Spaniards Spaniards

PueblosPueblos

Apaches, Navajos, etc.Apaches, Navajos, etc.

Genizaros—Native Amer. w/o tribes Genizaros—Native Amer. w/o tribes

Plains IndiansPlains IndiansDiversity of tribes and Diversity of tribes and languageslanguagesSome alliancesSome alliancesSome sedentary farmers;Some sedentary farmers; others nomadic huntersothers nomadic huntersCommon Traits:Common Traits: Close and extended family networksClose and extended family networks Intimate relationship with natureIntimate relationship with nature Bands of 500 people (tribes)Bands of 500 people (tribes) Most participated in decision-making processMost participated in decision-making process Male and female rolesMale and female roles Buffalo hunting Buffalo hunting

Hispanic Peoples of Southwest Hispanic Peoples of Southwest

Small aristocraciesSmall aristocraciesPushed out by Anglo-Americans, particularly Pushed out by Anglo-Americans, particularly after the railroads entered the region after the railroads entered the region

Ranching, farming and miningRanching, farming and mining

1900--new wave of Mexican immigration 1900--new wave of Mexican immigration into the region in search of work--from the into the region in search of work--from the start, were subordinate to Anglo-Americansstart, were subordinate to Anglo-Americans

English-speaking prospectorsEnglish-speaking prospectors organized to exclude Californios organized to exclude Californios Many Californios lost lands Many Californios lost lands Corrupt business dealsCorrupt business deals Outright seizuresOutright seizuresMost Mexican power in southern Most Mexican power in southern half of the statehalf of the state

Devastation of Mexican ranchDevastation of Mexican ranch culture: reckless expansion,culture: reckless expansion, growing indebtedness, growing indebtedness, severe drought 1860ssevere drought 1860s

Bottom line: Anglo-American migration was Bottom line: Anglo-American migration was catastrophic for Hispanics; more so for Native Americanscatastrophic for Hispanics; more so for Native Americans

Chinese MigrationChinese Migration

Better lives Better lives Gold RushGold RushInitially welcomed Initially welcomed Very industrious & Very industrious & successful successful

Whites began to consider as rivals and threatsWhites began to consider as rivals and threats1852—CA Foreign Miners Tax1852—CA Foreign Miners TaxOther discriminatory laws—drove Chinese out Other discriminatory laws—drove Chinese out

of prospectingof prospecting90% of labor force on Central Pacific Railroad90% of labor force on Central Pacific Railroad1866—struck for higher wages—starved 1866—struck for higher wages—starved

San Francisco’s Chinatown San Francisco’s Chinatown Six companiesSix companies Benevolent societiesBenevolent societies Role of eastern politicalRole of eastern political machinesmachines Led by prominent merchantsLed by prominent merchants Worked together to promote Worked together to promote Chinese interests in city Chinese interests in city and stateand state

TongsTongs: secret societies: secret societiesSome: violent, criminal organizationsSome: violent, criminal organizations

(opium trade & prostitution(opium trade & prostitution

Much discrimination—2/3 of laundry workers. Why?Much discrimination—2/3 of laundry workers. Why?

The Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882:The Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882:Banned Chinese immigration into the U. S. Banned Chinese immigration into the U. S. for 10 years and barred Chinese already in the for 10 years and barred Chinese already in the

U. S. from becoming naturalized citizensU. S. from becoming naturalized citizensRenewed in 1892 and made “permanent” inRenewed in 1892 and made “permanent” in

19021902

By 1900, over 400,000 homesteaders (Homestead Act of 1862)

160 acres—if 5 yearsAssumption—mere possession of

land would assure keeping familiesInsufficient land for grazing

Women in the West Women in the West

Working in dance halls and as prostitutes Working in dance halls and as prostitutes

Social mobilitySocial mobilitylimited—advancement was easiest limited—advancement was easiest and most rapid for those who were and most rapid for those who were economically advantaged to begin witheconomically advantaged to begin with

No greater than in EastNo greater than in East Whites—upper tiersWhites—upper tiers Lower tiers: hard labor in mines,Lower tiers: hard labor in mines, building railroads, agriculturebuilding railroads, agriculture (nonwhites) (nonwhites)

Myths: Myths: Several about Chinese, Blacks, Several about Chinese, Blacks, Mexicans, Filipinos—genetically Mexicans, Filipinos—genetically and culturally suited to manual and culturally suited to manual labor labor

Pike’s Peak—gold strike 1858; Denver—major city Pike’s Peak—gold strike 1858; Denver—major city

Washoe-Comstock—1859 Washoe-Comstock—1859 Dominated by Californians Dominated by Californians

Railroads Railroads made the cattle industry—made the cattle industry— needed means to get cattle needed means to get cattle to eastern markets. to eastern markets.

After Civil War—demand for beef After Civil War—demand for beef in the East skyrocketed.in the East skyrocketed.

