sovereignty, authority, and power. states, nations, and regimes nation: a group of people bound...
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Sovereignty, Authority, and Power
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States, Nations, and Regimes
Nation: a group of people bound together by a common political identity
Nationalism: sense of belonging and identity that distinguishes one nation from another Often translated as patriotism – the resulting
pride and loyalty felt toward the nation Globalization and fragmentation affecting
changes on nationalism and policymaking
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Democracies Indirect: elected officials represent the people Direct: individuals have immediate say over
policy decisions gov’t makes Most are indirect b/c large populations make it difficult
for individuals to have much direct influence
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Parliamentary system: citizens vote for legislative representatives, legislature then chooses executive branch leaders Legislature makes laws, controls finances, appoints prime
minister and cabinet In reality, legislature almost always votes for bills
proposed by leadership (cabinet and PM) No separation of powers between executive and
legislative Typically has separation within executive branch: head of
state – symbolizes the power of regime – and head of gov’t – deals w/ everyday tasks of running gov’t
Example: Great Britain
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Presidential System Head of state and head of gov’t given to only the
president President elected directly by the people President serves as chief executive System of checks and balances between legislative and
executive through separation of powers where each branch has an independent base of authority
Examples: United States, Mexico, Nigeria
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Semi-presidential system PM coexists w/ a president President elected by the people and typically holds more
power Example: Russia (but Russia is changing this model under
Putin) France and India are other, more stable, examples
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Authoritarian Regimes Decisions made by elites – those that hold
political power – w/o input from citizens Ruled by a dictator, hereditary monarch, aristocrats,
or single political party Communism: a theory developed by Marx, altered
by Lenin Party controls everything: gov’t, economy, social life
State corporatism: gov’t officials interact w/ people (generally labor & business leaders) outside the gov’t before setting policy
Patron-client systems: provide reciprocal favors & services to supporters
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Common characteristics Small group of elites exercising power Citizens w/ little to no input in selection of leaders &
gov’t decisions No constitutional responsibility of leaders to public Restriction of civil rights and civil liberties
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Authoritarianism is not same as totalitarianism – which is used to describe a
particularly repressive, often detested regime Totalitarian regimes generally have strong ideological
goals authoritarian systems lack Authoritarian gov’ts do not necessarily use violence to
destroy obstacles
Military rule: found in states where legitimacy & stability in question Usually begins with a coup d'état, which may/not have
support among the people Military leaders will often restrict civil rights in the name of order Usually lacks ideologies and leaders have no
traditional/legitimate source of authority
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Corporatism in Authoritarian and Democratic Systems Corporatism: method through which business,
labor, other interest groups bargain w/ the state over economic policy
State corporatism: gov’t controls the public by creating or recognizing organizations to represent interests of the public (authoritarian) In reality practice eliminates input from groups not
sanctioned by the state Corporatism gives public a limited influence on
policymaking process
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Co-optation: means a regime uses to get support of citizens
Patron-clientelism: the state provides specific benefits or favors to single person or small group in return for public support Unlike corporatism, it relies on individual patronage rather
than organizations
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In democracies, corporatism usually factors into economic policy and regulation
Pluralism: power is split among many groups that compete for the chance to influence gov’t policymaking
Democratic (neo) corporatism different from pluralism in 2 ways:
1. Democratic pluralism: formation of groups spontaneous; democratic corporatism: interests representation is institutionalized
2. Democratic pluralism: dialogue between groups and the state is voluntary; democratic corporatism: organizations have legally binding links w/ state agencies so groups are semi-public agencies acting on behalf of the state
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Legitimacy Legitimacy: the right to rule, as determined
by the citizens 3 basic forms of authority
Traditional: rests upon belief that tradition should determine who should rule and how Rituals & ceremonies reinforce traditional legitimacy
Charismatic: dynamic personality of an individual leader or small group Short lived b/c does not survive its founder
