spatial part-6
TRANSCRIPT
Part 6 B. Blijie (2005) “The Impact of Accessibility on Residential Choice: Empirical Results of a Discrete Choice Model” Presented at the 45th Congress of the European Regional Science Association, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
45
TH
Co
ng
ress
of
the
Eu
rop
ean
Reg
ion
al
Sci
ence
Ass
oci
ati
on
2
3-2
7 A
ug
ust
20
05
, V
rije
Un
iver
site
it A
mst
erd
am
TH
E I
MP
AC
T O
F A
CC
ES
SIB
ILIT
Y O
N R
ES
IDE
NT
IAL
CH
OIC
E:
EM
PIR
ICA
L R
ES
UL
TS
OF
A D
ISC
RE
TE
CH
OIC
E M
OD
EL
Ber
ry B
liji
e D
elft
Un
iver
sity
of
Tec
hn
olo
gy
D
epar
tmen
t o
f T
ran
spo
rtat
ion
and
Pla
nn
ing
P
.O. B
ox
50
48
, 2
60
0 G
A D
elft
, T
he
Net
her
lands
Em
ail:
h.p
.bli
jie@
citg
.tu
del
ft.n
l
AB
ST
RA
CT
Tra
nsp
ort
in g
ener
al,
and
acc
essi
bil
ity
of
peo
ple
, jo
bs
and
ser
vic
es i
n p
arti
cula
r, i
s as
sum
ed t
o
hav
e an
im
po
rtan
t im
pac
t o
n t
he
resi
den
tial
ch
oic
e b
ehav
ior
of
ho
use
ho
lds.
Aft
er a
ll,
the
amo
un
t o
f ac
tiv
itie
s th
at c
an b
e d
eplo
yed
by t
he
hou
seho
ld m
emb
ers,
wh
eth
er l
abo
r, l
eisu
re o
r so
cial
ly
asso
ciat
ed, is
det
erm
ined
by
the
acce
ssib
ilit
y o
f a
loca
tion
.
Th
e p
ast
dec
ades
th
e re
sid
enti
al l
oca
tio
n c
ho
ice
of
ho
use
ho
lds
has
bee
n s
ub
ject
of
stu
dy
in
man
y
rese
arch
es.
Nev
erth
eles
s, t
he
rela
tio
n b
etw
een
acc
essi
bil
ity
an
d r
esid
enti
al c
ho
ice
has
sh
ow
n t
o
be
har
d t
o v
erif
y e
mp
iric
ally
. S
uch
(em
pir
ical
) k
no
wle
dg
e, h
ow
ever
, ca
n h
elp
ad
dre
ss m
any
of
the
pro
ble
ms
that
urb
an r
egio
ns
are
faci
ng n
ow
aday
s, l
ike
the
(re-
)lo
cati
on o
f re
siden
tial
are
as
and
jo
bs,
th
e p
lan
nin
g o
f n
ew i
nfr
astr
uct
ure
and
pre
dic
tin
g t
he
amo
un
t o
f tr
affi
c g
ener
ated
by
co
mm
uti
ng
an
d l
eisu
re a
ctiv
itie
s.
Th
e fi
rst
par
t o
f th
is p
aper
giv
es a
n o
ver
vie
w o
f th
e li
tera
ture
on
res
iden
tial
ch
oic
e b
ehav
ior,
wit
h
an
emp
has
is
on
re
sear
ch
that
st
ud
ied
th
e re
lati
on
w
ith
acce
ssib
ilit
y.
In
the
seco
nd
hal
f a
theo
reti
cal
mo
del
fo
r re
sid
enti
al c
ho
ice
wil
l b
e p
rese
nte
d,
foll
ow
ed b
y t
he
esti
mat
ion
res
ult
s. T
he
mo
del
is
esti
mat
ed o
n r
evea
led
dat
a d
eriv
ed f
rom
th
e N
atio
nal
Ho
usi
ng
Su
rvey
, in
wh
ich
ov
er 7
5
tho
usa
nd
D
utc
h
ho
use
ho
lds
wer
e in
qu
ired
o
n
thei
r cu
rren
t an
d
pre
vio
us
ho
usi
ng
si
tuat
ion
. D
iffe
ren
t as
pec
ts o
f th
e re
sid
enti
al
cho
ice
dec
isio
n
are
inco
rpo
rate
d
in
the
mod
el,
lik
e th
e dw
elli
ng t
ype,
the
loca
tion o
f th
e dw
elli
ng
, th
e ch
arac
teri
stic
s of
the
hou
sehold
, an
d t
he
infl
uen
ce
of
acce
ssib
ilit
y.
Th
e re
sult
s sh
ow
th
at
so-c
alle
d
ind
ivid
ual
ac
cess
ibil
ity
m
easu
res,
li
ke
mig
rati
on
d
ista
nce
, co
mm
uti
ng
d
ista
nce
an
d
acce
ss
to
pu
bli
c tr
ansp
ort
fo
r h
ou
seh
old
s w
ith
ou
t a
car,
h
ave
a si
gn
ific
ant
infl
uen
ce o
n th
e re
sid
enti
al ch
oic
e b
ehav
ior
of
mo
st o
f th
e h
ou
seh
old
ty
pes
w
e co
nst
ruct
ed.