December 1865—December 1865— Chicago Union Chicago Union Stock Yards openedStock Yards opened

By spring 1866, By spring 1866, railroads railroads had reached Sedalia, had reached Sedalia, MO. MO.

Drive cattle to Sedalia then Drive cattle to Sedalia then ship by ship by rail to Chicago and points east.rail to Chicago and points east.

Many problems on road Many problems on road to Sedalia, however.to Sedalia, however.

Hostile weather Hostile weather

Rough land and Rough land and rain-swollen rivers rain-swollen rivers

Farmers who didn’t want cattle Farmers who didn’t want cattle trampling crops & spreading trampling crops & spreading diseasedisease

Solution: Joseph McCoy Solution: Joseph McCoy of of Springfield,Springfield, IL bought land IL bought land near Abilene, KS and built near Abilene, KS and built cattle pens.cattle pens.

Chisholm Trail: Chisholm Trail: San Antonio, San Antonio, TX to Abilene TX to Abilene rail centerrail center

1867—35,0001867—35,000 head shipped; 1868—75,000 headhead shipped; 1868—75,000 head

Cowboys: 55,000 from Cowboys: 55,000 from 1866 to 1885. 1866 to 1885.

25% African American;25% African American;12% Mexican 12% Mexican

Work day: 10-14 hours on ranch;Work day: 10-14 hours on ranch; 18 hours on trail 18 hours on trail Age: 15-40; Avg—24; bowleggedAge: 15-40; Avg—24; bowlegged

Usually owned saddle but not horseUsually owned saddle but not horse

Most cowboys worked all Most cowboys worked all spring and summer spring and summer forfor bosses who banned drinking,bosses who banned drinking, gambling and cursing.gambling and cursing.

Winter: lived off savings or did oddWinter: lived off savings or did odd jobs, ranch to ranch. jobs, ranch to ranch.

Spring: roundup—rode range and Spring: roundup—rode range and chased all longhorns they could chased all longhorns they could find into a large corral find into a large corral

Kept herd penned without Kept herd penned without food for several days so the food for several days so the cattle preferred grazing to cattle preferred grazing to running away. running away.

Then sorted herd & Then sorted herd & claimed claimed those with those with their brand. They also their brand. They also branded those that branded those that had nonehad none..

The long drive to Abilene: The long drive to Abilene: 3 months; 1 cowboy for 3 months; 1 cowboy for every 250-300 head of every 250-300 head of cattle cattle

Also:Also: Trail boss; Trail boss; cook with a cook with a chuck wagon;chuck wagon; Extra wrangler Extra wrangler who cared for the remuda who cared for the remuda

Monthly pay:Monthly pay: Trail boss: $100+Trail boss: $100+ Cook: $35-50 Cook: $35-50 Wrangler: <$1.00 a day Wrangler: <$1.00 a day

Took great risksTook great risks; diet: coffee, ; diet: coffee, beans, bacon, bread, dried fruit.beans, bacon, bread, dried fruit.

End of the cattle frontier End of the cattle frontier Overgrazing Overgrazing Range wars with Range wars with sheep herders sheep herders

Weather: 1883 Weather: 1883 drought; prairie fires; blizzard of drought; prairie fires; blizzard of 1887 1887 (-60 degrees with 60 mph (-60 degrees with 60 mph winds; 1” of snow p/hr for 3 days)winds; 1” of snow p/hr for 3 days) cattlemen lost 40-90% of herds cattlemen lost 40-90% of herds

Women’s suffrage Women’s suffrage

Wyoming territory—first Wyoming territory—first

Utah: Mormons granted to stave off criticism of Utah: Mormons granted to stave off criticism of practice of polygamy practice of polygamy Other places: women granted suffrage before statehoodOther places: women granted suffrage before statehood to swell the electorateto swell the electorateWomen were thought to bring a Women were thought to bring a moral voicemoral voice to the to the politics of the region and politics of the region and strengthen the sense of strengthen the sense of community community

Owen WisterOwen Wister

1919thth century Americans century Americans romanticized the romanticized the cowboy into a cowboy into a powerful and enduringpowerful and enduring figure of mythfigure of myth Wister’s The Virginian:Wister’s The Virginian: romanticized the lead character’sromanticized the lead character’s natural decency, courage andnatural decency, courage and compassion: a powerful symbolcompassion: a powerful symbol of the virtues of the frontierof the virtues of the frontier

Frederick Jackson TurnerFrederick Jackson TurnerThe clearest and most The clearest and most influential statements of the influential statements of the romantic vision of the frontierromantic vision of the frontier““The Significance of the Frontier The Significance of the Frontier in American History”in American History”The end of the frontier also markedThe end of the frontier also marked

the end of one of the most important the end of one of the most important democratizing forces in American life.democratizing forces in American life. His assessments were both inaccurate and His assessments were both inaccurate and prematurepremature

