismus

(1903).

Licht vom Osten, 4th ed. (1923; Eng. Light from the

Ancient East).

Paul: A Study in Social and Religious History (1927).

The Religion of Jesus and the Faith of Paul (1923).

Primary Area of Research: New

Testament, Philology, Historical

Backgrounds: Archeology, Pauline

Studies

Contribution: Deissmann researched the

papyri and showed that the language of

the New Testament was common

Greek. He also distinguished between

letters (real communication between two

people) and epistles (literary productions

for mass consumption) and tried to

classify the New Testament letters

accordingly. He is important on the issue

of “union with Christ.”

Buttmann,

Alexander

1813

–

1893

A Grammar of the New Testament Greek, (1873; trans. J.

H. Thayer).

Primary Area of Research: Greek

Grammar

Contribution: Demonstrated the

difference between New Testament and

Classical Greek. He said that New

25

Testament Greek was influenced by LXX and vernacular Hellenistic (descended

from Attic).

Blass, Friedrich 1843

–

1907

Grammar of the New Testament (1905; trans. Henry St.

John Thackeray).

Revised by A. Debrunner and later R. W. Funk, now A

Grammar of the New Testament (BDF).

Commentaries on Matthew, Luke, John, Acts, and

Hebrews


Grammar, Philology, Commentary

Contribution: demonstrated that the

Greek of the New Testament is common

Greek.

Cremer, Hermann 1834

–

1903

Biblisch-theologisches Wörterbuch der

Neutestamentlichen Gräcität, 7th ed. (1893).

Primary Area of Research: Systematic

Theology, Lexicography

Contribution: His lexicon dealt with

words that are theologically significant,

though he reverts back to the view that the

New Testament Greek is “special”

Greek. Became the precursor to Baur’s

lexicon.

Moulton, James

Hope

1863

–

1917

A Grammar of New Testament Greek (1908).

With George Milligan: The Vocabulary of the Greek

Testament (1929).


Grammar, Lexicography

Contribution: His Grammar and lexicon.

He believed the New Testament was

written in common Greek.

Ramsey, William

M.

1851

–

1939

The Historical Geography of Asia Minor (1890).

The Social Basis of Roman Power in Asia Minor (1941).

Asiatic Elements in Greek Civilization, 2d ed. (1929).

The Church in the Roman Empire: Before A.D. 170

(1893).


Background: Archeology

Contribution: Provided geographical

information for historical background of

26

The Cities and Bishoprics of Phrygia, 2 vols. (1895, 1897).

The Thousand and One Churches (1909).

A Historical Commentary on St. Paul’s Epistle to the

Galatians (1900).

St. Paul the Traveler and the Roman Citizen, 3rd ed.

(1897).

The Cities of St. Paul: Their Influence on His Life and

Thought (1907).

Pauline and Other Studies in Early Christian History

(1906).

The Letters to the Seven Churches of Asia (1904).

Was Christ Born at Bethlehem? 3rd ed. (1905).

Luke the Physician and Other Studies in the History of

Religion (1908).

the NT. Supported the South Galatian

hypothesis on the book of Galatians. He

wrote apologetic works defending the

historicity of the NT.

Dalman, Gustaf 1855

–

1941

Grammatik des jüdisch-palästinischen Aramäisch

(1894).

Aramäische Dialektproben unter dem Gesichtspunkt

neutestamentlicher Studien, 2nd ed. (1927).

Aramäisch-neuhebräisches Handwörterbuch zu Targum,

Talmud und Midrasch, 3rd ed. (1938).

The Words of Jesus: Considered in the Light of Post-

Biblical Jewish Writings and the Aramaic Language

(1909; trans. D. M. Kay).

Jesus—Jeshua: Studies in the Gospels (1929; trans. Paul

Ρ Levertoff).

Orte und Wege Jesu (1924; Engl. Sacred Sites and Ways:

Studies in the Topography of the Gospels, trans. Paul R

Levertoff, 1935).

Arbeit und Sitte in Palästina, 7 vols. (1927–1941).

Jerusalem und sein Gelände (1930).

Primary Area of Research: Aramaic

Grammar, Historical Backgrounds:

Archeology, Jewish Backgrounds

Contribution: He advanced the knowledge

of Aramaic. He believed that Jesus spoke

Aramaic as his native language. He also

believed that the early Jewish church was

bilingual (Aramaic and Greek). His work

in Holy Land geography and culture has

helped our understanding of the historical

and cultural background to Jesus and

the Gospels.

27

Schürer, Emil 1844–

1910

Geschichte des jüdischen Volkes im Zeitalter Jesu

Christi, 3 vols., 3rd and 4th ed. (1898–1901; Engl. A

History of the Jewish People in the Time of Jesus

Christ).

Primary Area of Research: Jewish Backgrounds

Contribution: His History of the Jewish

People was the unrivaled authoritative

work on Jewish history and life for

years. Most scholars believe his work is

valuable, but his portrayal of Judaism is a

caricature.

Charles, Robert

Henry

1855

–

1931

His first work was a critical edition of the Book of

Enoch: The Book of Enoch (1893).

The Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha of the Old

Testament with Introductions and Critical and

Explanatory Notes to the Several Books, 2 vols. (1913).

Critical History of the Doctrine of the Future Life: In

Israel, in Judaism, and in Christianity, or Hebrew,

Jewish, and Christian Eschatology from Pre-Prophetic

Times till the Close of the New Testament Canon (1898–

1899).

Religious Development between the Old and the New

Testaments (1914).

A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Revelation

of St. John, 2 vols. ICC (1920).

Primary Area of Research: Jewish and

Christian Eschatology; Apocalyptic;

Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha.

Contribution: His edition of the

Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha was the

standard for years. He produced numerous

works on Jewish and Christian

Apocalyptic.

Wendland, Paul 1864

–

1915

Die hellenistisch-römische Kultur in ihren Beziehungen

zu Judentum und Christentum (1912).

Primary Area of Research: Classics,

Philo.

Contribution: He worked on the

relationship between Hellenistic culture

and Christianity. He posited that

Christianity is essentially a Hellenistic

religion.

28

Hatch, Edwin 1835

–

1889

With Henry A. Redpath: A Concordance to the

Septuagint and Other Greek Versions of the Old

Testament (Including the Apocryphal Books), 3 vols.

(1897).

The Organization of the Early Christian Churches

(1880).

The Influence of Greek Ideas and Usage upon the

Christian Church (1888).

Essays in Biblical Greek (1889).

Primary Area of Research: Classics, LXX.

Contribution: Suggested that the early

church was influenced by Greco-Roman

associations in the development of

church government. While he recognizes

the influence of Greek culture upon the

church, he notes that the Greek element is

not essential to it.

Pfleiderer, Otto 1839

–

1908

Die Entstehung des Christentums (1905; Engl. Christian

Origins, trans. Daniel A. Huebsch, 1906).

Die Vorbereitung des Christentums in der griechischen

Philosophie, 2 ed., (1912).

The Early Christian Conception of Christ: Its

Significance and Value in the History of Religion (1905).

Das Urchristenthum, seine Schriften und Lehren, in

geschichtlichem Zusammenhang (1887; Engl. Primitive

Christianity: Its Writings and Teachings in Their

Historical Connections, trans. W. Montgomery, ed. W.

D. Morrison, 4 vols., 1906–1911).

Entwicklung des Christentums (1907; Engl. The

Development of Christianity, trans. Daniel A. Huebsch,

1910).

Primary Area of Research: Hellenistic

Backgrounds

Contribution: Pfleiderer taught that

Hellenistic backgrounds were key to

understanding the NT. He incorporated

Hellenistic backgrounds into a

“comprehensive view of the history of

early Christianity.”24

Weiss, Johannes 1836

–

1914

Die Predigt Jesu vom Reiche Gottes (1892; 2nd ed., 1900;

Engl. Jesus’ Proclamation of the Kingdom of God, trans,

and ed. R. H. Hiers and D. L. Holland, 1971).

Primary area of research: New Testament

Theology, Commentary

Contribution: He said that Jesus

preached an apocalyptic, and

24 Baird, 2:213.

29

Ueber die Absicht und den literarischen Charakter der Apostelgeschichte (1897; Engl. Purpose and Literary

Character of Acts).

Die Offenbarung des Johannes: Ein Beitrag zur

Literatur- und Religionsgeschichte (1904).

Das älteste Evangelium: Ein Beitrag zum Verständnis

des Markus-Evangelium und der ältesten evangelischen

Überlieferung (1903).

Der erste Korintherbrief, Meyer-Kommentar (1910).

Das Urchristentum (1914; Engl. Earliest Christianity: A

History of the Period A.D. 30–150, ed. Frederick C.

Grant, 2 vols., 1959).

ultimately mistaken, message. This undermined both liberal and conservative

attempts to find a foundation for theology

in Jesus’ teaching.

Schweitzer,

Albert

1875

–

1965

Das Abendmahlsproblem auf Grund der

wissenschafilichen Forschung des 19. Jahrhunderts und

der historischen Berichte. Heft 1: Das Abendmahl im

Zusammenhang mit dem Leben Jesu und der Geschichte

des Urchristentums (1901; Engl. Problem of the lord’s

Supper).

Von Reimarus zu Wrede: Eine Geschichte der Leben-

Jesu-Forschung (1906; Engl. The Quest of the

Historical Jesus: A Critical Study of Its Progress from

Reimarus to Wrede, trans. W. Montgomery, 1957).

Geschichte der paulinischen Forschung von der

Reformation bis auf die Gegenwart (1911; Engl. Paul

and His Interpreters: A Critical History, trans. W.

Montgomery, 1964).

Die Mystik des Apostels Paulus (1930; Engl. The

Mysticism of Paul the Apostle, trans. W. Montgomery

1931).

Primary area of research: Philosophy,

New Testament Criticism, Gospels:

Historical Jesus, Medicine, Organ (J. S.

Bach).

Contribution: Presented Jesus as an

apocalyptic preacher. His Quest, while

proposing his own historical Jesus, he

pointed out that 19th century liberalism

had painted a picture of Jesus in its

own image. Paul was a Jewish

eschatological mystic.

30

Gunkel, Hermann 1862–

1932

Schöpfung und Chaos in Urzeit und Endzeit: Eine

religionsgeschichtliche Untersuchung über Gen 1 und

Ap Joh 12 (1895).

Zum religionsgeschichtlichen Verständnis des Neuen

Testaments, 3rd ed (1930).

Primary area of research: Old Testament, History of Religions, Form Criticism

Contribution: began the history of

religions school by suggesting that

primitive myths form the basis of the

OT creation story and the NT

eschatological ending. He suggested that

Paul’s view of a preexistent redeemer

comes from Babylonian and Persian

myths via Hellenistic syncretism.

He also pioneered form criticism.

Reitzenstein,

Richard

1861

–

1931

Poimandres: Studien zur griechisch-ägyptischen und

frühchristlichen Literatur (1904).

Die hellenistischen Mysterienreligionen: Nach ihren

Grundgedanken und Wirkungen, 3rd ed. (1927; Engl.

Hellenistic Mystery-Religions: Their Basic Ideas and

Significance, trans. John E. Steely, 1987).

Das iranische Erlösungsmysterium:

Religionsgeschichtliche Untersuchungen (1921).