Rational-legal: system of established laws & procedures Anchored by strong institutions Based on common law (ex Britain) – tradition, past practices,
legal precedents – or code law (China, Mexico, Russia) – comprehensive system of written laws
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Factors that encourage legitimacy Economic well-being Historical tradition / longevity Charismatic leadership Nationalism / shared political culture Satisfaction w/ the gov’t’s performance /
responsiveness
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Political Culture Political Culture: the collection of political beliefs,
values, practices, and institutions the gov’t is based on
Social capital: amount of reciprocity and trust that exists among citizens, and between citizens and the state Low social capital = more inclined to authoritarian gov’t High social capital = more inclined to democracy
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Consensual political culture Citizens generally agree on how decisions are
made, what issues to address, how problems should be solved
Accepts both the legitimacy of the regime and solutions to problems
Conflictual political culture Citizens are sharply divided on legitimacy of regime
and solutions to problems May lead to political subcultures developing; gov’t
finds it difficult to rule effectively
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Political Ideologies Political ideologies: sets of political values held by
individuals regarding basic goals of gov’t & politics Liberalism: emphasis on individual political & economic
freedom; maximize freedom for all people Communism: values equality over freedom; individual liberties
must give way to the needs of society as a whole Socialism: accept and promote private ownership and free
market principles, but the state has role to play in regulating the economy
Fascism: people and groups exist in degrees of inferiority and superiority; the state has the right & responsibility to mold society & economy, & to remove obstacles that may weaken them
Religion: many advanced democracies have separated church and state; religion plays a different role in each of our 6 countries
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Political and Economic Change
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Types of Change Reform
Don’t overthrow basic institutions Change some methods political & economic leaders
use to reach goals Revolution
Involved either a major revision or overthrow of existing institutions
Impacts more than 1 area of life Coup d'états
Replace the leadership of a country w/ new leaders, by force
Typically occur in countries where gov’t institutions are weak
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Attitudes Toward Change Radicalism:
belief that rapid, dramatic changes need to be made in society; current system cannot be saved
Liberalism: Reform and gradual change rather than revolution Don’t think political / economic systems are broken, just need to be
repaired / improved Conservatism:
See change as disruptive, emphasize change can bring unforeseen outcomes
State & regime important sources of law & order; legitimacy itself may be undermined
Reactionary Beliefs: Oppose revolution & reform, but find status quo unacceptable Want to turn back to an earlier era Like radicals – willing to use violence to get there!
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Three Trends1. Democratization
More & more nations turning to some form of popular gov’t Requirement for democracy: competitive elections – free,
fair, regular; many “democracies” fall into a grey area (Russia, Nigeria)
Liberal democracies have other characteristics too: Civil liberties – freedom of speech, assembly Rule of law – equal treatment, due process Neutrality of judiciary - & other checks on power Open civil society – citizens have private lives, mass media
independent of gov’t Civilian control of the military – restricts likelihood of military
coup Gov’ts with free & fair elections but not the rest: illiberal
democracies
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1st wave of democracy – gradually over time since 18th century
2nd wave of democracy – de-colonization after Allied victory in WWII
3rd wave of democracy – began 1970s; characterized by defeat of dictatorial / totalitarian rulers
Why democratization occurred: Loss of legitimacy by authoritarian regimes Expansion of an urban middle class in developing
countries “human rights” emphasis from U.S.A. and E.U. “snowball effect” as one nation becomes democratic it
influences it’s neighbors to do so
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Process begins when conditions are accompanied by willingness of ruling elite to accept power-sharing and a readiness of the people to participate in the process Obstacle to democratization: poverty b/c it blocks
citizens’ participation in gov’t Democracy may be declared when a country has at
least 2 peaceful turnovers of power
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2. Movement Toward Market Economies Democratization and marketization – does one
lead to the other or no relation? Mexico: moved toward a market economy since 1980s,
democracy seems to have followed China: moving toward capitalism since 1970s, but no
democracy Command economies: socialist principles of
centralized planning & state ownership fading Market economy: the market operates on its own
Which will be more successful? An independent economy, or a “mixed economy” that allows for control from the central government?