The Federal Government and Native American Tribes The Federal Government and Native American Tribes Independent nations but wards of the President Independent nations but wards of the President

Concentration:Concentration: 1851—new reservations policy— 1851—new reservations policy—each each tribe assigned its own defined reservation, tribe assigned its own defined reservation, confirmed by separate treatiesconfirmed by separate treaties (often with (often with unauthorized representatives unauthorized representatives

Treaty of Fort Laramie (1851)Treaty of Fort Laramie (1851)

Native Amer.Native Amer. control ofcontrol of 400-mile-wide400-mile-wide slice east of Rockiesslice east of Rockies and from Arkansas River to and from Arkansas River to Can. NA would not attack Can. NA would not attack settlers & let Army build forts settlers & let Army build forts for annual payments.for annual payments.

The Federal Government and Native American Tribes The Federal Government and Native American Tribes Independent nations but wards of the President Independent nations but wards of the President

Concentration:Concentration: 1851—new reservations policy— 1851—new reservations policy—each each tribe assigned its own defined reservation, tribe assigned its own defined reservation, confirmed by separate treatiesconfirmed by separate treaties (often with (often with unauthorized representatives unauthorized representatives

Bureau of Indian Affairs Bureau of Indian Affairs Appalling recordAppalling recordPeople of gross incompetence and dishonesty People of gross incompetence and dishonesty Poor and usually corrupt administrationPoor and usually corrupt administration

Led to constant conflicts between Led to constant conflicts between Native Americans and nearby whitesNative Americans and nearby whites

Bison Bison

Pile of bison skulls around 1870 Pile of bison skulls around 1870

Relentless slaughter Relentless slaughter RailroadsRailroadsWhite demand for White demand for buffalo hidesbuffalo hides1865: 15 million; 1875: less than1865: 15 million; 1875: less than 1,000 1,000

Sand Creek Massacre Sand Creek Massacre Drunken Colorado Drunken Colorado Militia—massacred Militia—massacred 133 (105 women & 133 (105 women & children) children)

Bozeman Trail Bozeman Trail

Red Cloud raids—Sioux resented intrusion into Red Cloud raids—Sioux resented intrusion into the heart of their buffalo range the heart of their buffalo range

Fetterman Massacre—December 21, 1866Fetterman Massacre—December 21, 1866

Black Hills War—Battle of Little Big HornBlack Hills War—Battle of Little Big Horn

Nez PerceNez PerceSmall, relatively peaceful Small, relatively peaceful No treaty with U. S. government No treaty with U. S. government Forced on reservation based on Forced on reservation based on pressure from settlerspressure from settlersDuring journey, 4 drunk members During journey, 4 drunk members killed 4 white settlerskilled 4 white settlersU. S. troops driven off at White U. S. troops driven off at White Bird CanyonBird CanyonChief Joseph and others tried to Chief Joseph and others tried to reach Canada, caught short of reach Canada, caught short of border border

Chief JosephChief Joseph““I will fight no I will fight no more forever.”more forever.”

Apache Wars (Geronimo)Apache Wars (Geronimo)

Most violent of all Indian conflicts—tribes most Most violent of all Indian conflicts—tribes most desperatedesperateWhites—most flagrant and vicious atrocities Whites—most flagrant and vicious atrocities

Wounded Knee, South Dakota, Dec. 29, 1890 Wounded Knee, South Dakota, Dec. 29, 1890

WovokaWovoka

Remington’s Ghost Dance Remington’s Ghost Dance

Brigadier General James Forsythe Brigadier General James Forsythe

Corpse of Big Foot Corpse of Big Foot U. S. Army: 25 KIA; 39 WIAU. S. Army: 25 KIA; 39 WIASioux: 153 KIA, 50 WIA, 150 missing Sioux: 153 KIA, 50 WIA, 150 missing

In 1890, U. S. Census Bureau officially declared the In 1890, U. S. Census Bureau officially declared the frontier closed frontier closed

The Dawes Act and the policy of The Dawes Act and the policy of AssimilationAssimilation

Sen. Henry L. DawesSen. Henry L. Dawes

Federal governmentFederal government:: Destroy forever tribal structureDestroy forever tribal structure Forced Native Americans to becomeForced Native Americans to become landowners and farmerslandowners and farmers; to ; to abandon collective societyabandon collective society and to and to assimilate assimilate into white civilizationinto white civilization Took Native American Took Native American children children away from parentsaway from parents and sent to and sent to boarding schools run by whites—boarding schools run by whites— attempt to get them to abandon attempt to get them to abandon tribal waystribal ways Moved to stop religious rituals; encouraged spread Moved to stop religious rituals; encouraged spread of Christianity of Christianity

By 1900, 800 million acresBy 1900, 800 million acres of farmland in USA of farmland in USA

Railroads opened the west Railroads opened the west

Federal Government made Federal Government made huge land grants to railroads: huge land grants to railroads: 10 10 sq mi of public land for every sq mi of public land for every mile of track in a state; 20 sq mi mile of track in a state; 20 sq mi of public land for every mile of of public land for every mile of track in a territory.track in a territory.