Nev
erth
eles
s, d
wel
lin
g c
har
acte
rist
ics
and
so
cial
nei
gh
bo
rho
od
qu
alit
ies
are
ver
y
infl
uen
tial
as
wel
l.
KE
YW
OR
DS
: R
esid
enti
al c
ho
ice,
ho
usi
ng
mar
ket
, ac
cess
ibil
ity
, d
iscr
ete
cho
ice.
2
1.
INT
RO
DU
CT
ION
Th
e p
ast
dec
ade
maj
or
chan
ges
hav
e o
ccu
rred
in
th
e D
utc
h h
ou
sin
g m
ark
et,
bo
th i
n t
erm
s o
f th
e
dem
and
, q
uan
tita
tiv
e as
wel
l as
qu
alit
ativ
e, a
nd
th
e su
pp
ly s
ide
of
the
mar
ket
. T
he
new
dem
and
is m
ain
ly a
res
ult
of
dem
og
rap
hic
pro
cess
es:
ph
eno
men
a li
ke
agei
ng
of
the
popu
lati
on a
nd t
he
ind
ivid
ual
izat
ion
of
peo
ple
in
crea
sed
th
e d
eman
d f
or
mo
re (
smal
ler)
dw
elli
ng
s. F
urt
her
mo
re,
alte
red
co
mp
osi
tio
ns
of
ho
use
ho
lds
and
w
elfa
re
situ
atio
ns
lead
to
d
iffe
ren
t p
refe
ren
ces
for
ho
usi
ng
ty
pe
and
att
rib
ute
s. T
he
ho
usi
ng
su
pp
ly f
aces
dif
ficu
ltie
s to
mat
ch t
his
(n
ew)
dem
and
.
This
is
mai
nly
cau
sed b
y t
he
lack
of
avai
lable
lan
d i
n u
rban
ized
are
as a
nd
the
smal
l pro
fits
th
at
can
be
ach
iev
ed b
y b
uil
din
g f
irm
s. T
his
sit
uat
ion
is
also
ack
now
ledged
by t
he
Dutc
h g
ov
ern
men
t
(Min
iste
rie
van
Vo
lksh
uis
ves
tin
g, R
uim
teli
jke
Ord
enin
g e
n M
ilie
ub
ehee
r, 2
00
4).
Th
e ch
ang
ing
ho
usi
ng
mar
ket
in
crea
ses
the
nee
d f
or
a h
ou
seh
old
to
be
flex
ible
wh
en s
earc
hin
g
for
a d
wel
lin
g i
n t
erm
s o
f th
e lo
cati
on
and
th
e d
wel
lin
g t
yp
e. T
he
rela
tiv
ely
wel
l-d
evel
op
ed
tran
spo
rt s
yst
em i
n t
he
Net
her
lan
ds
is p
artl
y a
ble
to
fac
ilit
ate
this
fle
xib
ilit
y.
On
th
e o
ther
han
d,
incr
easi
ng c
onges
tion p
rob
lem
s or
the
abse
nce
of
good p
ubli
c tr
ansp
ort
may
mak
e a
loca
tion l
ess
attr
acti
ve
to s
ettl
e. T
he
cho
ice
to w
hic
h d
wel
ling
a h
ou
seh
old
fin
ally
rel
oca
tes
is d
eter
min
ed b
y
the
resi
den
tial
cho
ice
beh
avio
r.
Th
e re
sid
enti
al c
ho
ice
beh
avio
r is
an
im
po
rt i
ssu
e in
th
e h
ou
sin
g m
ark
et.
We
def
ine
this
beh
avio
r
as t
he
cho
ice
for
a d
wel
lin
g o
n a
lo
cati
on
by
a h
ou
seh
old
. W
e as
sum
e th
at t
his
beh
avio
r is
det
erm
ined
by
th
ree
typ
es o
f ch
arac
teri
stic
s, n
amel
y a
spec
ts o
f th
e d
wel
ling
, th
e lo
cati
on
of
the
dw
elli
ng
an
d t
he
ho
use
ho
ld t
hat
is
relo
cati
ng
. T
o u
nd
erst
and
th
e co
nse
qu
ence
s o
f ch
ang
es a
nd
(po
licy
) in
terf
eren
ce i
n t
he
hou
sing
mar
ket
, w
e n
eed
to
kno
w m
ore
of
this
beh
avio
r.
Th
is p
aper
des
crib
es t
he
resu
lts
of
an e
mp
iric
al m
od
el t
hat
ex
pla
ins
resi
den
tial
beh
avio
r. T
he
cen
tral
go
al o
f th
is p
aper
is
to r
evea
l th
e in
flu
ence
of
acce
ssib
ilit
y o
n r
esid
enti
al c
ho
ice
beh
avio
r,
wh
ile
con
tro
llin
g f
or
oth
er r
elo
cati
on
iss
ues
. In
this
stu
dy
we
def
ine
acce
ssib
ilit
y a
s th
e re
lati
ve
ease
th
at i
s ta
kes
to
rea
ch c
erta
in f
un
ctio
ns,
in
ter
ms
of
tim
e an
d/o
r m
on
ey (
Geu
rs &
Rit
sem
a v
an
Eck
, 2
00
1).