Area of Research: History of Religions

Contribution: suggests that Christianity

was influenced by Iranian pre-

Christian redeemer myths.

Bousset, Wilhelm 1865

–

1920

Das Wesen der Religion: Dargestellt an ihrer

Geschichte, 4th ed.. (1920; Engl. What Is Religion? Trans.

F. Β. Low, 1907).

Jesu Predigt in ihrem Gegensatz zum Judentum (1892).

Jesus, 4th ed. (1922).

Die Bedeutung der Person Jesu für den Glauben:

Historische und rationale Grundlage des Glaubens

(1910).

Die Religion des Judentums im späthellenistischen

Zeitalter (1903).

Hauptprobleme der Gnosis (1907).

Primary area of research: History of

Religions

Contribution: Applied history of religions

to Jesus and Jewish studies, as well as

Paul, John and the early church. He

affirmed that Judaism in the time of

Christ was influenced by the religious

life of the surrounding nations. Also,

the early church was influenced by the

Hellenistic religions.

31

Die Himmelreise der Seele (1901). Der Antichrist in der Überlieferung des Judentums, des

neuen Testaments und der alten Kirche: Ein Beitrag zur

Auslegung der Apocalypse (1895; Engl. The Antichrist

Legend: A Chapter in Christian and Jewish Folklore,

1896).

Die Offenbarung Johannis, KEK (Meyer), 6th ed. (1906).

Kyrios Christos: Geschichte des Christusglaubens von

den Anfängen des Christentums bis Irenaeus, 5th ed.

(1965; Engl. Kyrios Christos: A History of the Belief in

Christ from the Beginnings of Christianity to Irenaeus,

1970).

Montefiore,

Claude G.

1858

–

1938

The Synoptic Gospels: An Introduction and a

Commentary, 2nd ed., 2 vols. (1927).

Rabbinic Literature and Gospel Teachings (1930).

Some Elements of the Religious Teaching of Jesus:

According to the Synoptic Gospels (1910).

Judaism and St. Paul: Two Essays (1914).

Primary area of research: Torah, Judaism

Contribution: Positive evaluation of Jesus

from a Jewish perspective; he points out

that Christian interpretations of the

Pharisees are often caricatures, he saw in

Jesus a precursor to the liberal Jewish

view of the superiority of morality and

spirituality over ceremony.

Klausner, Joseph 1874

–

1958

The Messianic Idea in Israel: From Its Beginning to the

Completion of the Mishnah (1955).

Jesus of Nazareth: His Life, Times and Teaching (1925).

From Jesus to Paul (1943).

Contribution: Jesus and Christianity were

strongly pharisaic, it was Paul who

influenced the faith by taking it to the

gentiles and bringing along Hellenistic

Jewish elements.

Oxford Seminar

on the Synoptic

Problem

1894

ff

Sources used:

Albert Huck, A Synopsis of the First Three Gospels, 9th

ed. Hans Uetzmann; Eng. Ed. Frank Leslie Cross (1936).

Participants: J. C. Hawkins, W. C. Allen,

B. H. Streeter, chaired by William Sanday

32

W. G. Rushbrooke, Synopticon: An Exposition of the Common Matter of The Synoptic Gospels (1880).

Works Produced:

John C. Hawkins, Horae Synopticae: Contributions to

the Study of the Synoptic Problem, 2nd ed. (1909).

W. Sanday, ed. Studies in the Synoptic Problem: By

Members of the University of Oxford (1911).

Contribution: members of the seminar worked on the synoptic problem.

Contributed to the growing consensus

supporting Markan priority.

Sanday, William 1843

–

1920

Eight lectures on the Early History and Origin of the

Doctrine of Biblical Inspiration (1893).

An Examination of Harnack’s ‘What Is Christianity?’ A

Paper Read before the Tutors’ Association on October

24, 1901 (1901).

The Authorship and Historical Character of the Fourth

Gospel: Considered in Reference to the Contents of the

Gospel Itself: A Critical Essay (1872).

The Criticism of the Fourth Gospel: Eight Lectures on

the Morse Foundation, Delivered in the Union Seminary,

New York in October and November, 1904 (1923).

The Life of Christ in Recent Research (1907).

Outlines of the Life of Christ, 2nd ed. (1912).

Sacred Sites of the Gospels: With Illustrations, Maps and

Plans (1903).

With Arthur C. Headlam: A Critical and Exegetical

Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans, 5th ed., ICC

(1902).

Primary area of research: Gospels, Gospel

of John

Contribution: chairing the seminar on

the Synoptic Gospels was very

significant. Argued for the authenticity of

John’s Gospel (until near the end of his

life). Wrote a significant commentary on

Romans for ICC.

Streeter, B. H. 1874

–

1937

The Four Gospels: A Study of Origins: Treating of the

Manuscript Tradition, Sources, Authorship, and Dates,

rev. ed. (1930).

The Primitive Church: Studied with Special Reference to

the Origins of the Christian Ministry (1929).

Primary area of research: Gospels:

Synoptic Problem

33

Contribution: Proposed the four-source

theory as a form of Markan priority for

the solution to the synoptic problem.

Burkitt, F. C. 1864

–

1935

The Gospel History and Its Transmission, 3rd ed. (1911).

Two Lectures on the Gospels (1901).

With W. Sanday, F. G. Kenyon, F. H. Chase, A. C.

Headlam, and J. H. Bernard: Criticism of the New

Testament: St. Margaret’s Lectures (1902).

With Robert L. Bensly and J. Rendel Harris: The Four

Gospels in Syriac: Transcribed from the Sinaitic

Palimpsest (1894).

The Earliest Sources for the Life of Jesus, (1910).

Jesus Christ: An Historical Outline (1932).

Christian Beginnings: Three lectures (1924).

Church and Gnosis: A Study of Christian Thought and

Speculation in the Second Century (1932).

“Pagan Philosophy and the Christian Church,” and “The

Christian Church in the East,” in The Cambridge Ancient

History: Volume XII: The Imperial Crisis and Recovery

(1939).

Primary area of research: Gospels,

Textual Criticism

Contribution: Published works on the

Gospels, including textual criticism, and

origins of the Gospels. He defended some

conservative positions.

Schmidt, Karl

Ludwig

1891

–

1956

Der Rahmen der Geschichte Jesu: literarkritische

Untersuchungen zur ältesten Jesusüberlieferung (1919).

“Formgeschichle,” RGG, 2nd ed.

“Die literarische Eigenart der Leidensgeschichte Jesu,” in

Redaktion und Theologie des Passionsberichtes nach den

Synoptikern, ed. Limbeck (1981).

“Jesus Christus,” RGG, 2nd ed. (Engl. “Jesus Christ,” in

Twentieth Century Theology in the Making: Themes of

Biblical Theology, ed. Pelikan, 1969).

“ἐκκλησία,” TDNT.

Primary area of research: Gospels, Form

Criticism

Contribution: His major contribution was

examining the Gospels by means of form

criticism. He said that the Gospels have

no literary parallels because they are not

literature in the sense of literary works

(high literature), but rather folk literature.

He said that other than the passion

narrative, the Gospels do not present a

34

Die Judenfrage im Lichte der Kapitel 9-11 des Römerbriefes (1942).

history, but rather a series of stories fitted together into a narratival framework.

Dibelius, Martin 1883

–

1947

Geschichtliche und übergeschichtliche Religion im

Christentum (1925).

Gospel Criticism and Christology (1935).

Jesus, 3rd ed. (1960).

The Sermon on the Mount (1940).

Die Geisterwelt im Glauben des Paulus (1909).

Paul, ed. Werner Georg Kümmel, (1957, posthumously

and incomplete).

Die Formgeschichte des Evangeliums (originally 1919;

Engl. From Tradition to Gospel).

Die Botschaft von Jesus Christus: Die alte Überlieferung

der Gemeinde in Geschichten, Sprüchen, und Reden

(1935; Engl. The Message of Jesus Christ: The Tradition

of the Early Christian Communities, 1939).

Geschichte der urchristlichen Literatur (1926; Engl. A

Fresh Approach to the New Testament and Early

Christian Literature).

“Die Apostelgeschichte im Rahmen der urchristlichen

Literaturgeschichte,” in Aufsätze zur Apostelgeschichte,

ed. Greeven (1953; Engl. “The Acts of the Apostles in

the Setting of the History of Early Christian Literature”).

“Stilkritisches zur Apostelgeschichte” (1923; Engl.

“Style Criticism of the Book of Acts”).

Commentaries:

Contribution to Handbuch zum Neuen Testament series:

Colossians, Ephesians, Philemon, Pastoral Letters

(revised for Hermeneia series), 1 and 2 Thessalonians,

Philippians.

Contribution to Meyer series: James.

Primary area of research: History of

Religions, Form Criticism, Commentary

Contribution: His most important work is

on form criticism of the Gospels and

other Christian literature. He categorized

the Gospel stories according to their

forms. He also contributed to important

commentary series such as the Meyer

commentaries and Lietzmann’s Handbuch

zum Neuen Testament.

35

Bultmann,

Rudolf (early

Bultmann)

1884

–

1976

Der Stil der paulinischen Predigt und die kynisch-

stoische Diatribe (1910).

“Der religionsgeschichtliche Hintergrund des Prologs

zum Johannes-Evangelium” (1923; Engl. “The History of

Religion Background of the Prologue of the Johannine

Gospel”).

“Die Bedeutung der neuerschlossenen mandäischen und

manichäischen Quellen für das Verständnis des

Johannesevangeliums” (1925).

Das Urchristentum im Rahmen der Antiken Religionen,

2nd ed. (1954; Engl. Primitive Christianity in Its

Contemporary Setting, 1957).

Die Geschichte der synoptischen Tradition, 3rd ed.

(1957; Engl. The History of the Synoptic Tradition,

1963).

Die Erforschung der synoptischen Evangelien, 3rd ed.

(1960; Engl. “The Study of the Synoptic Gospels,”

1962).

Primary area of research: New Testament

Criticism, History of Religions, Form

Criticism, Gospels

Contribution: The greatest contribution of

the “early” Bultmann is his form-

criticism. He continued to develop the

theory and practice. As a result, he

thought a “historical Jesus” could not be

recovered.

Briggs, Charles

Augustus

1841

–

1913

Biblical Study: Its Principles, Methods, and History,

together with a Catalogue of Books of Reference (1883).

The Authority of Holy Scripture: An Inaugural

Address, 2nd ed. (1891).

The Bible, the Church and the Reason: The Three Great

Foundations of Divine Authority (1892).

With Francis Brown and S. R. Driver, A Hebrew and

English Lexicon of the Old Testament, with an

Appendix Containing the Biblical Aramaic: Based on

the Lexicon of William Gesenius (1980, originally in

1907).

Primary Area of Research: Old

Testament, Biblical Theology, New

Testament Theology

Contribution: His major contribution

(besides the Hebrew Lexicon) is his study

of the development of the idea of

Messiah in the OT and NT.

36

General Introduction to the Study of Holy Scripture: Principles, Methods, History, and Results of Its Several

Departments and of the Whole (1899).

Messianic Prophecy: The Prediction of the Fulfilment of

Redemption through the Messiah: A Critical Study of the

Messianic Passages of the Old Testament in the Order of

Their Development, 7th ed. (1898; 1st ed., 1886).