Central PacificCentral Pacificeastward fromeastward fromSacramento Sacramento Union PacificUnion PacificWestward from Westward from Omaha, NEOmaha, NE

Promontory, UT Promontory, UT May 10, 1869May 10, 1869

By 1884, four transcontinentalBy 1884, four transcontinental railroads in USArailroads in USA

Laying track was gruelingLaying track was grueling work work

Civil war veterans,Civil war veterans, Irish & Chinese Irish & Chinese immigrants, African immigrants, African Americans & MexicanAmericans & Mexican AmericansAmericans

End of the cattle frontier End of the cattle frontier Invention of barbed wire Invention of barbed wire Joseph GliddenJoseph Glidden of Illinois of Illinois

10,000 lbs sold in 10,000 lbs sold in 1874; 27 million lbs1874; 27 million lbs sold in 1878sold in 1878

Life on the Great Plains Life on the Great Plains was one ofwas one of hardships hardships

DroughtDroughts s

Floods Floods

BlizzardsBlizzards

FiresFiresLocust Locust PlaguesPlagues

Most early houses built from the Most early houses built from the land. land. Dugouts and sod houses or Dugouts and sod houses or soddiessoddiesWarm in winter, cool in summer, small, Warm in winter, cool in summer, small,

little air or light, haven for snakes, insectslittle air or light, haven for snakes, insects& pests& pests

Women’s lives were very Women’s lives were very hard.hard. Fed & clothed family Fed & clothed family

Worked in fields, Worked in fields, plowing, planting &plowing, planting & harvesting harvesting Maintained livestock Maintained livestock Reared childrenReared childrenMade butter, cheese,Made butter, cheese, soap, candles.soap, candles.Laundry by hand.Laundry by hand.

Problems encountered by farmers Problems encountered by farmers

Growth depended heavily on irrigationGrowth depended heavily on irrigationBattles over water—central and enduring Battles over water—central and enduring characteristic of western lifecharacteristic of western life

Farming on the hard sodFarming on the hard sodwas difficult. was difficult. Wooden plowsWooden plowsbroke; harvesting by hand with a broke; harvesting by hand with a scythe was slow.scythe was slow.1837: John Deere: steel plow 1837: John Deere: steel plow

1847, Cyrus1847, Cyrus McCormick McCormick invented the invented the reaper.reaper.

Other inventions:Other inventions:Spring-tooth harrow (1869);Spring-tooth harrow (1869);Grain drill; cord binder (1878)Grain drill; cord binder (1878)

To produce a bushel of To produce a bushel of grain grain

1830: 183 minutes;1830: 183 minutes;1900: 10 minutes1900: 10 minutes

Agricultural Education Agricultural Education

Morrill Land Grant Acts Morrill Land Grant Acts (1862/1890)(1862/1890)gave federal land to states gave federal land to states to help to help paypay for agricultural colleges for agricultural colleges (such as(such asTexas A&M.)Texas A&M.)

Hatch Act of 1887 established Hatch Act of 1887 established experiment stations experiment stations to communicate to communicate new developments in agriculture to new developments in agriculture to farmers in every statefarmers in every state..

WhileWhile farm machinery farm machinery improved the efficiency of improved the efficiency of the farmer, it was also thethe farmer, it was also the cause of cause of great debt by farmers.great debt by farmers.

Machinery costs, railroad transport Machinery costs, railroad transport costscosts, etc., etc. forced farmers into debt. forced farmers into debt.

High wheat prices: could pay debts;High wheat prices: could pay debts; when priced dropped, problemswhen priced dropped, problems

Major grievances of farmers Major grievances of farmers Inequitable freight ratesInequitable freight rates—higher for farm goods —higher for farm goods than for other goodsthan for other goodsRailroads also controlled elevator and warehouseRailroads also controlled elevator and warehouse facilities—facilities—arbitrary storage ratesarbitrary storage ratesHigh interest chargesHigh interest charges from banks, etc. from banks, etc.

Farmers had to take loans at whateverFarmers had to take loans at whatever interest ratesinterest rates they could get they could get

Often 10-25%Often 10-25% Pay back during years when prices Pay back during years when prices

were droppingwere dropping Wanted an increase in volume of Wanted an increase in volume of

currency in circulationcurrency in circulationPrices were the third grievancePrices were the third grievance

Experiment: Bonanza farmsExperiment: Bonanza farms George Cass and Oliver DalrympleGeorge Cass and Oliver Dalrymple

10,000+ acre, single crop spreads10,000+ acre, single crop spreads

Drought of 1885-90Drought of 1885-90 hurt bonanza farmshurt bonanza farms

Smaller farms moreSmaller farms more flexible in crops flexible in crops

Experiment Experiment failedfailed

Key factors in growth of U.S. industry Key factors in growth of U.S. industry

Wealth of resourcesWealth of resources

Large and growing labor supplyLarge and growing labor supply Surge in technological innovationSurge in technological innovation