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Factors prompting movement to market economies: Belief the government is too big Lack of success of command economies
(example: Soviet Union)
Marketization: state’s re-creation of a market where property, labor, goods, services all function competitively
Privatization: transfer of state-owned property to private ownership
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3. Revival of Ethnic or Cultural Politics Fragmentation – divisions based on ethnic or
cultural identity – is becoming increasingly important Nationalism seemed to be declining in favor of
globalization a few years ago Politicization of religion has most recently
dominated world politics (example, Middle East)
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Citizens, Society, and the State
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Social Cleavages Basis: How deep are the divisions? To what
degree do they separate people from one another (social boundaries) Social Class Ethnic Cleavages Religious Cleavages Regional Cleavages Coinciding / Cross-cutting Cleavages
Cleavages and political institutions: How are the cleavages expressed in politics? Do the cleavages block some groups from participating in gov’t?
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Comparing Citizen / State Relationships
Attitudes and Beliefs of Citizens – Do citizens trust the gov’t? Do citizens think the gov’t affects their lives in significant ways?
Political Socialization – How do citizens learn about politics? Does the gov’t put forth effort to politically educate their citizens?
Types of Political Participation – Authoritarian – citizen activities include obeying
laws, following orders, paying taxes Democracy – voting, working for political candidates,
attend meetings, contribute $$
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Voting behavior – Are there regular elections? Who is eligible to vote? Do elections affect policy-making?
Factors that influence political beliefs and behaviors – Do they make a difference in citizens’ political beliefs and behaviors?
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Social Movements Social Movements: organized collective
Activities that aim to bring about or resist fundamental change Influence political leaders Success varies from case to case, but even if they
fail, they often influence political opinion in some way
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Civil Society Civil Society: organizations outside the gov’t
that help people define & advance their own interests Usually strong in liberal democracies May be inherently apolitical, but serve as
cornerstone of liberty Checks power of the state and prevent tyranny of
the majority (tendency in democracies to allow majority rule to neglect rights and liberties of minorities)
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Global cosmopolitanism: universal political order that draws identity & values from everywhere Take shape in nongovernmental organizations
(NGOs) National / international groups that pursue policy objectives
& foster public participation
Authoritarian gov’ts do not encourage civil society
Is generally weak in less-developed countries Development of civil society needs civic
education
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Political Institutions
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Levels of Government Unitary system: concentrates all policymaking
in 1 central geographic place Confederal system: spreads power among
many sub-units (ex: states), weak central gov’t Federal system: divides power between central
gov’t and sub-units Most countries have unitary systems, but Britain
moving toward more federalism & Nigeria too weak to effectively concentrate power
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Supranational Organizations and Globalization Supranational organizations go beyond national
boundaries, reflect a trend toward integration binding states together w/ common policies & shared rules
Reflect phenomenon of globalization – an integration of social, environmental, economic, and cultural activities of nations resulting from increasing international contacts
Fragmentation: a counter trend; tendency for people to base loyalty on ethnicity, language, religion, cultural identity
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Modern Challenges to the Nation-State Centripetal vs. Centrifugal Forces
Centripetal Forces bind together people of a state i.e. nationalism Encourages allegiance to single country, loyalty Symbols include institutions: schools, military, religion,
transportation, broadcasting companies Centrifugal Forces destabilize the gov’t, encourage
country to fall apart; Country not well organized stands to lose loyalty weak institutions can fail to provide cohesive support Strong institutions can challenge the gov’t Separatist movements: nationalities w/in a country demand
independence
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Devolution: Ethnic, Economic, Spatial Forces Ethnic Forces
Ethnonationalism: the tendency for an ethnic group to see itself as a distinct nation w/ a right to autonomy or independence
Economic Forces Economic inequalities may destabilize a nation-state, esp. if the
inequalities are regional Spatial Forces
Devolutionary events most often occur on margins of the state Distance, remoteness, peripheral location, physical geographic