In
ord
er t
o d
o t
his
, w
e es
tim
ated
a d
iscr
ete
cho
ice
mo
del
on
rev
eale
d p
refe
ren
ce d
ata
(i.e
. a
larg
e su
rvey
on
ho
usi
ng
dem
and
in
th
e N
eth
erla
nd
s).
3
Th
e n
oti
on
of
a ce
ntr
al r
ole
of
acce
ssib
ilit
y i
n r
esid
enti
al b
ehav
ior
is m
oti
vat
ed i
n t
he
seco
nd
par
agra
ph o
f th
is s
ecti
on.
Nev
erth
eles
s, a
s w
e w
ill
see
from
in t
he
lite
ratu
re r
evie
w,
acce
ssib
ilit
y
is n
ot
oft
en a
ver
y s
tron
g e
xp
lan
ato
ry v
aria
ble
in r
esid
enti
al c
ho
ice
mo
del
s, a
t le
ast
no
t in
ter
ms
of
clas
sica
l, m
ore
gen
eric
acc
essi
bil
ity
mea
sure
s, l
ike
the
nu
mb
er o
f in
hab
itan
ts o
r jo
bs
wit
hin
a
par
ticu
lar
amo
un
t o
f tr
avel
ti
me.
T
his
is
w
hy
w
e w
ant
to
focu
s o
n
so-c
alle
d
ind
ivid
ual
acce
ssib
ilit
y m
atte
rs,
wh
ich
co
mes
clo
ser
to t
he
actu
al h
ou
seh
old
’s p
erce
pti
on
of
acce
ssib
ilit
y,
nam
ely
th
e ea
se t
hat
(fr
equ
entl
y c
on
du
cted
) ac
tiv
itie
s ca
n b
e d
eplo
yed
.
2.
BA
CK
GR
OU
ND
Nu
mer
ou
s m
eth
od
s h
ave
bee
n d
evel
op
ed a
nd
ap
pli
ed t
o d
eriv
e th
e d
eter
min
ing
fac
tors
of
the
resi
den
tial
ch
oic
e b
ehav
ior
of
ho
use
ho
lds.
Ev
en t
he
trad
itio
nal
mo
del
s, l
ike
Alo
nso
’s r
esid
enti
al
loca
tio
n m
od
el (
Alo
nso
, 1
96
4),
res
erv
e a
do
min
ant
pla
ce f
or
acce
ssib
ilit
y.
Th
at i
s, t
he
cho
ice
wh
ere
to s
ettl
e in
an
urb
an a
rea
was
det
erm
ined
by
th
e co
mb
inat
ion
of
inco
me,
the
cost
s fo
r
ho
usi
ng
an
d t
he
dis
tan
ce t
o e
mp
loy
men
t (l
oca
ted
in
th
e ce
ntr
al b
usi
nes
s d
istr
ict)
. S
ince
then
man
y v
arie
ties
hav
e b
een
mad
e o
n t
he
Alo
nso
’s w
ork
an
d i
t to
ok
un
til
the
mid
-sev
enti
es t
hat
rese
arch
ers
emp
loy
ed n
ew t
ech
niq
ues
fo
r th
is t
op
ic.
Th
e o
ver
vie
w t
hat
Cla
rk a
nd
van
Lie
rop
mad
e in
1986 g
ives
a g
ood
insi
ght
into
th
e b
est
pra
ctic
e
of
resi
den
tial
ch
oic
e m
od
elin
g a
t th
at t
ime.
Fro
m t
his
res
earc
h a
nd
sev
eral
oth
er p
ub
lica
tio
ns,
it
sho
ws
that
th
e m
ost
ap
pli
ed t
ech
niq
ues
are
th
e h
edo
nic
pri
ce m
eth
od
, w
hic
h c
alcu
late
s th
e ef
fect
of
ho
usi
ng
att
rib
ute
s o
n t
he
pri
ce p
aid
fo
r a
dw
elli
ng
, an
d t
he
ran
do
m u
tili
ty t
heo
ry.
Th
e la
tter
theo
ry i
s b
ased
on
th
e n
oti
on
th
at a
hu
man
is
try
ing
to
max
imiz
e it
s u
tili
ty w
hen
ch
oo
sin
g a
dw
elli
ng
. N
ext
the
chan
ce t
hat
an
alt
ern
ativ
e is
ch
ose
n f
rom
a s
et o
f al
tern
ativ
es c
an b
e d
eriv
ed
fro
m t
hes
e u
tili
ties
. C
lass
ical
ex
amp
les
of
the
appli
cati
on
of
the
hed
on
ic p
rice
met
hod
and
dis
cret
e ch
oic
e m
odel
ing i
n t
he
resi
den
tial
choic
e co
nte
xt
can
be
fou
nd
in
, re
spec
tiv
ely
, R
ose
n
(19
74
) an
d M
cFad
den
(1
97
8).
Mo
re r
ecen
t ex
amp
les
of
tech
niq
ues
fo
r re
sid
enti
al c
ho
ice
mo
del
ing
are
dis
cuss
ed i
n D
iele
man
(20
01
). I
n t
his
art
icle
he
des
crib
es t
he
new
ch
alle
ng
es i
n r
esid
enti
al c
ho
ice
mo
del
ing
an
d h
ow
they
ca
n
be
face
d.