Emergence of a talented, ambitious and Emergence of a talented, ambitious and ruthless group of entrepreneursruthless group of entrepreneurs

Favorable federal government Favorable federal government Great & expanding domestic market Great & expanding domestic market

Removing carbon from iron makesRemoving carbon from iron makes a lighter, more flexible, rust-a lighter, more flexible, rust- resistant metal:resistant metal: Steel Steel Bessemer ProcessBessemer Process (1850, (1850, Englishman Henry Bessemer)Englishman Henry Bessemer) injected air into molten injected air into molten iron to remove carbon iron to remove carbon and transform it into and transform it into steel.steel.

By 1880, 90% of US Steel By 1880, 90% of US Steel

Deposits of Deposits of coal and iron orecoal and iron ore also also led to industrial strengthled to industrial strength..

Coal: PA, OH, WV, VA, KYCoal: PA, OH, WV, VA, KYIron ore: Mesabi Range of MNIron ore: Mesabi Range of MN—100 —100 mi by 3 mimi by 3 mi

Early key to industrial expansion:Early key to industrial expansion: discovery of oil in U. S.discovery of oil in U. S.

1859—Edwin L. Drake—Titusville,1859—Edwin L. Drake—Titusville, PA. Use steam engine to drill PA. Use steam engine to drill for oil.for oil.

Began oil boom:Began oil boom:KY, OH, IL, IN KY, OH, IL, IN

Led to oil-based Led to oil-based kerosene andkerosene andgasoline gasoline

Frederick Winslow Taylor Frederick Winslow Taylor

Manage human labor to make it compatible Manage human labor to make it compatible with the demands of the machine agewith the demands of the machine ageEmployer could increase control of Employer could increase control of workplaceworkplaceSubdivide tasksSubdivide tasks Interchangeable workersInterchangeable workers Diminish manager’s dependence onDiminish manager’s dependence on any particular employeeany particular employee Reduce need for highly skilled workersReduce need for highly skilled workers Modern machines, trained experts—couldModern machines, trained experts—could make production more efficientmake production more efficient

Most important change in Most important change in production technology: production technology: emergence of mass production emergence of mass production and assembly lineand assembly line

Model T: 1914: $950.00Model T: 1914: $950.00 1929: $290.001929: $290.00

Largest American customers for Largest American customers for steel:steel: Railroads Railroads

Others as well: barbed wire,Others as well: barbed wire, plows, etc.plows, etc.

Steel transformed the face Steel transformed the face of the USAof the USA

Principal agent of industrial development Principal agent of industrial development in late 19in late 19thth Century Century

Brooklyn Bridge—1883Brooklyn Bridge—1883First bridge to use steel cables.First bridge to use steel cables.1,595 span of East River in NYC1,595 span of East River in NYCAt the time, its towers were higherAt the time, its towers were higher than any human-made structurethan any human-made structure except the pyramids of Egypt. except the pyramids of Egypt.

Brooklyn Bridge—1883Brooklyn Bridge—1883Designed by John Augustus RoeblingDesigned by John Augustus Roebling

Some people were Some people were con-cerned about con-cerned about soundness. Showman soundness. Showman P. T. BarnumP. T. Barnumdrove a herd of drove a herd of elephants across.elephants across.

William Le Baron Jenney—designed William Le Baron Jenney—designed first skyscraper with a steel frame:first skyscraper with a steel frame: The Home Insurance Building The Home Insurance Building in in Chicago, IL.Chicago, IL.Strength of steel framesStrength of steel frames allowed architects and allowed architects and engineers to design engineers to design buildings as high as buildings as high as they could.they could.

Emergence of big businessEmergence of big business embodied in life of Andrew embodied in life of Andrew CarnegieCarnegie

Born of very poor Born of very poor parents; came to parents; came to US at 13 (1848)US at 13 (1848)

His initiative led to His initiative led to his employer givinghis employer giving him stock options. Made thenhim stock options. Made then reinvested dividendsreinvested dividends

Carnegie continued buyingCarnegie continued buying stock in various companiesstock in various companiesEarned mega-bucks in dividendsEarned mega-bucks in dividends

1873—entered steel business1873—entered steel business 1899, Carnegie Steel one of 1899, Carnegie Steel one of world’s largest steel producersworld’s largest steel producers

Carnegie’s management Carnegie’s management practices . . .practices . . .worked to make better productsworked to make better products more cheaplymore cheaplyUsed new techniques andUsed new techniques and machinery in plants machinery in plants

Hired chemists and Hired chemists and metallurgists tometallurgists to improve quality ofimprove quality of steelsteel

Carnegie’s Management Carnegie’s Management PracticesPracticesCreated Created detailed accounting detailed accounting systemssystems to track the precise to track the precise cost of each process and itemcost of each process and item

Hired talented peopleHired talented people through through competitive salariescompetitive salaries and stock and stock optionsoptions

Encouraged competition among Encouraged competition among employees to promote efficiencyemployees to promote efficiency

Carnegie tried to buy out Carnegie tried to buy out competing steel producers competing steel producers through through a process calleda process called horizontal consolidationhorizontal consolidation..