The Messiah of the Gospels (1894).

The Messiah of the Apostles (1895).

New Light on the Life of Jesus (1904).

The Ethical Teaching of Jesus (1904).

Moffatt, James 1870

–

1944

An Introduction to the Literature of the New Testament,

3rd ed. (1918; 1st ed., 1911).

The Historical New Testament: Being the Literature of

the New Testament Arranged in the Order of Its Literary

Growth and according to the Dates of the Documents, A

New Translation: Edited with Prolegomena, Historical

Tables, Critical Notes, and an Appendix, 2nd ed. (1901).

The New Testament: A New Translation (1913).

A New Translation of the Bible: Containing the Old and

New Testaments (1926).

A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Epistle to

the Hebrews, ICC (1924).

The First Epistle of Paul to the Corinthians, Moffat New

Testament Commentary (1938).

The General Epistles: James, Peter, and Judas, Moffat

New Testament Commentary (1928).

“The First and Second Epistles of Paul the Apostle to the

Thessalonians,” and “The Revelation of St. John the

Divine,” in The Expositor’s Greek Testament, ed. W.

Robertson Nicoll (1910)

Theology of the Gospels (1920).


Testament Introduction, New Testament

Theology, Commentary

Contribution: Produced an influential

Introduction to the New Testament,

numerous commentaries and other

biblical-theological works, and a

translation of the whole Bible.

37

Love in the New Testament (1929). Grace in the New Testament (1932).

Paul and Paulinism (1910).

Burton, Ernest

DeWitt

1856

–

1925

“The Function of Interpretation in Relation to Theology”

(1898).

Syntax of the Moods and Tenses in New Testament

Greek, 3d ed. (1898).

The Study of New Testament Words (1891).

New Testament Word Studies, ed. Harold R. Willoughby

(1927; posthumously).

A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Epistle to

the Galatians, ICC (1921).

Some Principles of Literary Criticism and Their

Application to the Synoptic Problem (1904).

A Short Introduction to the Gospels, rev. ed. Harold R.

Willoughby (1926; revised posthumously).

With William Arnold Stevens: A Harmony of the

Gospels for Historical Study: An Analytical Synopsis of

the Four Gospels, 3rd ed. (1904).


Testament, Greek Grammar/Linguistics,

Commentary

Contribution: His major work was his

Galatians commentary for the ICC series.

Mathews, Shailer 1836

–

1941

The Social Teaching of Jesus: An Essay in Christian

Sociology (1897).

The Messianic Hope in the New Testament (1905).

The Social Gospel (1910).

The Gospel and the Modern Man (1910).

The Faith of Modernism (1925).

The Atonement and the Social Process (1930).

Jesus on Social Institutions, ed. Kenneth Cauthen,

(1971).


Testament, Hermeneutics, Sociological

Approach

Contribution: viewed all doctrine as

sociological in origin. He thought that

truth was what met the needs of people.

He advocated a social gospel in which

Jesus’s teachings were applied to society

to change the world. He considered

himself a modernist Christian. He applied

the kernel-husk approach to Jesus, Paul

38

and the early church: They all taught in terms of eschatology, but he said that was

the form while the essence was religious

and spiritual.

Case, Shirley

Jackson

1872

–

1947

“The Problem of Christianity’s Essence,” (1913).

The Christian Philosophy of History (1943).

The Evolution of Early Christianity: A Genetic Study of

First-Century Christianity in Relation to Its Religious

Environment (1914).

The Social Origins of Christianity (1923).

The Social Triumph of the Ancient Church (1933).

The Millennial Hope (1918).

The Revelation of John: A Historical Interpretation

(1919).

The Origins of Christian Supernaturalism (1946;

reprinted mostly from Experience with the Supernatural

in Early Christian Times, 1929).

Jesus: A New Biography (1927).

Primary Area of Research: Sociological

Approach, New Testament

Contribution: believed that doctrine is

always relative and functional. He

opposed supernaturalism and believed

God’s work was seen in nature, and

advocated for religious naturalism.

Warfield,

Benjamin B.

1851

–

1921

The Works of Benjamin B. Warfield, 10 vols. (1927–

1932):

“The Essence of Christianity,” in The Person and Work

of Christ.

“Christian Supernaturalism,” in Biblical and Theological

Studies.

“The Biblical Idea of Revelation,” in Inspiration and

Authority.

“Inspiration and Criticism,” in Inspiration and Authority.

“The Biblical Idea of Inspiration,” in Inspiration and

Authority.

“’It Says’: ‘Scripture Says’: ‘God Says,’” in Inspiration

and Authority.


Testament, Biblical Theology, Systematic

Theology

Contribution: He championed a nuanced,

conservative view of inspiration and

inerrancy. His major contribution to NT

research is in the area of NT Christology.

39

“The Terms ‘Scripture and ‘Scriptures’ as Employed in the New Testament,” in Inspiration and Authority.

“The Formation of the Canon of the NT,” in Inspiration

and Authority.

Acts and Pastoral Epistles: Timothy, Titus, and

Philemon, The Temple Bible (1902).

“The Historical Christ,” in Person and Work of Christ.

“The Supernatural Birth of Jesus,” in Biblical and

Theological Studies.

“The Person of Christ according to the NT,” in Person

and Work of Christ.

“The Christ that Paul Preached,” in Person and Work of

Christ, 84.

“The NT Terminology of Redemption,” Person and

Work of Christ.

Machen, J.

Gresham

1881

–

1937

The Origin of Paul’s Religion (1921).

New Testament Greek for Beginners (1923).

Christianity and Liberalism (1923).

What Is Faith? (1925).

The Virgin Birth of Christ (1930).

The Christian Faith in the Modern World (1936).


Interpretation, New Testament Greek.

Contribution: fought for conservative

Christianity over liberal revisions of the

faith.

Feine, Paul 1859

–

1933

Einleitung in das Neue Testament (1912).

Paulus als Theologe (1906; Engl. St. Paul as a

Theologian, 2 vols.).

Der Apostel Paulus: Das Ringen um das geschichtliche

Verständnis des Paulus (1927).

Theologie des Neuen Testaments (1910).


Testament Theology, New Testament

Introduction, Pauline Studies

Contribution: affirmed the uniqueness of

the Christian religion, against the

History of Religions School.

40

Zahn, Theodor 1838–

1933

The Apostles’ Creed: A Sketch of Its History and an Examination of Its Contents (1899).

Geschichte des Neutestamentlichen Kanons, 2 vols.

(1889, 1890).

Forschungen zur Geschichte des neutestamentlichen

Kanons und der altkirchlichen Literatur, 9 vols. (1881–

1916).

Grundriss der Geschichte des Neutestamentlichen

Kanons: Eine Ergänzung zu der Einleitung in das Neue

Testament, 2nd ed. (1904).

Die bleibende Bedeutung des neutestamentlichen Kanons

(1898).

Einleitung in das Neue Testament, 2 vols. (1897, 1899;

Engl. Introduction to the New Testament).

Edited the Kommentar zum Neuen Testament, and

contributed volumes on Matthew, Luke, John, Acts,

Romans, Galatians, and Revelation.

Primary Area of Research: Historical Interpretation, Canon, New Testament

Introduction, Commentary

Contribution: a conservative scholar who

worked tirelessly on the canon, NT intro,

and commentaries.

Schlatter, Adolf 1852

–

1938

“Atheistische Methoden in der Theologie” (1905).

“Die Theologie des Neuen Testaments und die

Dogmatik” (1909).

Der Glaube im Neuen Testament, 6th ed. (1982; this work

won a prize in 1883).

Einleitung in die Bibel, 4th ed. (1923).

Die Geschichte der ersten Christenheit, 2nd ed. (1926;

Engl. The Church in the New Testament Period, 1955).

Die Geschichte des Christus, 2nd ed. (1922; Engl. The

History of the Christ: The Foundation for New

Testament Theology, 1997).

Die Theologie der Apostel, 2nd ed. (1922; Engl. The

Theology of the Apostles: The Development of New

Testament Theology, 1999).


Testament Exegesis, New Testament

Theology, Old Testament, Systematic

Theology, Ethics

Contribution: A conservative interpreter

who did not rely on the current method of

interpretation. He wrestled with the text

and rejected “atheistic views of history.”

He wrote NT theology and commentaries

that bypassed trivia to emphasize the

meaning of the text.

41

Erläuterung zum Neuen Testament, 3 vols. (1922–1923; a series of commentaries on every book of the NT, for

the nonspecialist).

Major critical commentaries:

Matthew, John, Luke, James, 1 and 2 Corinthians, Mark,

Romans, Pastoral Epistles, 1 Peter.

Lagrange, Marie-

Joseph

1855

–

1938

La méthode historique, surtout à propos de l’Ancien

Testament (1903; Engl. Historical Criticism and the Old

Testament, 1905).

Le sens du christianisme d’après l’exégèse allemande

(1918; Engl. The Meaning of Christianity according to

Luther and His Followers in Germany, 1920).

Le judaïsme avant Jésus-Christ, 3d ed. (1931).

Le messianisme chez les juifs (1909).

Évangile selon saint Marc, 4th ed. (1947).

Évangile selon saint Luc, 8th ed. (1948).

Évangile selon saint Matthieu, 8th ed. (1948).

Évangile selon saint Jean, 7th ed. (1948).

L’Évangile de Jésus-Christ, 2d ed. (1954; Engl. The

Gospel of Jesus Christ, 2 vols., 1958).

Saint Paul: Épître aux Romains, 4th ed., (1950).

Saint Paul: Épître aux Galates, 2d ed. (1925).

Introduction à l’étude du Nouveau Testament: Première

partie: Histoire ancienne du canon du Nouveau

Testament, 2d ed. (1933).

Introduction à l’étude du Nouveau Testament: Deuxième

partie: Critique textuelle (1935).

Introduction à l’étude du Nouveau Testament: IV

Critique historique (1937).


Testament, New Testament, History,

Exegesis

Contribution: Brought Roman Catholic

Scholarship into mainstream NT

scholarship. He started the École Pratique

d’Études Bibliques (now known as École

Biblique et Archéologique Française). He

also founded the Revue biblique (the first

RCC journal for critical scholarship). He

produced historical background resources,

important commentaries, and wrote on the

use of scientific criticism of the NT.

42

von Soden,

Hermann

Freiherr

1852–

1914

Die Schriften des Neuen Testaments in ihrer ältesten

erreichbaren Textgestalt, auf Grund ihrer

Textgeschichte, 2nd ed., 4 vols. (1911, 1913).

Primary Area of Research: Textual Criticism

Contribution: He produced a massive

text-critical work. Though many scholars

are critical of the work because of its

many weaknesses, it is a resource that

should not be ignored.

Harris, James

Rendell

1852

–

1941

The Teaching of the Apostles, Newly Edited, with

Facsimile Text and a Commentary: From the MS. of the

Holy Sepulchre, Jerusalem (1887).

The Diatessaron of Tatian: A Preliminary Study (1890).

Codex Bezae: A Study of the So-Called Western Text of

the New Testament (1891).

The Codex Sangallensis (Δ): A Study in the Text of the

Old Latin Gospels (1891).

On the Origin of the Ferrar-Group: A Lecture on the

Genealogical Relations of New Testament MSS.