He
exp
ects
a
lot
of
new
re
sear
ch
top
ics
lik
e jo
int
dec
isio
n
mak
ing
4
(Mo
lin
,19
99
) an
d d
ecis
ion
s w
hen
th
e p
refe
rred
dw
elli
ng i
s not
read
ily a
vai
lable
(G
ärli
ng
and
Fri
man
, 2
00
1).
Ho
wev
er,
Die
lem
an s
tres
ses
that
th
e fr
on
tier
in
th
e re
sear
ch f
ield
of
resi
den
tial
relo
cati
on
see
ms
to l
ie i
n h
ow
cir
cum
stan
ces
in l
oca
l an
d n
atio
nal
ho
usi
ng
mar
ket
s af
fect
th
e
dec
isio
n m
akin
g a
nd
wh
eth
er c
han
ges
over
spac
e an
d t
ime
infl
uen
ce t
he
cho
ice
beh
avio
r. F
or
this
la
st
sub
ject
, lo
ng
itu
din
al
stu
die
s in
to
the
housi
ng
care
ers
of
peo
ple
co
uld
giv
e new
,
inte
rest
ing
in
sig
hts
, li
ke
Fei
jten
has
sh
ow
n i
n h
er d
isse
rtat
ion
(F
eijt
en, 2
00
5)
.
Fo
r th
is r
esea
rch
we
hav
e ch
ose
n t
o u
se t
he
dis
cret
e ch
oic
e m
eth
od
, si
nce
it
has
pro
ven
to
be
a
sou
nd
app
roac
h t
o i
nv
esti
gat
e w
hic
h a
ttri
bu
tes
hav
e a
sig
nif
ican
t in
flu
ence
on
th
e re
sid
enti
al
cho
ice
beh
avio
r, e
ven
co
mp
ared
wit
h o
ther
met
ho
ds
(Cla
rk e
n v
an L
iero
p (
19
86
); F
oll
ain
and
Jim
enez
(1
98
4))
. H
ow
ever
, th
e fi
nal
dec
isio
n t
o c
arry
ou
t th
is r
esea
rch
wit
h d
iscr
ete
cho
ice
mo
del
ing
is
bas
ed o
n t
wo
iss
ues
: d
ata
avai
lab
ilit
y a
nd
th
e p
refe
rred
dis
agg
reg
ated
lev
el o
f d
etai
l.
The
firs
t is
sue
wil
l b
e cl
arif
ied i
n c
hap
ter
4:
“Dat
a u
sed”.
Th
e se
cond i
ssu
e is
suppo
rt b
y M
ille
r
et a
l. (
20
04
), w
her
e th
e au
tho
rs s
tres
s o
ut
that
dis
cret
e ch
oic
e m
od
elin
g c
an b
e ap
pli
ed t
o s
tudy
the
effe
ct o
f th
e ch
oic
e m
aker
’s c
har
acte
rist
ics
on
a m
icro
lev
el.
Th
is g
ives
us
the
po
ssib
ilit
y t
o
stu
dy
th
e ro
le o
f in
div
idu
al a
cces
sib
ilit
y m
easu
res
in t
he
ho
use
ho
ld’s
rel
oca
tio
n d
ecis
ion
. T
he
nex
t p
arag
rap
hs
dis
cuss
th
e re
sult
s o
f p
rev
iou
s re
sear
ch o
n d
iscr
ete
cho
ice
mo
del
s fo
r re
sid
enti
al
choic
e lo
cati
on
.
2.1
.R
esid
enti
al
cho
ice
mo
del
ing
wit
h d
iscr
ete
cho
ice
Th
is s
ecti
on
dis
cuss
es s
om
e o
f th
e o
utc
om
es o
f re
sid
enti
al c
ho
ice
mo
del
s, c
arri
ed o
ut
wit
h
dis
cret
e ch
oic
e m
od
els.
Sin
ce t
hes
e m
od
els
all
hav
e th
e sa
me
theo
reti
cal
bac
kg
roun
d,
we
do n
ot
mak
e a
dis
tin
ctio
n
bet
wee
n
the
dif
fere
nt
mo
del
ing
te
chn
iqu
es
that
w
ere
app
lied
, li
ke
Mu
ltin
om
ial
Lo
git
, N
este
d l
og
it o
r P
rob
it.
Fo
r a
met
ho
do
log
ical
des
crip
tio
n o
f th
ese
met
ho
ds
we
refe
r to
Tra
in (
2003).
Ho
usi
ng
typ
e a
ttri
bu
tes
Man
y
rese
arch
es
stud
ied
th
e ch
oic
e o
f m
erel
y
the
typ
e o
f dw
elli
ng
, dis
reg
ard
ing
it
s
nei
ghbo
rhood
an
d
loca
tion
(Bö
rsch
-Sup
an
(1987
),
Rouw
endal
(1
989)
and
Tiw
ari,
P
.an
d
Has
egaw
a, H
. (2
00
4))
. T
he
ou
tco
mes
of
thes
e re
sear
ches
are
rea
son
able
an
d q
uit
e si
mil
ar:
larg
er
fam
ilie
s pre
fer
mo
re b
edro
om
s, w
hil
e th
e in
com
e of
the
house
hold
det
erm
ines
the
type
of
tenure
and
(m
on
thly
) h
ou
sin
g c
ost
s.