Companies producing Companies producing similar products merge similar products merge

CarnegieCarnegie achieved achieved a near monopoly—a near monopoly—controlled 80% of controlled 80% of U.S. steel production.U.S. steel production.

Carnegie attempted to Carnegie attempted to control entire steel industrycontrol entire steel industry

Vertical integrationVertical integration—bought out—bought out all of his suppliersall of his suppliers

Coal/iron minesCoal/iron minesOre freightersOre freightersRailroadsRailroads

Total control overTotal control over quality & cost of steelquality & cost of steel

Age of vicious competitionAge of vicious competitionMany entrepreneurs tried to Many entrepreneurs tried to eliminate competitorseliminate competitorsLed to rise of oligopolies—Led to rise of oligopolies— markets with few providers markets with few providers of a given product of a given product

Often formed Often formed through mergers through mergers

Example: Example: John D. RockefellerJohn D. RockefellerStandard Oil Standard Oil Company of OhioCompany of Ohio

Trusts were illegal but the Trusts were illegal but the law was not vigorously enforced law was not vigorously enforced

Used trusts to Used trusts to control 90% of control 90% of U. S. oil industry U. S. oil industry

Standard Oil Company Standard Oil Company

Rockefeller Rockefeller Huge profitsHuge profits

Paid extremely low wagesPaid extremely low wagesSold oil at a price lower thanSold oil at a price lower than cost of producing it to drive cost of producing it to drive competitors out of businesscompetitors out of businessAfter gaining market control,After gaining market control, increased pricesincreased prices far above far above original leveloriginal level

Sometimes mergers Sometimes mergers created monopolies—created monopolies—completecomplete control over all aspects of an control over all aspects of an industry industry

Sometimes created through Sometimes created through holding companiesholding companies—companies —companies that do nothing but that do nothing but buy stock buy stock of other companiesof other companies

Holding Companies Holding Companies United States Steel under United States Steel under John Pierpont (JP) Morgan John Pierpont (JP) Morgan

1901—U. S. Steel 1901—U. S. Steel bought Carnegiebought Carnegie for $500 million—for $500 million— world’s largest world’s largest business business organizationorganization at at the time.the time.

Sometimes monopolies Sometimes monopolies formed through formed through truststrusts—— companies turned over stock companies turned over stock to a group of trustees who ran to a group of trustees who ran separate companies as a large separate companies as a large corporation.corporation.

Social philosophers tried Social philosophers tried to explain Carnegie’s to explain Carnegie’s success assuccess as Social Darwinism Social Darwinism

Based on biological theory of Based on biological theory of Englishman Charles DarwinEnglishman Charles Darwin

Through natural Through natural selection, only the selection, only the strong survive.strong survive.

Economists used Darwin’s Economists used Darwin’s ideas ideas of natural selectionof natural selection to justify doctrine of to justify doctrine of laissez faire laissez faire (“allow to do”)(“allow to do”)

Translated to a lack of govern- Translated to a lack of govern- ment regulationment regulation

Englishman Herbert Spencer:Englishman Herbert Spencer: free competition would ensurefree competition would ensure survival of the fittest businessessurvival of the fittest businesses

Social DarwinismSocial DarwinismAppealed to wealthy Appealed to wealthy Appealed to Appealed to Protestant work Protestant work ethicethic of many Americans of many AmericansSupported belief that richesSupported belief that riches were a sign of God’s favor;were a sign of God’s favor; poor must be lazy or inferiorpoor must be lazy or inferior

Carnegie’s Carnegie’s The Gospel of The Gospel of WealthWealth: the wealthy should : the wealthy should consider all revenues in excess of consider all revenues in excess of their own needs to be used for their own needs to be used for the good of the communitythe good of the community

Enhanced by Enhanced by novels novels of of Horatio Alger Horatio Alger Poor boy from small Poor boy from small town goes to big city town goes to big city to seek his fortune— to seek his fortune— by work, by work, perseverance,perseverance,& luck, succeeds & luck, succeeds

Rockefeller and others like Rockefeller and others like him called him called Robber BaronsRobber Barons Justified their business tactics Justified their business tactics through philanthropythrough philanthropyRockefeller Rockefeller gavegave over over $$500 million 500 million to charityto charityCarnegie gave over $325Carnegie gave over $325 million: 90% of his wealth—million: 90% of his wealth— Carnegie Hall in NYC, >3,000Carnegie Hall in NYC, >3,000 libraries (including Oakdale), libraries (including Oakdale), Carnegie Foundation Carnegie Foundation

Age of immigrants Age of immigrants 1870-1920—20 million Europeans 1870-1920—20 million Europeans arrived in U. S.arrived in U. S.1870-1890—most British, Irish & 1870-1890—most British, Irish & German German

U. S. was U. S. was consideredconsidered a “Goldena “Golden Door”Door”

1890s on, 1890s on, more and more frommore and more from Southern and Eastern Europe:Southern and Eastern Europe:Italy, Austria-Italy, Austria-Hungary and Hungary and Russia.Russia.