separation
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Executives 2 distinct roles: head of state, and head of
government Functions:
Policymaking leader Veto legislation (presidential) Oversees policy implementation
Cabinet (parliamentary) most important decision-making body
Cabinet coalition: several parties join forces & are represented in different posts
(presidential) not usually members of legislature; more independence from president
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Bureaucracies Agencies that generally implement government
policy Usually part of executive branch Characteristics:
Hierarchical authority structure: change of command Task specialization: clear division of labor Extensive rules: clearly written, well-established rules Clear goals: all people in organization strive for The merit principle: merit-based hiring and promotion Imperonality: job performance judged by productivity
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Bureaucracies in Democracies Discretionary power: power to make small
decisions in implementing legislative / executive decisions
Source of stability; stay through the changes in elected leadership positions
Bureaucracies in Authoritarian Regimes Head of gov’t exercises complete control over their
activities patronage system: political supporters receive jobs in
return for their assistance Technocrats: civilian bureaucrats in a military regime
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Common Characteristics of Bureaucracies Non-elected positions: are usually appointed Impersonal, efficient structures Formal qualifications for jobs Hierarchical organization Red tape / inefficiency: large groups seem to stumble
under own size
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Legislatures Bicameral: 2 houses in legislature; is most
common Why?
Allows for one house to represent regional gov’ts and local interests; the other serves as a direct democratic link to the voters
Helps counterbalance disproportionate power in the hands of any region
Unicameral: 1 house in legislature
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Functions of Legislatures Form, debate, vote on political policies
Varying degrees of power Control country’s spending Elite recruitment: identifying future leaders of the
gov’t
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Judiciaries Courts in authoritarian regimes have little / no
independence; decisions controlled by chief executive Constitutional courts: serve to defend democratic
principles of a country against infringement by both private citizens and the gov’t Highest judicial body that rules on constitutionality of laws &
other gov’t action
Judicial Review: allows courts to review laws and executive actions for constitutionality
Growth of judicial power over past 100 years spurred by desire to protect human rights
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Linkage Institutions Linkage Institutions: groups that connect the
gov’t to its citizens (political parties, interest groups, print / electronic media) Parties:
Bring different people & ideas together Provide labels for candidates to help citizens decide how to
vote Hold politicians accountable to electorate Most countries have multi-party systems – usually arise in
countries w/ strong parliamentary systems, esp. those that use proportional representation
Single-party system a rarity – in only 15 countries
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Electoral Systems and Elections Electoral systems: rules that decide how votes
are cast, counted, translated into seats in legislature First-past-the-post: divide constituencies into single-
member districts – candidates compete for single seat a.k.a. plurality system or winner-take-all system where
winner doesn’t need majority to win, just more votes than the others!
Proportional representation: creates multi-member districts – with more than one legislative seat is contested in each district Voters cast votes for parties, not candidates
Mixed system: combines first-past-the-post & proportional; encourage large, broad based parties b/c no mater how many people run, person w/ largest # of votes wins!
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Types of elections Elections of public officials Referendums
Plebiscite: variation of referendum; ballot to consult public opinion in nonbinding way
Initiative
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Interest Groups Interest groups: organization of like-minded
people to influence & shape public policy In liberal democracies, they are independent from
gov’t Strength of interest groups
Degree of autonomy from gov’t Interest group pluralism: autonomous groups
compete w/ each other for influence; criticism: increases inefficiency in policymaking
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Public Policy
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Public policy is generally directed toward addressing issues and solving problems
Common policy issues: Economic performance: measured by GDP, GNP,
GNP / GDP per capita, Purchasing Power Parity Social Welfare: health, employment, education
Measured using: Gini Index – formula that measures the amount of economic inequality in society; human Development Index factors in adult literacy, life expectancy, educational enrollment, GDP
Civil liberties, rights, and freedoms Environment – effort to go green!