5
Nei
gh
bo
rho
od
att
rib
ute
s
In o
ther
stu
die
s th
e ch
arac
teri
stic
s o
f th
e n
eig
hb
orh
oo
d a
re i
nco
rpo
rate
d.
This
can
be
do
ne
as a
du
mm
y-v
aria
ble
fo
r a
cert
ain
ar
ea
(Dökm
eci,
V
. an
d
L.
Ber
köz
(1999))
, but
also
w
ith
char
acte
rist
ics
of
the
nei
ghborh
ood.
So
cial
-eco
no
mic
asp
ects
of
the
nei
gh
bo
rho
od
lik
e av
erag
e
inco
me,
lo
cal
exp
end
itu
res
for
edu
cati
on
, ra
cial
ly e
qu
ival
ence
wit
h i
nh
abit
ants
and
cri
me
rate
seem
to
be
a good e
xpla
nat
ory
var
iab
le (
Bo
ehm
, 1982;
Quig
ley
, 1985;
Co
lum
bin
o, 2
00
1).
Acc
essi
bil
ity
att
rib
ute
s
Th
e ro
le o
f “g
ener
al”
acce
ssib
ilit
y,
lik
e th
e m
ass
of
labo
ur,
peo
ple
or
serv
ices
wit
hin
30
min
ute
s,
seem
s d
iffi
cult
to
q
uan
tify
in
re
siden
tial
ch
oic
e m
od
els.
(M
oli
n
and
T
imm
erm
ans,
2003
).
Wad
del
l (1
99
6)
even
fin
ds
a n
egat
ive,
or
in o
ther
cas
es i
nsi
gn
ific
ant
rela
tio
n b
etw
een
res
iden
tial
loca
tion
cho
ice
and
acc
essi
bil
ity
of
job
s an
d i
nhab
itan
ts.
Th
is i
s pro
bab
ly d
ue
to t
he
fact
th
at i
n
this
cas
e th
ese
mea
sure
s in
dic
ate
mo
re o
r le
ss t
o t
he
pre
fere
nce
fo
r th
e am
oun
t o
f u
rban
ism
or
urb
an d
ensi
ty.
Sro
ur
et a
l. (
20
02
) o
bse
rve
a p
osi
tiv
e in
flu
ence
of
a (l
og
sum
) ac
cess
ibil
ity
of
job
s
on
res
iden
tial
lo
cati
on
ch
oic
e, a
lth
ou
gh
th
ey h
ave
on
ly i
nco
rpo
rate
d a
cces
sib
ilit
y m
easu
res,
so
no
thin
g c
an b
e sa
id a
bout
sub
stit
uti
on
eff
ects
wit
h o
ther
res
iden
tial
cho
ice
fact
ors
.
On
th
e o
ther
h
and
, co
mm
uti
ng
d
ista
nce
is
o
bse
rved
se
ver
al
tim
es
as
an
infl
uen
tial
fa
cto
r
(Wei
sbro
d e
.a.,
19
80
; Q
uig
ley
, 1985;
Ever
s, 1990
; M
oli
n an
d T
imm
erm
ans,
2003),
al
so in
com
bin
atio
n w
ith
th
e av
aila
bil
ity
of
pu
bli
c tr
ansp
ort
(O
rtu
zar,
20
00
). R
ecen
tly
, n
ew i
nsi
gh
ts l
ook
mo
re a
t a
house
hold
’s i
ndiv
idu
al s
ituat
ion,
by
tak
ing a
long p
erso
nal
, sp
atia
l re
lati
ons
(e.g
. w
ork
loca
tio
n,
po
siti
on
of
the
kid
s’ s
chool)
an
d h
ow
thes
e re
late
to d
aily
act
ivit
y p
atte
rns
and
lo
ng
-
term
lo
cati
on
ch
oic
es (
Ax
hau
sen
e.a
., 2
00
1).
2.2
.C
on
clu
sio
ns
Th
e li
tera
ture
ex
amin
ed s
ho
ws
that
th
e in
flu
ence
of
acce
ssib
ilit
y o
n r
esid
enti
al c
ho
ice
beh
avio
r is
no
t ea
sy
to
gra
sp.
Mo
reo
ver
, it
se
ems
that
d
wel
lin
g
attr
ibu
tes
and
th
e so
cial
st
atu
s o
f a
nei
gh
bo
rho
od
hav
e (f
ar)
mo
re i
nfl
uen
ce o
n t
he
relo
cati
on
dec
isio
n.
Nev
erth
eles
s, t
he
pro
spec
t o
f
(new
) d
irec
tio
ns
into
a m
ore
in
div
idu
al a
pp
roac
h o
f ac
cess
ibil
ity
, li
ke
com
mu
tin
g d
ista
nce
or
dis
tan
ce t
o f
req
uen
tly
vis
ited
lo
cati
on
s, s
eem
to
ad
d n
ew p
ersp
ecti
ves
to t
he
rese
arch
fie
ld.
We
wil
l u
se
this
kno
wle
dge
in
the
nex
t ch
apte
r, w
hen
w
e fo
rmu
late
th
e th
eore
tica
l m
od
el
for
resi
den
tial
ch
oic
e.