Delivered at Mansfield College, Oxford on Nov. 6th, 1893

(1893).

Stichometry (1893).

New Testament Autographs (n.d.).

With Vacher Burch: Testimonies, 2 vols. (1916, 1920).

Primary Area of Research: Textual

Criticism

Contribution: His work on the Western

text showed that it was more valuable

than Westcott and Hort had said.

Lake, Kirsopp 1872

–

1946

Text of the New Testament (1900).

Codex 1 of the Gospels and Its Allies (1902).

The Historical Evidence for the Resurrection of Jesus

Christ (1907).

Codex Sinaiticus Petropolitanus: The New Testament,

the Epistle of Barnabas and the Shepherd of Hermas

(1911).

Primary Area of Research: Textual

Criticism, Acts

Contribution: His most significant

contributions were in the area of textual

criticism. He produced a pocket guide to

textual criticism, edited mss (such as

Codex Sinaiticus). He investigated the

43

With Robert P. Blake: “The Text of the Gospels and the Koridethi Codex” (1923).

The Earlier Epistles of St. Paul: Their Motive and Origin

(1911).

Edited with Foakes Jackson: The Beginnings of

Christianity, 5 vols. (1920–1933, on the book of Acts).

relationship between mss (such as family 1 and 13). He suggested that Θ was a

distinct textual family, the caesarean text.

(Since then this has mostly been

abandoned.)

Robertson,

Archibald

Thomas

1863

–

1934

A Short Grammar of the Greek New Testament (1908).

A Grammar of the Greek New Testament in the Light

of Historical Research (1914).

Luke the Historian in the Light of Research (1920).

A Harmony of the Gospels for Students of the Life of

Christ: Based on the Broadus Harmony in the Revised

Version (1922).

An Introduction to the Textual Criticism of the New

Testament (1925).

Word Pictures in the New Testament, 6 vols. (l930–

1933).


Grammar

Contribution: His “Big Grammar” was a

“monumental accomplishment.”25

Bauer, Walter 1877

–

1960

Griechisch-Deutsches Wörterbuch zu den Schriften des

Neuen Testaments und der übrigen urchristlichen

Literatur, 4th ed. (1952; Engl. A Greek-English Lexicon

of the New Testament and Other Early Christian

Literature, 3rd ed., 2000, Bauer Danker, Arndt and

Gingrich).

Rechtgläubigkeit und Ketzerei im ältesten Christentum

(1934; Engl. Orthodoxy and Heresy in Earliest

Christianity).

Primary Area of Research: Lexicography,

History of Early Christianity

Contribution: His Lexicon was intended

as a revision of Preuschen’s 1910

Lexicon. Its two strengths are the great

number of words that Baur discovered had

parallel in other koine literature, and his

extensive treatment of difficult words

such as preposition.

25 Baird, 2:414.

44

His contribution to the history of early Christianity was his book Orthodoxy and

Heresy, which suggested that heresy

preceded orthodoxy, and that the

earliest period saw a variety of

Christianities, rather than one

normative version.

Strack, Hermann

L.

1848

–

1922

Einleitung in Talmud und Midras, 5th ed. (1930; Engl.

Introduction to the Talmud and Midrash, 1931,

completely revised in in 1982 by Stemberger and

translated by Bockmuehl).

With Billerbeck: Kommentar zum Neuen Testament aus

Talmud und Midrasch, 4 vols. (1922–1928).

Primary Area of Research: Judaism,

Jewish Backgrounds

Contribution: His work on Judaism was

relatively fair minded, and his

commentary with Billerbeck provided

some helpful parallels for the Jewish

background of the NT.

Billerbeck, Paul 1853

–

1932

With Strack: Kommentar zum Neuen Testament aus

Talmud und Midrasch, 4 vols. (1922–1928).

Billerback was primarily a pastor.

Contribution: He likely wrote most of the

work for the Commentary with Strack

Moore, George

Foot

1851

–

1931

History of Religions, 2 vols. (1949).

“Christian Writers on Judaism” (1921).

Judaism in the First Centuries of the Christian Era: The

Age of the Tannaim, 3 vols. (1927, 1930).


Testament, Judaism, History of Religions

Contribution: his study of Judaism

offered a corrective in that he studied it on

its own terms. He defended it regarding

frequent charges made by Christian

scholars that Judaism viewed God as

distant, and that it was a legalistic

religion.

45

Lietzmann, Hans 1875–

1942

“Der Theolog und das Neue Testament” (1934; Engl. “The Theologian and the New Testament”).

Wie wurden die Bücher des Neuen Testaments heilige

Schrift?: Fünf Vortrage (1907).

Revision of Albert Huck’s gospel Synopsis.

Founding editor and contributor to Handbuch zum Neuen

Testament (contributed 1 and 2 Corinthians in 1907,

Galatians in 1910, and Romans in 1906).

Der Menschensohn: Ein Beitrag zur neutestamentlichen

Theologie (1896).

Petrus und Paulus in Rom: Liturgische und

archäologische Studien (1915).

Messe und Herrenmahl: Eine Studie zur Geschichte der

Liturgie (1926; Engl. Mass and Lord’s Supper: A Study

in the History of the Liturgy).

Geschichte der alten Kirche, 4 vols. (first volume in

1932; Engl. A History of the Early Church).

Primary Area of Research: New Testament, History of Religions, Textual

Criticism, Canon; History of Early

Christianity

Contribution: He made a number of

contributions in the area of NT exegesis,

canon studies, textual criticism, and

history of early Christianity.

Lohmeyer, Ernst 1890

–

1946

Kyrios Jesus: Eine Untersuchung zu Phil. 2:5-11

(1927/28).

Galiläa und Jerusalem (1936).

Das Evangelium des Markus (KEK [Meyer], 1937).

Das Evangelium des Matthäus, ed. Werner Schmauch

(KEK [Meyer], 1955, posthumously).

Die Briefe an die Philipper, an die Kolosser und an

Philemon, ed. Werner Schmauch (KEK [Meyer], 1930).

Die Offenbarung des Johannes (Handbuch Zum Neuen

Testament, 1926).


Testament, Commentary

Contribution: brilliant example of the use

of critical skills in theological exegesis.

His work is Permeated by German

Idealism. His work on the Christ-hymn of

Phil 2:5-11 is important.

*Vos, Geerhardus 1862

–

1937

The Teaching of Jesus concerning the Kingdom of God

and the Church (1903; repr. 1972).

Grace and Glory: Sermons Preached in the Chapel of

Princeton Theological Seminary (1922; repr. 1994).

Area of Research: Biblical Theology

Contribution: He “formulated a

distinctively evangelical and Reformed

46

The Self-Disclosure of Jesus: The Modern Debate about the Messianic Consciousness (1926; repr. 1976).

The Pauline Eschatology (1930; repr. 1979).

Biblical Theology: Old and New Testaments (1948).

approach to biblical Theology.”26

Emphasized the eschatological nature

of revelation, the organic development

of redemptive history, and the intrusion

of the eschatological into history.

*Lenski, Richard

C. H.

1864

–

1936

Commentaries on the books of the NT (1931–1938).

Kings and Priests: The Universal Priesthood of Believers

(1927).


Exegesis, Systematic Theology,

Commentary

Contribution: He is most well-known for

his commentaries, which are heavily

philological and theological.

Cadbury, Henry J. 1883

–

1974

The Style and Literary Method of Luke (1920, his PhD

dissertation).

“Between Jesus and the Gospels” (1923, a critique of

form criticism).

Edited and contributed with F. J. Foakes Jackson and

Kirsopp Lake: The Beginnings of Christianity, 5 vols.

(1920–1933).

The Making of Luke-Acts (1927).

The Book of Acts in History (1955).

The Peril of Modernizing Jesus (1937).

Jesus: What Manner of Man (1947).

“Critical Study of the New Testament” (1926).

“Some Foibles of New Testament Scholarship” (1958).


Testament Criticism, Luke-Acts.

Contribution: His greatest contribution

was in his work on Luke-Acts. He also

warned about the risk of making Jesus in

our own image. He is an example of a

careful, rigorous scholar who refuses to

make unwarranted claims. He practiced

critical scholarship but rejected fads.

Manson, T. W. 1893

–

1958

“The Nature and Authority of the Canonical Scriptures,”

in A Companion to the Bible, ed. T. W. Manson (1939;

presents his understanding of the Bible).

Primary Area of Research: Gospels, New

Testament Criticism, New Testament

Theology

26 Dennison, James T. Jr., “Geerhardus Vos,” in Bible Interpreters of the Twentieth Century, 86.

47

The Teaching of Jesus: Studies of Its Form and Content (1931).

The Sayings of Jesus (1949, originally 1938).

“The Life of Jesus: A Study of the Available Materials”

(1942).

The Servant-Messiah (1953).

“The New Testament and Other Christian Writings of the

New Testament Period” (1939).

The Beginning of the Gospel (1950).

Ethics and the Gospel (1960).

The Church’s Ministry (1948).

On Paul and John: Some Selected Theological Themes

(1963).

Contribution: Combined critical research

with faith. Wrote on the teachings of

Jesus. Proposed that some historical

knowledge was possible and formed an

important part of Christology. Wrote on

NT ecclesiology and ministry, and on the

theology of John and Paul.

Dodd, C. H. 1884

–

1973

The Meaning of Paul for Today (1920).

The Authority of the Bible (1929).

The Epistle of Paul to the Romans (1932).

The Present Task in New Testament Studies (1936).

The Parables of the Kingdom (1936).

The Apostolic Preaching and Its Developments (1936).

The Johannine Epistles (1946).

Gospel and Law: The Relation of Faith and Ethics in

Early Christianity (1951).

According to the Scriptures: the Sub-Structure of New

Testament Theology (1952).

The Interpretation of the Fourth Gospel (1953).

Historical Tradition in the Fourth Gospel (1963).

The Founder of Christianity (1970).


Testament, Pauline Studies, Johannine

literature

Contribution: His most distinctive ideas

are that of “realized eschatology” and his

understanding of the “kerygma.” In his

book According to the Scriptures, he

proposed that the NT writers took

seriously the context of OT passages

that they quoted. He proposed the

proclamation about Christ as the

underlying unity of the NT. His most

important works were on the Gospel of

John.

Barth, Karl 1886

–

1968

Early Barth:

The Epistle to the Romans (1919; completely revised

2nd ed. in 1922).

Primary Area of Research: Theology and

Dogmatics, Biblical Theology, New

Testament Exegesis, Commentary

48

Die Auferstehung der Toten: Eine akademische Vorlesung über I. Kor. 15, (1924; Engl. The Resurrection

of the Dead, 1933).

“The Debate on the Critical Historical Method:

Correspondence Between Adolf von Harnack and Karl

Barth,” in The Beginnings of Dialectical Theology:

Volume One, ed. James M. Robinson (1968).

Barmen Confession (1934; he was the “primary

author”).27

Das Wort Gottes und die Theologie (1924; Engl. The

Word of God and the Word of Man, 1957; contains “early

Barth’s” view of the Bible).

Mature Barth:

Church Dogmatics, 12 vols, 13th unfinished (1928ff).