Age of immigrants Age of immigrants

European immigration: why?European immigration: why?Anti-Jewish pogroms in Russia Anti-Jewish pogroms in Russia

Rising population/scarce farm land Rising population/scarce farm land Limited industrial jobs Limited industrial jobs

Flee revolution and upheavalFlee revolution and upheaval

Desire for personal Desire for personal independence independence

Non-European Immigrants Non-European Immigrants 1882—Congress limited 1882—Congress limited Chinese immigration Chinese immigration

Japanese recruited to work in Hawaii; Japanese recruited to work in Hawaii; U.S. annexed Hawaii inU.S. annexed Hawaii in 1898 1898 andand Japanese began moving to West Coast Japanese began moving to West Coast

1880-19201880-1920—260,000 to eastern and —260,000 to eastern and southeastern U.S. fromsoutheastern U.S. from Jamaica, Cuba, Jamaica, Cuba, Puerto Rico Puerto Rico & other Caribbean islands& other Caribbean islands

Mexicans via annexation Mexicans via annexation

European Immigrants European Immigrants Arrived by ship—deplorable conditions Arrived by ship—deplorable conditions Immigration stations:Immigration stations:Ellis Island in New York Ellis Island in New York Physical examPhysical examLiteracy in native Literacy in native languagelanguageAbility to work Ability to work Have at least $25.00Have at least $25.00 in their possession in their possession

Asian immigrants: Angel Asian immigrants: Angel Island in San Francisco Bay Island in San Francisco Bay

Much harsher Much harsher treatment treatment compared to Ellis compared to Ellis IslandIsland Most immigrants had to Most immigrants had to

deal with deal with culture shockculture shock Caused gravitation to ethnic Caused gravitation to ethnic communities communities in towns (Ripon) or in towns (Ripon) or segments of cities (North Beach or segments of cities (North Beach or Chinatown in San Francisco)Chinatown in San Francisco)

U. S. became a U. S. became a melting potmelting pot

People blended togetherPeople blended together abandoning native abandoning native customs and languages customs and languages

Some refused to give up their culturalSome refused to give up their cultural identities causing friction with nativesidentities causing friction with natives and some strong anti-immigrant and some strong anti-immigrant feelingsfeelings

Situation caused a rise in “nativism”Situation caused a rise in “nativism”

West Coast: prejudice against AsiansWest Coast: prejudice against AsiansDepression of 1873—anti-Chinese Depression of 1873—anti-Chinese sentimentsentiment based on fear that the based on fear that the few jobs would go tofew jobs would go to ChineseChinese who who wouldwould accept lower wagesaccept lower wages

Violent riots often backed by Violent riots often backed by organized labororganized labor

1882—Chinese Exclusion Act1882—Chinese Exclusion Act; re-passed; re-passed 1892, 1902; repealed 19431892, 1902; repealed 1943

San Francisco—1906, segregated San Francisco—1906, segregated Asian students into separate schools Asian students into separate schools

Anti-American riots in Japan Anti-American riots in Japan

President T. Roosevelt intervenedPresident T. Roosevelt intervened

1907-08—Gentlemen’s 1907-08—Gentlemen’s Agreement: San Francisco Agreement: San Francisco stopped segregation;stopped segregation; Japan limited emigration Japan limited emigration to U. S.to U. S.

Factory wages at turn of 20Factory wages at turn of 20thth century: century: $400-500 per year$400-500 per year $600 was considered minimum for $600 was considered minimum for a reasonable level of comforta reasonable level of comfortConditions:Conditions:• Strict, monotonous schedulesStrict, monotonous schedules• Machines performed tasks onceMachines performed tasks once• valued in artisansvalued in artisans• Impersonal & demanding systemImpersonal & demanding system• 6 days/week; 10 hours/day6 days/week; 10 hours/day• Many unsafe/unhealthyMany unsafe/unhealthy

Most disturbing aspect of factory labor:Most disturbing aspect of factory labor:Loss of control over work conditions Loss of control over work conditions

Women: Women: • 17% of workforce17% of workforce• Lower wages than adult malesLower wages than adult males• 75% under 2575% under 25• $6-$8 per week$6-$8 per week• Annual wage (1900)Annual wage (1900)