6
3.
TH
EO
RE
TIC
AL
MO
DE
L F
OR
RE
SID
EN
TIA
L C
HO
ICE
We
hav
e d
esig
ned
a t
heo
reti
cal
mod
el t
o e
stim
ate
the
effe
ct o
f ac
cess
ibil
ity
on
res
iden
tial
ch
oic
e
beh
avio
r b
y h
ou
seh
old
s. T
he
mo
del
is
rou
gh
ly b
ased
on
th
e o
ne
pre
sen
ted
by
Bro
wn
an
d M
oo
re
in 1
97
0.
Th
is c
ho
ice
beh
avio
r is
par
t o
f a
big
ger
mig
rati
on
pro
cess
, w
hic
h c
on
sist
s o
f th
ree
step
s:
resi
den
tial
mo
bil
ity
, re
sid
enti
al s
earc
h a
nd
res
iden
tial
ch
oic
e. O
ur
focu
s, h
ow
ever
, is
on
th
e la
st
two
ste
ps.
Th
e th
eore
tica
l m
od
el w
e u
sed
fo
r th
is r
esea
rch
is
dep
icte
d i
n f
igu
re 1
and
des
crib
ed i
n
this
ch
apte
r. F
irst
we
wil
l cl
arif
y t
he
tota
l m
igra
tio
n p
roce
ss.
Res
iden
tial
mo
bil
ity
is
def
ined
as
the
dec
isio
n w
hen
an
d o
n w
hic
h g
rou
nd
s to
mo
ve.
Th
e ch
oic
e
wh
eth
er t
o m
igra
te i
s m
ost
ly c
ause
d b
y d
emog
rap
hic
rea
son
s o
r h
ou
seh
old
in
tern
al p
roce
sses
th
at
occ
ur
in t
he
life
-cy
cle
of
a h
ou
sehold
(C
lark
and
Die
lem
an,
1996
). S
ince
this
ty
pe
of
relo
cati
on
mo
stly
cau
sed
by
dis
sati
sfac
tio
n w
ith
th
e cu
rren
t d
wel
lin
g o
r th
e (l
oca
l) l
ivin
g e
nv
iro
nm
ent,
th
e
mig
rati
on
dis
tan
ce i
s o
ften
ver
y s
mal
l: a
ccord
ing
to
ou
r su
rvey
, 80
% o
f th
ese
relo
cati
on
s ar
e
mad
e w
ithin
10
km
.
Th
ere
is a
lso
a s
tro
ng
rel
atio
n b
etw
een
the
ho
usi
ng
car
eer
and
oth
er t
yp
es o
f ev
ents
in
th
e li
fe o
f
a h
ou
seh
old
or
per
son
. T
hes
e ar
e as
soci
ated
wit
h h
ou
seh
old
fo
rmat
ion
an
d d
isso
luti
on
an
d t
he
edu
cati
on
al a
nd j
ob
car
eer.
Th
ese
relo
cati
on
s o
ften
yie
ld a
lo
ng
er m
igra
tion
dis
tan
ce,
sin
ce t
he
ho
use
ho
ld w
ants
to
dec
reas
e it
s (n
ew)
com
mu
tin
g d
ista
nce
or
mo
ve
tow
ard
s o
r fr
om
a c
erta
in
ho
use
ho
ld s
itu
atio
n (
Mu
lder
an
d H
oo
imei
jer,
19
99
).
Wh
en
the
hou
sehold
h
as
a p
rop
ensi
ty
to
mo
ve,
it
st
arts
se
arch
ing
fo
r su
itab
le,
alte
rnat
ive
loca
tion
s to
fo
rm a
ch
oic
e se
t. T
he
form
atio
n o
f th
e ch
oic
e se
t is
bas
ed o
n t
he
awar
enes
s o
f
spac
e, w
hic
h i
s a
resu
lt o
f th
e h
ou
seh
old
’s i
nfo
rmat
ion
on
th
e cu
rren
t h
ou
sin
g s
up
ply
by
dif
fere
nt
med
ia,
a re
al-e
stat
e ag
enci
es o
r o
wn
sou
rces
(B
row
n a
nd
Mo
ore
, 1
97
0).
Oth
er a
spec
ts o
f th
e
resi
den
tial
cho
ice,
lik
e dw
elli
ng
pri
ce a
nd
siz
e, c
an r
estr
ict
the
cho
ice
set
as w
ell.
Lat
er o
n i
n t
his
pap
er w
e w
ill
sho
w h
ow
we
gen
erat
ed t
he
cho
ice
set
for
this
res
earc
h.
Fin
ally
, w
hen
th
e ch
oic
e
set
has
bee
n c
om
po
sed
, th
e h
ou
seh
old
mak
es a
sel
ecti
on
bas
ed o
n u
tili
ty m
axim
izat
ion
. T
he
theo
reti
c b
ack
gro
un
d b
ehin
d t
his
is
dis
cuss
ed i
n t
he
nex
t se
ctio
n.