Fides quaerens intellectum: Anselms Beweis der

Existenz Gottes im Zusammenhang seines

theologischen Programms (1931; Engl. Anselm: Fides

quaerens intellectum: Anselm’s proof of the existence

of God in the context of his theological scheme).

Shorter Commentary on Romans (1941).

Erklärung des Philipperbriefes (1927; Engl. The Epistle

to the Philippians).

Erklärung des Johannes Evangelium (1976;

posthumously; Engl. Witness to the Word).

Contribution: His Romans commentary

was controversial but attached the liberal

theology of the 19th and early 20th century.

His Church Dogmatics is an important

book in the history of Christian Doctrine,

and contains great amounts of exegesis.

Bultmann,

Rudolf

(later Bultmann)

1884

–

1976

The Presence of Eternity: History and Eschatology,

Gifford Lectures 1955 (1957).

Jesus (1926; Engl. Jesus and the Word, 1934).

“Die Christologie des Neuen Testaments” in Glauben

und Verstehen (1933).



Theology, Hermeneutics, Gospel of John

27 Baird, 3:64.

49

“Das christologische Bekenntnis des Ökumenischen Rates” (1951; Engl. “The Christological Confession of

the World Council of Churches”).

“The Problem of Theological Exegesis” (1925).

“Ist voraussetzungslose Exegese möglich?” (1957;

Engl. “Is Exegesis without Presuppositions

Possible?”).

“On the Problem of Demythologizing” (1952).

Jesus Christ and Mythology (1958).

Das Evangelium des Johannes, KEK (1941; Engl. The

Gospel of John: A Commentary, 1971).

Der zweite Brief an die Korinther, ed. Erich Dinkier,

KEK (1976; posthumously).

Theologie des Neuen Testaments (1948–1953).

Contribution: Existentialist interpretation of the NT. His commentary on John’s

Gospel and his NT Theology are

important in NT research.

His program of existential interpretation

of Scripture and “demythologizing”

hermeneutic are also historically

important. His claim that the historical

Jesus could not be recovered and his turn

to the Christ of the proclamation were also

important.

Käsemann, Ernst 1906

–

1998

Das wandernde Gottesvolk: Eine Untersuchung zum

Hebräerbrief (begun in prison in 1937, published in

1959; Engl. The Wandering People of God: An

Investigation of the Letter to the Hebrews).

Die Legitimität des Apostels: Eine Untersuchung zu II

Korinther 10–13 (1956).

“Begründet der neutestamendiche Kanon die Einheit der

Kirche?” (1951 Göttingen lecture; Engl. “The Canon of

the New Testament and the Unity of the Church”).

Jesu letzter Wille nach Johannes 17 (1966; Engl. The

Testament of Jesus: A Study of the Gospel of John in the

Light of Chapter 17).

“Das Problem des historischen Jesus” (lecture in 1953

that prompted the New Quest; Engl. “The Problem of

the Historical Jesus”).

“Sachgassen im Streit um den historischen Jesus”

(n.d.; Engl. “Blind Alleys in the ‘Jesus of History’

Controversy”).


Testament Theology, New Testament

Exegesis, History of Religions, Gospels:

Historical Jesus.

Contribution: He began the new quest for

the historical Jesus. Emphasized

apocalyptic thinking as the background to

Christian theology. He said that

apocalyptic is the mother of Christian

theology. He influenced Peter

Stuhlmacher, Leander Keck, and J. Louis

Martyn.

50

“Die Anfänge christlicher Theologie” (1960 lecture;

Engl. “The Beginnings of Christian Theology.”).

“Zum Thema der urchrisdichen Theologie” (n.d.;

Engl. “On the Subject of Primitive Christian

Apocalyptic”).

“Gottesgerechtigkeit bei Paulus” (1961 lecture; Engl.

“‘The Righteousness of God’ in Paul”).

“Rechtfertigung und Heilsgeschichte im Römerbrief”

(mid-1960s lecture responding to Krister Stendahl’s

“Introspective Conscience” article; Engl. “Justification

and Salvation History in the Epistle to the Romans”).

An die Römer, HNT 8a (1973; Engl. Commentary on

Romans).

Bornkamm,

Günther

1905

–

1990

Bibel—Das Neue Testament: Eine Einführung in seine

Schriften im Rahmen der Geschichte des Urchristentums

(1971; Engl. The New Testament: A Guide to Its

Writings).

“Die Sturmstillung im Matthäus-Evangelium” (1948;

Engl. “The Stilling of the Storm in Matthew”).

“Enderwartung und Kirche im Matthäusevangelium”

(first in 1954 and revised and expanded in

Überlieferung und Auslegung im Matthäusevangelium;

Engl. “End-Expectation and Church in Matthew”).

“Das Wort Jesu vom Bekennen,” in Geschichte und

Glaube. (inaugural address at Königsberg).

“Bekenntnis im Hebräer Brief” (1942).

Gesetz und Schöpfung im Neuen Testament (1934). “Die

Offenbarung des Zornes Gottes (Rom 1-3)” (1935);

revised and expanded for publication in Das Ende des

Gesetzes; Engl. “The Revelation of God’s Wrath:

Romans 1-3”).



Exegesis, New Testament Theology,

Historical Jesus, Redaction Criticism

Contribution: In Biblical Theology he

explored the concepts of “confession” and

“reward” in the NT. He pioneered

redaction criticism. He contributed a

book on Jesus to the Second Quest for

the Historical Jesus. He wrote an

influential book on Paul.

51

Jesus von Nazareth (1st ed. 1956; 13 eds. total; Engl. Jesus of Nazareth, 1960).

“Glaube und Geschichte in den Evangelien,” in Der

historische Jesus und der kerygmatische Christus:

Beiträge zum Christusverständnis in Forschung und

Verkündigung (1960).

Paulus (1969; Engl. Paul, 1971).

Robinson, James

M.

1924

–

The Problem of History in Mark (1957).

“Jesus’ Understanding of History” (1955).

“The Meaning and Validation of Biblical Faith” (1959).

A New Quest of the Historical Jesus (1959).

“The Quest of the Historical Jesus Today” (1958-59).

Kerygma und historischer Jesus (1960).


Backgrounds: Nag Hammadi Codices, Q

Research, New Testament Criticism,

Gospels: Historical Jesus, Hermeneutics

Contribution: Brought Bultmann’s

existentialist hermeneutics to America.

Wrote on the New Quest for the

Historical Jesus. He promoted the “New

Hermeneutics.”

Nag Hammadi

Codices (NHC)

1947

–

1950s

See Baird 197–198 for a list of the contents of the NHC.

The Facsimile Edition of the Nag Hammadi Codices

(1982-84).

The Coptic Gnostic Library, edited with English

Translation, Introduction and Notes, published under

the Auspices of The Institute for Antiquity and

Christianity, 1975-1995.

James M. Robinson, et al., The Nag Hammadi Library in

English, translated and introduced by members of the

Coptic Gnostic Library Project of the Institute for

Antiquity and Christianity, Claremont, California, 3d ed.

(1990, 1996).

The Gospel of Thomas.

Contribution: previously, all of our

information about Gnosticism came from

its opponents; now we can study it for

ourselves by means of primary sources.

These resources provide information

about Gnosticism. These resources also

give information about the early church.

They give resources that address the

question of the relationship between

Gnosticism and the NT. They show that

Gnosticism was not a Christian heresy,

but a syncretistic movement located in the

Hellenistic world.

52

They also explode the idea that

Christianity depended on a gnostic

redeemer myth: “the hypothesis of a

fully developed, universally recognized

pre-Christian myth of the redeemed

redeemer . . . has been exposed as a

scholarly fabrication.”28

The Gospel of Thomas has caused a stir

because some have suggested that it

preserved ancient teachings of Christ that

have not been preserved elsewhere.

Dead Sea Scrolls

(DSS)

1947

ff Emmanuel Τον, editor in chief, Discoveries in the

Judaean Desert, 39 vols. (1955–2002).

Contributions: The DSS contributes to our

understanding of the OT canon as it was

understood in the first centuries BC. For

text criticism, the DSS provide a text that

is 1,000 years earlier than the previous

earliest Hebrew MSS. They also show the

reliability of the MT tradition. Use of the

title “Son of God” in the DSS to refer to

the future king demonstrates that it is not

necessary to posit a Hellenistic

background to explain these concepts in

the NT. Most importantly, they highlight

the diversity of Judaism in NT times.

Colwell, Ernest

Cadman

1901

–

1974


Greek Grammar

28 Baird, 3:206.

53

Contribution: Influenced Eldon Jay Epp. Articulated “Colwell’s Rule.”

*Metzger, Bruce

M.

1914

–

2007

(4th ed. with Bart Ehrman): The Text of the New

Testament: Its Transmission, Corruption, and

Restoration, 4th ed. (2005).

A Textual Commentary on The Greek New Testament:

A Companion Volume to the United Bible Societies’

Greek New Testament, 4th rev. ed. (1994; 1st ed. 1970).

The Canon of the New Testament (1987).

Participated in the translation of the Apocrypha for the

RSV.


Canon, Apocrypha, Translation

Contribution: He held to a moderate

eclectic theory of textual criticism. He

wrote on the issues related to the canon.

He influenced students such as Michael

W. Holmes and Bart D. Ehrman.

Epp, Eldon Jay 1903

–

The Theological Tendency of Codex Bezae

Cantabrigiensis in Acts (1966).


Contribution: He suggested that Scribes

had “biases” like authors do. Influenced

Gordon D. Fee and Larry W. Hurtado.

Aland, Kurt 1915

–

1994

With Barbara Aland: The Text of the New Testament: An

Introduction to the Critical Editions and to the Theory

and Practice of Modern Textual Criticism (1989).

Nestle-Aland Novum Testamentum Graece (now in the

28th edition).

United Bible Societies The Greek New Testament (now

in the 5th edition).


Contribution: Founded the Institut für

Neutestamentliche Textforschung.

Promoted the research of textual criticism

issues, edited one of the most popular

critical texts; wrote an introduction to NT

textual criticism.

Kilpatrick, George

D.

1910

–

1989


Contribution: Promoted Thoroughgoing

Eclecticism. Influenced James K. Elliott.

54

Bodmer Papyri 50s–60s

P66 (Bodmer II): ca. 200. Contains most of the Gospel of John and is similar to the Alexandrian text.

P72 (Bodmer VII–VIII): ca. 3rd or 4th century. Contains 1

and 2 Peter, Jude. Similar to Vaticanus (B).

P75 (Bodmer XIV–XV): ca. 3rd century. Contains parts of

Luke and John. “Largely agrees with Vaticanus.”29

Importance: Most of the manuscripts are from the third or fourth century.

International

Greek New

Testament Project

(IGNTP)

1984,

1987

The New Testament in Greek: The Gospel according to

St. Luke: Part One: Chapters 1–12 (1984).

Part Two: Chapters 14–24 (1987).

The New Testament in Greek IV: The Gospel according

to St John, Volume One, The Papyri (1995).

Importance: The goal of this project is to

present the textual evidence, not to

reconstruct the text.

Editio Critica

Maior

Novum Testamentum Graecum Editio Critica Maior: 4

Catholic Letters, Part 1: Text; Installment 1: James

(1997).

Importance: The goal of this project is to

present the textual evidence as well as to

present a reconstructed text. Apparently it

is very close to the NA text.30

Jeremias,

Joachim

1900

–

1979

Wrote 28 articles for Kittel’s Theological Dictionary.