Male: $597Male: $597Female: $314Female: $314

Child laborChild labor Under 16 in 1900—1.7 millionUnder 16 in 1900—1.7 million

10% of all girls 10-1510% of all girls 10-15 20% of all boys20% of all boys

38 states—child labor laws38 states—child labor laws Agricultural sector jobs exempt Agricultural sector jobs exempt Children on farms: 12 hours/dayChildren on farms: 12 hours/day Children in factories: 10 hours/day Children in factories: 10 hours/day Canneries: 16 hours/day girlsCanneries: 16 hours/day girls High accident ratesHigh accident rates

Accident rate: highest in world (of any Accident rate: highest in world (of any industrialized nation)industrialized nation)1907: 12 railroad men a week died on 1907: 12 railroad men a week died on the jobthe jobFactories: thousands of workers: Factories: thousands of workers: occupational diseasesoccupational diseases

Lead or phosphorus poisoningLead or phosphorus poisoning Few owners took preventive measuresFew owners took preventive measures

1866: National Labor Union1866: National Labor Union 640,000 members640,000 members Disintegrated after PanicDisintegrated after Panic of 1873of 1873 Excluded womenExcluded women

Molly MaguiresMolly Maguires Ancient Order of Ancient Order of HiberniansHibernians Terrorist attacks to Terrorist attacks to intimidate coal intimidate coal mine operatorsmine operators

Great Railroad Strike of 1877—the Great Railroad Strike of 1877—the first major national labor conflict in U. S.first major national labor conflict in U. S.Baltimore to St. LouisBaltimore to St. Louis

Knights of LaborKnights of Labor Uriah S. Stephens Uriah S. Stephens Open to all who toiledOpen to all who toiled Included womenIncluded women Championed:Championed:

• 8-hour work day8-hour work day• End to child laborEnd to child labor• Arbitration over strikes Arbitration over strikes • Equal pay for equal work Equal pay for equal work

Leonora BarryLeonora BarryWomen’s Bureau of the Women’s Bureau of the Knights of Labor Knights of Labor

Terence V. Terence V. PowderlyPowderlyExpanded KoLExpanded KoLModerateModerate

Strikes against Powderly’s wishes ledStrikes against Powderly’s wishes ledto downfall of the union.to downfall of the union.

American Federation of Labor American Federation of Labor Federation of Organized Trade and Federation of Organized Trade and labor unions of U. S. and Canadalabor unions of U. S. and Canada

Samuel Gompers Samuel Gompers AFL: most important andAFL: most important and enduring labor group in U. S. enduring labor group in U. S. Association of autonomousAssociation of autonomous craft unions craft unions (mostly (mostly skilled workers/artisans)skilled workers/artisans)Goal: secure for workers greater shareGoal: secure for workers greater share of capitalism’s material rewards of capitalism’s material rewards

Haymarket Square Bombing Haymarket Square Bombing

May 4, 1886May 4, 1886ChicagoChicagoStrike against Strike against McCormick McCormick Harvester Harvester Company Company Bomb killed 7 Bomb killed 7 officers and injuredofficers and injured 67 others67 othersPolice fired into crowdPolice fired into crowd

Homestead StrikeHomestead Strike Amalgamated Association of Iron Amalgamated Association of Iron and Steel Workersand Steel Workers Homestead: part of Carnegie SystemHomestead: part of Carnegie System Henry Clay Frick Henry Clay Frick Pitched battle won by unionPitched battle won by union Governor of PA sent national Governor of PA sent national guard to protect strikebreakersguard to protect strikebreakers Public turned against strikers Public turned against strikers when a member tried to when a member tried to assassinate Frickassassinate Frick After 4 months, Amalgamated After 4 months, Amalgamated surrenderedsurrendered—symbolized general —symbolized general erosion of union strength in late 19erosion of union strength in late 19thth century century

Pullman Strike of 1894Pullman Strike of 1894 Pullman Palace Car companyPullman Palace Car company 600-acre company town 600-acre company town High rentsHigh rents 1893-1894—cut wages by 25% but1893-1894—cut wages by 25% but refused to reduce rents refused to reduce rents

Reasons why organized labor failed Reasons why organized labor failed to make greater gains to make greater gains Wages for works rose hardly at allWages for works rose hardly at all Low wages could not keep up with Low wages could not keep up with the rising cost of livingthe rising cost of living Major labor organizations representedMajor labor organizations represented only a small portion of industrial only a small portion of industrial work force work force (4% in 1900)(4% in 1900) AFL excluded unskilled workers, who AFL excluded unskilled workers, who were emerging as the core of the were emerging as the core of the industrial workforce industrial workforce Divided due to internal tensionsDivided due to internal tensions Immigrants—no long-range view in USImmigrants—no long-range view in US

Boom in business and Boom in business and industry focused in North industry focused in North South remained agriculturalSouth remained agricultural,, with farmers at mercy of with farmers at mercy of railroads and their rates railroads and their rates