7
Ho
useh
old
Dw
elli
ng
House
hold
chara
cters
tics
- educa
tion le
vel h
ead
- si
ze (
# m
em
bers
)-
soci
al-eco
nom
ic s
tate
- lo
catio
ns
of act
iviti
es
mem
bers
(work
, sc
hool,
leis
ure
)
Ava
ilable
alte
rnativ
es:
Phys
ical:
- s
ize (
# r
oom
s) -
housi
ng c
ost
s -
dw
elli
ng typ
e -
tenure
Loca
tion:
- s
oci
al-eco
nom
ic s
tate
- a
ccess
ibili
ty -
build
ing s
tyle
Searc
h p
roce
ss:
Choic
e s
et C
j
Util
ity funct
ion U
:util
ity for
all
alte
rnativ
es
inch
oic
e s
et C
j
Res
iden
tial
choi
ce: P
Cj(i
)
additi
on
house
hold
typolo
gy
Incl
ined
to m
ove
Fig
ure
1:
Sch
eme
of
theo
reti
cal
model
3.1
.R
esid
enti
al
cho
ice
Th
e ch
oic
e fo
r a
dw
elli
ng
fro
m a
set
of
alte
rnat
ives
is
a co
nd
itio
nal
dec
isio
n w
hic
h w
ill
be
mo
del
ed i
n t
he
form
of
an m
ult
ino
mia
l lo
git
(M
NL
) m
od
el,
bas
ed o
n r
and
om
uti
lity
th
eory
(McF
add
en,
19
74
). A
cco
rdin
g t
o t
his
th
eory
we
assu
me
that
a h
ou
seh
old
att
ach
es a
uti
lity
to
each
al
tern
ativ
e in
a
sub
set
of
alte
rnat
ive
loca
tion
s th
at
are
consi
der
ed.
Sub
sequ
entl
y,
the
dw
elli
ng
wit
h t
he
larg
est
uti
lity
als
o r
ecei
ves
the
larg
est
chan
ce t
o b
e ch
ose
n.
Th
e u
tili
ty o
f
dw
elli
ng
i i
s co
mpose
d o
f an
ob
serv
ed a
nd a
ran
dom
, u
nobse
rved
par
t:
8
ii
iV
U
Eq
uat
ion
1
wit
h:
Ui
: th
e u
tili
ty o
f lo
cati
on
i
Vi
:
the
ob
serv
ed u
tili
ty o
f lo
cati
on
i
i :
th
e ra
nd
om
, u
no
bse
rved
uti
lity
of
loca
tio
n i
µ
:
mo
del
sp
ecif
ic s
cale
fac
tor
If w
e as
sum
e th
at t
he
ran
do
m c
om
po
nen
t o
f u
tili
ty i
s G
um
bel
dis
trib
ute
d,
it c
an b
e d
isca
rded
fro
m
the
pro
bab
ilit
y
fun
ctio
n
(McF
add
en,
19
74
).
Th
e re
mai
nin
g
mu
ltin
om
ial
log
it
mo
del
des
crib
es t
he
pro
bab
ilit
y t
hat
ho
use
ho
ld j
cho
ose
s d
wel
lin
g i
fro
m a
su
bse
t C
i wit
h K
alt
ern
ativ
e
dw
elli
ng
s:
j
k
i
j
ck
V
V
Ce
ei
P)
(
E
qu
atio
n 2
The
obse
rved
uti
lity
funct
ion i
n t
he
pre
sente
d m
od
el h
as t
he
form
of
a li
nea
r ad
dit
ive
uti
lity
funct
ion
(eq
uat
ion
3).
For
each
house
hold
ty
pe
a se
par
ate
cho
ice
mo
del
has
bee
n e
stim
ated
.
N nn
in
ix
V1
E
qu
atio
n 3
Wit
h:
n
: u
tili
ty c
oef
fici
ent
of
attr
ibu
te n
xn
i :
gen
eric
att
rib
ute
m f
or
loca
tio
n j
Th
e at
trib
ute
s in
th
e u
tili
ty f
un
ctio
n r
efle
ct v
ario
us
asp
ects
th
at c
on
trib
ute
to
th
e u
tili
ty o
f a
dw
elli
ng
fo
r hou
seho
ld.
Th
ese
con
sist
o
f,
abo
ve
all,
ac
cess
ibil
ity
m
easu
res,
bu
t al
so
of
9
char
acte
rist
ics
of
the
dw
elli
ng
an
d i
ts n
eig
hb
orh
oo
d. A
mo
re d
etai
led
des
crip
tio
n o
f th
e at
trib
ute
s
use
d i
n t
his
mo
del
wil
l b
e g
iven
lat
er o
n.
3.2
.H
ou
seh
old
ty
polo
gy
In o
ur
sear
ch f
or
adeq
uat
e h
ou
seh
old
ty
pes
, w
e p
erfo
rmed
a s
ensi
tiv
ity
an
aly
sis
on
th
e m
igra
ted
ho
use
ho
lds’
ch
arac
teri
stic
s an
d t
he
attr
ibu
tes
of
the
cho
sen
dw
elli
ng
. It
app
eare
d t
hat
th
e n
um
ber
of
per
son
s, t
he
edu
cati
on
lev
el o
f th
e h
ead
1 o
f th
e h
ou
seh
old
, th
e ag
e o
f th
e h
ead
an
d t
he
mig
rati
on
rea
son
wer
e th
e m
ost
dis
tin
ctiv
e d
imen
sio
ns.