Die Abendmahlsworte Jesu (1935, 3d ed. in 1960; Engl.

The Eucharistic Words of Jesus).

Die Gleichnisse Jesu (1947, 8th ed. in 1970; Engl. The

Parables of Jesus).

The Central Message of the New Testament (1965).

Neutestamentliche Theologie: Erster Teil: Die

Verkündigung Jesu (1970; Engl. New Testament

Theology, vol. 1).

Area of Research: New Testament,

Gospels: Historical Jesus, Historical

Backgrounds: Archeology, Jewish

Backgrounds

Contribution: Jeremias’s most important

contribution is his work on Parables and

on the Eucharistic Words of Jesus. He

makes a difference between the ipsissima

vox and ipsissima verba of Jesus. He

also works with the Aramaic background

to the New Testament and affirms the

importance of the “Historical Jesus.”

29 Baird, 3:246. 30 Baird, 3:254.

55

Black, Matthew

1908

–

1994

“The Development of Judaism in the Greek and Roman

Periods,” in Peake’s Commentary on the Bible (1962).

The Book of Enoch or I Enoch: A New English Edition:

With Commentary and Textual Notes (1985).

The Scrolls and Christian Origins (1961).

An Aramaic Approach to the Gospels and Acts (3rd ed.,

1967).

“Pharisees” in the Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible

(1962).

Romans (1973).

Area of Research: New Testament, Jewish

Backgrounds, 1 Enoch, DSS, Aramaic

Background

Contribution: Black’s most important

contribution is in his work on the Aramaic

background to the Gospels. He proposed

that behind the Greek Gospels there is an

Aramaic tradition that stands closer to

the words of Jesus.

Davies, W. D. 1911

–

2001

Paul and Rabbinic Judaism: Some Rabbinic Elements

in Pauline Theology (1st ed. 1947; 4th ed., 1980).

Torah in the Messianic Age and/or the Age to Come

(1952).

The Setting of the Sermon on the Mount (1964).

With Dale C. Allison, A Critical and Exegetical

Commentary on the Gospel According to Saint

Matthew, 3 vols., ICC (1988–97).

The Gospel and the Land: Early Christianity and Jewish

Territorial Doctrine (1974).


Pauline studies, Gospel of Matthew,

Jewish Backgrounds

Contribution: Davies viewed Paul’s

thought as essentially Rabbinic

Judaism that had been baptized into

Christ. Paul viewed Jesus as the New

Torah. Justification is not the center for

Paul, but rather Christ crucified.

Davies claimed that the New Exodus

motif runs through Matthew.

Sanders, E. P. 1937

– Judaism: Practice and Belief, 63 BCE–66 CE (1992).

Jewish Law from Jesus to the Mishnah: Five Studies

(1990).

Paul and Palestinian Judaism: A Comparison of

Patterns of Religion (1977).

Paul, the Law, and the Jewish People (1983).

Jesus and Judaism (1985).

The Historical Figure of Jesus (1993).


Pauline Studies, Gospels: Historical Jesus,

Jewish Backgrounds, Judaism

Contribution: He gave impetus to the

“New Perspective on Paul” (NPP) by

claiming that Judaism was not a

56

legalistic religion of works, but

characterized by “covenantal nomism.”

Hengel, Martin 1926

–

2009

Judentum und Hellenismus: Studien zu ihrer

Begegnung unter besonderer Berücksichtigung

Palästinas bis zur Mitte des 2 Jh. v. Chr., 2 vols. (2nd

ed. WUNT 10; 1973; Engl. Judaism and Hellenism:

Studies in their Encounter in Palestine during the

Early Hellenistic Period).

Juden, Griechen und Barbaren: Aspekte der

Hellenisierung des Judentums in vorchristlicher Zeit

(1976; Engl. Jews, Greeks and Barbarians: Aspects of

the Hellenization of Judaism in the pre-Christian

Period).

The “Hellenization” of Judaea in the First Century after

Christ (1989).


Pauline Studies, Jewish Backgrounds,

Hellenistic Backgrounds

Contribution: Proposed that Jewish and

Hellenistic influence was not an

absolute dichotomy. He said that the

background to Christianity is

fundamentally Jewish; any Hellenistic

influence is filtered through Judaism. He

wrote on the Zealots, crucifixion; he

promoted an understanding of Jewish

backgrounds.

Kümmel, Werner

Georg

1905

–

1995

Römer 7 und die Bekehrung des Paulus (1929).

Martin Dibelius and Werner Georg Kümmel, Paulus

(1951; Engl. Paul).

Einleitung in das Neue Testament, 21st ed. (1983; Engl.

Introduction to the New Testament).

Das Neue Testament: Geschichte der Erforschung

seiner Probleme, 2nd ed. (1970; Engl. The New

Testament: The History of the Investigation of Its

Problems).

Das Neue Testament im 20. Jahrhundert: Ein

Forschungsbericht, SBS 50 (1970).

Verheißung und Erfüllung: Untersuchungen zur

eschatologischen Verkündigung Jesu, 3d ed. (1956; Engl.

Promise and Fulfilment: The Eschatological Message of

Jesus).

Area of Research: Pauline Studies, New

Testament Introduction, History of New

Testament Research, New Testament

Theology

Contribution: His Introduction reflected

the critical consensus; his history of NT

research praised the success of the

historical method.

57

Die Theologie des Neuen Testaments nach seinen Hauptzeugen: Jesus, Paulus, Johannes, 2nd ed. (1972;

Engl. The Theology of the New Testament: According to

its Major Witnesses: Jesus—Paul—John).

Koester, Helmut 1926

–

Synoptische Uberlierferung bei den apostolischen Vätern

(1957; his dissertation).

Introduction to the New Testament, vol. 1: History,

Culture, and Religion of the Hellenistic Age; vol. 2:

History and Literature of Early Christianity (2nd ed.;

1995, 2000).

Ancient Christian Gospels: Their History and

Development (1990).

Edited Ephesos: Metropolis of Asia: An Interdisciplinary

Approach to Its Archaeology, Religion, and Culture

(1995).

Edited Pergamon: Citadel of the Gods: Archaeological

Record, Literary Description, and Religious

Development (1998).

“The Structure and Criteria of Early Christian Beliefs,”

in James M. Robinson and Helmut Koester, Trajectories

through Early Christianity (1971).


Introduction, Early Church History, Non-

canonical Gospels, Archeology

Contribution: Produced an important

reference work for NT Introduction.

Investigated Christianity historically by

use of non-canonical sources.

Conzelmann,

Hans

1915

–

1989

Die Mitte der Zeit: Studien zur Theologie des Lukas

(3rd ed., 1960; Engl. The Theology of Luke).

“Jesus Christus,” in Religion in Geschichte und

Gegenwart (3rd ed.; Engl. Jesus: The Classic Article from

RGG Expanded and Updated; 1973).

Grundriss der Theologie des Neuen Testaments (2nd ed.,

1968; Engl. An Outline of the Theology of the New

Testament).

Area of Research: Luke-Acts, New

Testament Theology, Redaction

Criticism

Contribution: He wrote on the importance

of salvation history to Luke-Acts

(popularized this approach), and showed

that Luke arranges God’s work in the

word according to three stages: 1. Israel,

58

With Andreas Lindemann, Arbeitsbuch zum Neuen Testament (8th ed.; 1985; Engl. Interpreting the New

Testament).

Commentaries:

Martin Dibelius, Die Pastoralbriefe, ed. Hans

Conzelmann (3rd ed.; HNT; 1955; Engl. The Pastoral

Epistles, Hermeneia, 1966).

Die Apostelgeschichte (HNT; 1963; Engl. Acts of the

Apostles, Hermeneia, 1987).

Der erste Brief an die Korinther (KEK; 1969; Engl. 1

Corinthians, Hermeneia, 1975).

Die kleineren Briefe des Apostels Paulus (1970).

2. The ministry of Jesus, and 3. The church age.

Marxsen, Willi 1919

–

1993

Der Evangelist Markus: Studien zur

Redaktionsgechichte des Evangeliums (2nd ed., 1959;

Engl. Mark the Evangelist: Studies on the Redaction

History of the Gospel).

Einleitung in das Neue Testament: Eine Einführung in

ihre Probleme (4th ed.; Engl. Introduction to the New

Testament: An Approach to its Problems).

Der Exeget als Theologe: Vorträge zum Neuen

Testament (1968).

Das Neue Testament als Buch der Kirche (1966; Engl.

The New Testament as the Church’s Book).

Die Auferstehung Jesu als historisches und als

theologisches Problem (1964; Engl. “The Resurrection of

Jesus as a Historical and Theological Problem”).

“Christliche” und christliche Ethik im Neuen Testament

(1989; Engl. New Testament Foundations for Christian

Ethics).


Theology, Redaction Criticism, Gospel of

Mark, New Testament Ethics

Contribution: He produced an important

redaction-critical study of Mark.

Emphasized theology as the “handmaid of

faith.” Focused on the earliest stratum of

tradition as finally authoritative.

59

Farmer, William

R.

1921–

2000

The Synoptic Problem: A Critical Analysis (1964).

The Last Twelve Verses of Mark (1974).

Synopticon: The Verbal Agreement Between the Greek

Texts of Matthew, Mark and Luke Contextually

Exhibited (1969).

The Gospel of Jesus: The Pastoral Relevance of the

Synoptic Problem (1994).

Area of Research: Gospels: Synoptic Problem

Contribution: Argued for the Griesbach,

or “Two Gospel Hypothesis” in which

Mark used Matthew and Luke in writing

his Gospel. He also argued that the “long

ending” of Mark is original.

Farrer, Austin n.d. “On Dispensing with Q,” in Studies in the Gospels:

Essays in Memory of R. H. Lightfoot (1957).


Problem, Q Research

Contribution: Argued against the

existence of Q

Goulder, Michael 1927

–

2010

Midrash and Lection in Matthew (1969–71).

The Evangelists’ Calendar: A Lectionary Explanation of

the Development of Scripture (1972).

Luke: A New Paradigm, 2 vols. (1989).


Problem, Q Research

Contribution: Argued that Matthew used

Mark but no Q. Matthew was intended as

a Christian lectionary.

Kloppenborg, John

S.

n.d. The Formation of Q: Trajectories in Ancient Wisdom

Collections (1987).

Excavating Q: The History and Setting of the Sayings

Gospel (2000).

Area of Research: Q Research

Contribution: prolific attempts to

explicate the setting(s) and message(s) of

Q

Schnackenburg,

Rudolf

1914

–

2002

Das Johannesevangelium, 4 vols., (1965–75; Engl. The

Gospel According to St. John, 3 vols., 1968).

Die sittliche Botschaft des Neuen Testaments

(extensively revised 3rd ed., 1986; Engl. of the 2nd ed.,

The Moral Teaching of the New Testament, 1973).

Area of Research: Gospel of John,

Gospels: Person and Teaching of Jesus,

Commentary

60

Die Person Jesu Christi im Spiegel der vier Evangelien (1993; Engl. Jesus in the Gospels: A Biblical

Christology).

La Théologie du Nouveau Testament: État de la question,

StudNeot (1961; Engl. New Testament Theology Today).

Contribution: His commentary on John and volumes on NT ethics are important.

Brown, Raymond

E.

1928

–

1998

An Introduction to the New Testament (1997).

The Community of the Beloved Disciple (1979).

An Introduction to the Gospel of John (2003).

The Gospel According to John, 2 vols., AB (1966,

1970).

The Epistles of John, AB 30 (1982).

The Birth of the Messiah: A Commentary on the

Infancy Narratives in the Gospels of Matthew and Luke

(1993).

The Virginal Conception and Bodily Resurrection of

Jesus (1973).

The Death of the Messiah: From Gethsemane to the

Grave: A Commentary on the Passion Narratives in the

Four Gospels, 2 vols. (1994).

The Churches the Apostles Left Behind (1984).

An Introduction to New Testament Christology (1994).

Area of Research: Hermeneutics, New

Testament Introduction, Johannine

Literature, Gospel of John, Gospels:

Historical Jesus, Christology

Contribution: His commentary on John,

book on the Johannine Community, and

the works on the Birth and death of

Christ are the most important.

Meier, John P. 1942

–

Law and History in Matthew’s Gospel: A Redactional

Study of Mt. 5:17–48 (1976).

A Marginal Jew: Rethinking the Historical Jesus:

Vol. 1: The Roots of the Problem and the Person

(1991).

Vol. 2: Mentor, Message, and Miracles (1994).

Vol. 3: Companions and Competitors (2001).

Area of Research: Gospel of Matthew,

Gospels: Historical Jesus

Contribution: His book A Marginal Jew

“is one of the most important books on

the historical Jesus in the history of NT

research.”31 He proposes that Jesus

31 Baird, 3:423.

61

Vol. 4: Law and Love (2009).

should be viewed as a Jewish person in a Jewish context.

Funk, Robert W. 1926

–

2005

Honest to Jesus: Jesus for a New Millennium (1966).

A Greek Grammar of the New Testament and Other

Early Christian Literature: A Translation and Revision

of the nineteenth German edition incorporating

supplementary notes of A. Debrunner (1991).

A Beginning-Intermediate Grammar of Hellenistic

Greek, 3 vols. (2nd ed., 1973).

The Poetics of Biblical Narrative (1988).

New Gospel Parallels, 2 vols. (1985).

Parables and Presence: Forms of the New Testament

Tradition (1982).

With the Jesus Seminar:

The Five Gospels: The Search for the Authentic Words of

Jesus: New Translation and Commentary (1993).

The Acts of Jesus: The Search for the Authentic Deeds of

Jesus (1998).

The Gospel of Jesus: According to the Jesus Seminar

(1999).

Area of Research: Greek Grammar,

Linguistics, Hermeneutics, Parables,

Gospels: Historical Jesus.

Contribution: His work on NT Greek is

very helpful. His translation of

Blass/Debrunner and his Beginning-

Intermediate Grammar is very useful.

His critical work connected to the

Historical Jesus is unhelpful.

Cullmann, Oscar 1902

–

1999

“The Necessity and Function of Higher Criticism” (1949;

also in The Early Church: Studies in Early Christian

History and Theology, ed. A. J. B. Higgins (Philadelphia:

Westminster, 1956).

Nouveau Testament, Que sais-je? (1966; Engl. The New

Testament: An Introduction for the General Reader).

Vorträge und Aufsätze, 1925–1962 (1966).

Etudes de théologie biblique (1968).

Des sources de l’Evangile à la formation de la theologies

chrétienne (1969).


Theology

Contribution: He wrote important works

arguing for a history of salvation

(Heilsgeschichte) approach to the NT.

On Cullmann, see: Robert Yarbrough,

Salvation Historical Fallacy?

62

Christus und die Zeit: Die urchristliche Zeit- und

Geschichtsauffassung (1st ed., 1946, 3rd ed., 1962;

Engl. Christ and Time: The Primitive Christian

Conception of Time and History).

Königsherrschaft Christi und Kirche im Neuen

Testament (1941; Engl. “The Kingship of Christ and the

Church in the New Testament,” in Early Church).

“Die Hoffnung der Kirche auf die Wiederkunft Christi

nach dem Neuen Testament” (“The Return of Christ: The

New Testament Hope,” in Early Church).

Heil als Geschichte: Heilsgeschichtliche Existenz im

Neuen Testament (1965; Engl. Salvation in History).

Die Christologie des Neuen Testaments (1957; Engl. The

Christology of the New Testament).

Petrus: Jünger, Apostel, Märtyrer: Das historische und

das theologische Petrusproblem (1952; Engl. Peter:

Disciple, Apostle, Martyr: A Historical and Theological

Study).

The State in the New Testament (1956).

Les premiers confessions de foi chrétiennes (1943; Engl.

The Earliest Christian Confessions).

Urchristentum und Gottesdienst (1950; Engl. Early

Christian Worship).

Les sacrements dans l’évangile johannique: La vie de

Jésus et le cult de l’église primitive (1951).

Das Gebet im Neuen Testament (1944; Engl. Prayer in

the New Testament).

Die Tauflehre des Neuen Testaments: Erwachsenen- und

Kindertaufe (1948; French: Le baptême des enfants et la

doctrine biblique du baptême, 1948; Engl. Baptism in the

New Testament).

“The Meaning of the Lord’s Supper in Primitive

Christianity,” in Essays on the Lord’s Supper (1958).

63

Knox, John 1900

–

1999

Philemon Antony the Letters of Paul: A New View of Its

Place and Importance (rev. ed., 1959).

Marcion and the New Testament (1942).

Chapters in a Life of Paul (rev. ed., 1987).

Criticism and Faith (1953).

Limits of Unbelief (1970).

Myth and Truth: An Essay on the Language of Faith

(1964).

Jesus: Lord and Christ. A Trilogy Comprising: The Man

Christ Jesus, Christ the Lord, On the Meaning of Christ

(1958).

The Death of Christ: The Cross in New Testament

History and Faith (1958).

The Humanity and Divinity of Christ: A Study of Pattern

in Christology (1967).

The Early Church and the Coming Great Church (1955).

The Church and the Reality of Christ (1962).



Christology, Pauline Studies, Biblical

Chronology

Contribution: His critical conclusions

were imaginative and unconventional,

though not convincing. His NT theology

criticized Paul, subsumed Christology

under Ecclesiology, and promoted an

unorthodox view of the divinity of Christ

(and probably the humanity of Christ as

well).

Minear, Paul

Sevier

1906

–

2007

And Great Shall Be Your Reward: The Origins of

Christian Views of Salvation (1941; his dissertation).

Eyes of Faith: A Study in the Biblical Point of View

(rev. ed., 1966).

The Bible and the Historian: Breaking the Silence About

God in Biblical Studies (2002; collection of essays).

The Gospel According to Mark (1962).

John: The Martyr’s Gospel (1984).

The Kingdom and the Power: An Exposition of the New

Testament Gospel (1950; reprint 2004).

Images of the Church in the New Testament (1960).

Horizons of Christian Community (1959).

New Testament Apocalyptic (1981).


Criticism, Hermeneutics, Eschatology,

Apocalyptic, New Testament Theology,

New Testament Ecclesiology

Contribution: His distinctive contribution

was his interest in the biblical conception

of time, apocalyptic, hermeneutics of

faith, and his book on the images of the

church in the NT.

64

I Saw a New Earth: An Introduction to the Visions of the Apocalypse (1968).

*Hendriksen,

William

1900

–

1982

Commentary Series on the NT (with Simon J.

Kistemaker; 1954ff).

More than Conquerors (1940. Rev. ed., 1982).

Translated the Book of Revelation for the NIV.


Exegesis, Commentary, Book of

Revelation

Contribution: Most well-known for his

commentaries on the NT.

Bruce, F. F. 1910

–

1990

Historical/NT:

The New Testament Documents: Are They Reliable?

(1961).

New Testament History (1969).

Tradition Old and New (1970).

The Canon of Scripture (1988).

The Teacher of Righteousness in the Qumran Texts

(1957).

Biblical Exegesis in the Qumran Texts (1959).

Second Thoughts on the Dead Sea Scrolls (1966).

Paul: Apostle of the Heart Set Free (1977).

Jesus and Paul: Places They Knew (1981).

Biblical Theology:

New Testament Development of Old Testament Themes

(1968).

The Time is Fulfilled: Five Aspects of the Fulfilment of

the Old Testament in the New (1978).

Jesus: Past, Present, and Future: The Work of Christ

(1979).

The Message of the New Testament (1972).

Old Testament:

Area of Research: New Testament, Old

Testament, History, Apologetics, New

Testament Backgrounds (DSS), Biblical

Theology, Pauline Studies, Commentary

Contribution: Conservative historian, NT

scholar and exegete. His Acts

commentary was important, and he shows

that faith commitments are not an

impediment to scholarship. His work on

Paul was also important.

65

The Hittites and the Old Testament (1947). Israel and the Nations: From the Exodus tο the Fall of

the Second Temple (1963).

Commentaries:

Galatians (NIGTC); Hebrews (NICNT); Acts (NICNT);

Colossians, Philemon, Ephesians (NICNT); Philippians

(NIBC); Romans (TNTC); 1 and 2 Corinthians (NCB); 1

and 2 Thessalonians (WBC); Ephesians, John

The Acts of the Apostles: The Greek Text with

Introduction and Commentary (3rd ed., 1990; first ed.

1951).

The Epistle to the Galatians: A Commentary on the

Greek Text (NIGTC, 1982).

*Ladd, George

Eldon

1911

–

1982

The Gospel of the Kingdom (1959).

Jesus Christ and History (1963).

The Young Church: Acts of the Apostles (1964).

The New Testament and Criticism (1967).

The Pattern of New Testament Truth (1968).

“The Search for Perspective,” Interpretation 25.1 (Jan

1971): 41–62.

A Commentary on the Revelation of John (1972).

A Theology of the New Testament (1974; 2nd ed., edited

by Donald A. Hagner, 1993).

The Presence of the Future (1974; repr. of Jesus and

the Kingdom [1964]).

I Believe in the Resurrection of Jesus (1975).

The Blessed Hope (1980).



Eschatology, Philosophy of History

Contribution: He popularized the concept

of inaugurated eschatology (i.e., the

“already” and “not yet” of the Kingdom of

God) in evangelical circles. He gave

attention to the problem of history and

articulated a supernaturalist philosophy

of history.

He attempted to engage the world of New

Testament scholarship as a committed

evangelical. He determined to use the

methodology of historical critical

scholarship while maintaining his

evangelical presuppositions and

commitments.

66

*Morris, Leon

Lamb

1914

–

2006

The Apostolic Preaching of the Cross (1955; 2nd ed.,

1960).

The Gospel according to John. NICNT (1971).

The Epistle to the Romans (1988).

The Gospel according to Matthew. PNTC (1992).

New Testament Theology (1986).

With D. Α. Carson and Douglas J. Moo: An Introduction

to the New Testament (1992).

Participated in the translation of 1 and 2 Corinthians for

the NIV.


Introduction, New Testament Theology,

Commentary

Contribution: His works are solidly

evangelical and scholarly. Many of his

works are evangelical standards.

*Guthrie, Donald 1916

–

1992

New Testament Introduction (1970, rev. ed., 1990).

New Testament Theology (1981).

The Epistle to the Hebrews: An Introduction and

Commentary. TNTC (1983).


Introduction, New Testament Theology.

Contribution: He wrote numerous

commentaries and other works, but his

Introduction and Theology are his most

enduring works.

Gerhardsson,

Birger

1926

–

2013

Memory and Manuscript: Oral Tradition and Written

Transmission in Rabbinic Judaism and Early

Christianity (1998; first ed., 1961; from his

dissertation).

Tradition and Transmission in Early Christianity (1964)

The Reliability of the Gospel Tradition (2001).

The Origins of the Gospel Tradition (1979).

The Testing of God’s Son (Matt 4:1–11 & Par). An

Analysis of an Early Christian Midrash (1966).

The Mighty Acts of Jesus According to Matthew (1979).


Gospels, Judaism, Jewish Backgrounds

Contribution: He suggested that the

early church memorized much of the

traditions about Jesus after the pattern

of Pharisaic/Rabbinic teaching

methods, making them early and reliable.

He attempted to use this to reject form

critic claims about the changes that the

church made.

67

*Martin, Ralph Philip

1925–

2013

Carmen Christi: Philippians ii.5-11 in Recent

Interpretation and in the Setting of Early Christian

Worship (1967. Rev ed. 1983).

Worship in the Early Church (1964, Rev. ed., 1974).

Area of Research: New Testament Exegesis

Contribution: Martin was interested in the

concept of worship in the NT, and the

book of Philippians. He also produced

numerous works, including commentaries.

Schüssler

Fiorenza,

Elizabeth

1938

– In Memory of Her: A Feminist Reconstruction of

Christian Origins (1st ed. 1983; later ed. 1992).

Jesus: Miriam’s Child, Sophia’s Prophet: Critical

Issues in Feminist Christology (1995).

Jesus and the Politics of Interpretation (2000).

Bread Not Stone: The Challenge of Feminist Biblical

Interpretation (1984).

But She Said: Feminist Practices of Biblical

Interpretation (1992).

Rhetoric and Ethic: The Politics of Biblical Studies

(1999).

The Power of the Word: Scripture and the Rhetoric of

Empire (2007).

Democratizing Biblical Studies: Toward and

Emancipatory Educational Space (2009).

The Book of Revelation: Justice and Judgment (2nd ed.,

1998).


Criticism, Feminist Hermeneutics, Book

of Revelation, Gospels: Historical Jesus

Contribution: Her primary contribution is

her attempt to read the Bible through the

lens of radical feminism. Her

deconstruction/reconstruction of

various topics includes the Bible itself,

Christology and hermeneutics.

Martyn, J. Louis 1925

–

2015

History and Theology in the Fourth Gospel, 3rd ed.

(2003).

Galatians: A New Translation with Introduction and

Commentary, AB 33A (1997).

Theological Issues in the Letters of Paul (1997).


Theology, Gospel of John, Pauline

Studies: Galatians

Contribution: His understanding of the

“two-tiered drama” in John’s Gospel has

been very influential. He was the founder

68

of the Johannine Community

hypothesis (convinced Raymond E.

Brown). His commentary on Galatians

was also important.

Keck, Leander E. 1928

–

Bible in the Pulpit: The Renewal of Biblical Preaching

(1978).

Taking the Bible Seriously (1962).

The New Testament Experience of Faith (1976).

“Will the Historical-Critical Method Survive? Some

Observations,” in Orientation by Disorientation:

Studies in Literary Criticism and Biblical Literary

Criticism, Presented in Honor of William A. Beardslee,

ed. Richard A. Spencer (1980).

Paul and His Letters, 2nd ed. (1988).

Romans, ANTC (2005).

Translated and Edited: David Friedrich Strauss, The

Christ of Faith and the Jesus of History (1977).

A Future for the Historical Jesus: The Place of Jesus

in Preaching and Theology (1971).

Who is Jesus? History in Perfect Tense (2000).

“Toward a Renewal of New Testament Christology,”

NTS 32 (1986): 362–77.


Theology, Pauline Studies, Gospels:

Historical Jesus

Contribution: He wrote important books

on Paul and Jesus.

Furnish, Victor

Paul

1931

– Theology and Ethics in Paul (1st ed., 1968; 6th ed.,

2009).

The Love Command in the New Testament (1972).

The Moral Teaching of Paul: Selected Issues, 3rd ed.

(2009).

II Corinthians: Translation with Introduction, Notes

and Commentary, AB 32A (1984).

1 Thessalonians, 2 Thessalonians, ANTC (2007).

Area of Research: New Testament Ethics,

Pauline Studies, New Testament

Theology

Contribution: His most important books

are his book on Paul and ethics and his

commentary on 2 Corinthians.

69

“Paul the Theologian,” in The Conversation Continues: Studies in Paul and John, in Honor of J. Louis Martyn

(1990).

The Theology of the First Letter to the Corinthians

(1999).

Betz, Hans Dieter 1931

– Galatians: A Commentary on Paul’s Letter to the

Churches in Galatia, Hermeneia (1979).

2 Corinthians 8 and 9: A Commentary on Two

Administrative Letters of the Apostle Paul, Hermeneia

(1985).

Der Apostel Paulus und die sokratische Tradition. Eine

exegetische Untersuchung zu seiner “Apologie,” 2

Korinther 10–13, BHT (1972).

The Sermon on the Mount: A Commentary on the

Sermon on the Mount, including the Sermon on the

Plain (Matthew 5:3–7:27 and Luke 6:20–49),

Hermeneia (1995).

Area of Research: History of Religions,

Hellenistic Backgrounds, Classical

Rhetoric, Pauline Studies, Gospel of

Matthew

Contribution: His commentaries on

Galatians, 2 Cor 8–9, and the Sermon on

the Mount are important. They each

demonstrate how Betz uses classical

rhetoric to interpret the documents.

*Fee, Gordon D. 1934

–

New Testament Exegesis: A Handbook for Students and

Pastors (1983; 2nd ed., 1993).

The First Epistle to the Corinthians. NICNT (1987).

Paul’s Letter to the Philippians. NICNT (1995).

With Eldon J. Epp: Studies in the Theory and Method of

New Testament Textual Criticism (1993).

With Douglas Stuart: How to Read the Bible for All Its

Worth (1982; 2nd ed., 1993).

Papyrus Bodmer II (P66): Its Textual Relationships and

Scribal Characteristics (1968).


Exegesis, Textual Criticism,

Hermeneutics

Contribution: He has written numerous

works on hermeneutics and exegesis.

*Carson, D. A. 1946

–

Books Written: Area of Research: New Testament,

Biblical Theology, Greek Linguistics,

Christ and Culture, Commentary

70

Divine Sovereignty and Human Responsibility: Biblical

Perspectives in Tension. (Revision of dissertation,

1981).

Exegetical Fallacies (2nd ed., 1996).

The Gagging of God: Christianity Confronts Pluralism

(1996).

The Gospel according to John (1991).

Greek Accents: A Student’s Manual (1985).

How Long, Ο Lord? Reflections on Suffering and Evil

(1990).

The Inclusive Language Debate (1999).

“Matthew,” in Expositor’s Bible Commentary (8:1–599;

1984).

The Sermon on the Mount: An Evangelical Exposition of

Matthew 5–7 (1978).

Showing the Spirit: A Theological Exposition of 1

Corinthians 12–14 (1987).

With Leon Morris and Douglas J. Moo: An Introduction

to the New Testament (1991).

Books Edited:

From Sabbath to Lord’s Day (1982).

Edited with Stanley Ε. Porter:

Biblical Greek Language and Linguistics: open

Questions in Current Research (1993).

Discourse Analysis and Other Topics in Biblical Greek

(1995).

Linguistics and the New Testament: Critical Junctions

(1999).

Contribution: “D. A. Carson may one day

be remembered as one of the last great

Renaissance men in evangelical biblical

scholarship. In an age of increasing

specialization and fragmentation, Carson,

to the admiring disbelief of many of his

colleagues, persistently refuses to limit his

interests. His publications cover a vast

range of subjects: New Testament Greek,

Bible translation, hermeneutics,

contextualization, the use of the Old

Testament in the New, preaching. Various

aspects of New Testament and biblical

theology, major commentaries on

Matthew and John, and even poetry.”32

32 Köstenberger, Andreas J. “D. A. Carson,” in Bible Interpreters of the Twentieth Century, 427–428.

71

Edited with H. G. M. Williamson: It Is Written: Scripture Citing Scripture (1988).

Edited with John D. Woodbridge:

Hermeneutics, Authority, and Canon (1986).

God and Culture (1993).

Scripture and Truth (1983).

Edited with G. K. Beale: Commentary on the NT Use of

the OT (2007).

*Wright, N. T. 1948

–

The Climax of the Covenant: Christ and the Law in

Pauline Theology (1991).

With Stephen Neill: The Interpretation of the New

Testament, 1861–1986 (1988).

The New Testament and the People of God. Vol. 1 of

Christian Origins and the Question of God (1992).

Jesus and the Victory of God. Vol. 2 of Christian

Origins (1996).

Paul and the Faithfulness of God. Vol. 3 of Christian

Origins (2013).


Interpretation, Gospels: Historical Jesus,

Pauline Studies, Biblical Theology

Contribution: integration of literary

criticism, historical reconstruction, and

theology. Emphasis on “Story” to

understand the NT. He emphasizes the

theme of exile and restoration in the NT.

He has also worked with the historical

Jesus and Pauline theology. He is most

well-known for his adoption of the “New

Perspective on Paul.”

72

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Baird, William. History of New Testament Research, Vol. 1: From Deism to Tübingen. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1992.

____. History of New Testament Research, Vol. 2: From Jonathan Edwards to Rudolf Bultmann. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2003.

____. History of New Testament Research, Vol. 3: From C. H. Dodd to Hans Dieter Betz. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2013.

Bray, Gerald Lewis. Biblical Interpretation: Past & Present. Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity Press, 1996.

Elwell, Walter A., and J. D Weaver. Bible Interpreters of the Twentieth Century: A Selection of Evangelical Voices. Grand Rapids:

Baker Books, 1999.

Evans, C. Stephen. The Historical Christ and the Jesus of Faith: The Incarnational Narrative As History. Oxford: [New York:

Clarendon Press, 1996.

Kümmel, Werner Georg. The New Testament: The History of the Investigation of Its Problems. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1972.

McKim, Donald K. Dictionary of Major Biblical Interpreters. [2nd ed., new and expanded ed.]. Downers Grove: IVP Academic,

2007.

Neill, Stephen, and N. T Wright. The Interpretation of the New Testament, 1861-1986. 2nd ed. Oxford; New York: Oxford University

Press, 1988.

Noll, Mark A. Between Faith and Criticism: Evangelicals, Scholarship, and the Bible in America. 2nd ed. Grand Rapids: Baker Book

House, 1991.

73

Plantinga, Alvin. Warranted Christian Belief. New York, N.Y.: Oxford University Press, 2000.

_____. Where the Conflict Really Lies: Science, Religion, and Naturalism. New York: Oxford University Press, 2011.

Sproul, R. C. The Consequences of Ideas: Understanding the Concepts That Shaped Our World. Wheaton, Ill.: Crossway Books,

2000.