Th
e m
ost
im
po
rtan
t ar
e su
mm
ed u
p a
nd
mo
tiv
ated
bel
ow
:
-H
ou
seh
old
siz
e: I
t tu
rned
ou
t th
at t
he
nu
mb
er o
f h
ou
seh
old
mem
ber
s n
ot
on
ly d
eter
min
es
the
choic
e fo
r d
wel
ling
ty
pe
and s
ize,
bu
t al
so t
he
cho
ice
of
nei
ghb
orh
ood
. In
co
mp
aris
on
wit
h s
ingle
s, f
amil
ies
(esp
ecia
lly
wit
h c
hil
dre
n)
mo
ve
mo
re f
requ
entl
y t
o q
uie
ter
and
mo
re s
pac
iou
s n
eig
hb
orh
oo
ds
(Fae
ssen
, 2
00
2).
-E
du
cati
on o
f th
e hea
d:
Alt
hough t
his
hou
seho
ld c
har
acte
rist
ic i
s ver
y c
lose
ly c
orr
elat
ed
wit
h t
he
inco
me
of
the
ho
use
ho
ld,
edu
cati
on
see
ms
mo
re d
iscr
imin
atin
g t
han
in
com
e in
term
s o
f th
e d
ista
nce
s to
mig
rati
on
, w
ork
pla
ce,
and
urb
an c
ente
rs.
Th
e la
tter
can
be
expla
ined
by
the
inte
rest
fo
r ar
eas
wit
h
cult
ura
l,
recr
eati
onal
an
d
reta
il
serv
ices
.
Ano
ther
re
ason to
pre
fer
educa
tion
to
in
com
e is
th
at due
to p
rivac
y m
atte
rs su
rvey
qu
esti
on
s re
gar
din
g
inco
me
are
oft
en
no
t or
inco
rrec
tly
an
swer
ed.
Of
cou
rse,
in
com
e is
sti
ll a
gu
idin
g m
atte
r fo
r th
e ch
oic
e o
f te
nu
re a
nd
ho
usi
ng
co
sts.
We
pla
n t
o e
nte
r th
is i
n t
he
mo
del
wit
h i
nte
ract
ion
var
iab
les.
-A
ge
of
hea
d:
Esp
ecia
lly
eld
erly
(~
peo
ple
ag
ed o
ver
60
yea
rs)
sho
w a
dif
fere
nt
cho
ice
beh
avio
r in
ter
ms
of
dw
elli
ng
ty
pe
and
nei
gh
bo
rho
od
. M
ore
ov
er,
they
hav
e sp
ecia
l n
eed
s
for
serv
ices
(hea
lthca
re)
and p
ubli
c tr
ansp
ort
.
-W
ork
in
stig
ated
mig
rati
on
s: M
igra
tio
ns
mad
e d
ue
to w
ork
rea
son
s ar
e a
sub
ject
of
thei
r
ow
n.
Res
earc
h s
ho
wed
th
at a
ho
use
ho
ld t
hat
mig
rate
s fo
r w
ork
rea
son
s u
nd
erta
ke
a la
rge
mig
rati
on
dis
tan
ce t
o d
ecre
ase
its
com
mu
tin
g d
ista
nce
(M
uld
er &
Ho
oim
eije
r, 1
99
9).
Fu
rth
erm
ore
, th
e fi
rst
mo
ve
is
mad
e p
rim
ary
to
li
ve
clo
ser
to
the
wo
rkp
lace
: o
ther
attr
ibute
s se
em o
f le
sser
im
po
rtan
ce.
In a
fo
llo
w-u
p r
elo
cati
on
, w
hic
h i
s o
ften
mad
e
1 T
he
hea
d o
f a
house
ho
ld i
s def
ined
as
the
per
son w
ith t
he
hig
hes
t m
onth
ly n
et i
nco
me,
reg
ardle
ss o
f gen
der
and
age.
10
rela
tivel
y s
ho
rtly
aft
er t
he
firs
t one,
the
house
hold
has
mo
re i
nfo
rmat
ion
on
its
new
liv
ing
env
iro
nm
ent
and
is
able
to
sea
rch
bet
ter
for
a d
wel
lin
g a
nd
a n
eig
hb
orh
oo
d w
ith
mo
re
uti
lity
.
Th
ese
dis
tin
ctiv
e h
ou
seh
old
ch
arac
teri
stic
s le
ad t
o t
he
foll
ow
ing
ho
use
ho
ld t
yp
olo
gy
:
Hou
seho
ld t
ype
Des
crip
tio
n
1L
S
ing
le h
ou
seh
old
, lo
w e
du
cate
d (
low
er t
han
co
lleg
e d
egre
e)
1H
S
ing
le h
ou
seh
old
, h
igh
ly e
du
cate
d (
coll
ege
deg
ree
or
hig
her
) 2
+L
H
ou
seh
old
wit
h t
wo
or
mo
re p
erso
ns,
wit
h a
lo
w e
du
cate
d h
ead
.
2+
H
Hou
seh
old
wit
h t
wo
or
mo
re p
erso
ns,
wit
h a
hig
h e
du
cate
d h
ead
.
60
+
Hou
seh
old
wit
h a
hea
d w
ith
ag
e 6
0 y
ears
or
old
er
WO
RK
H
ou
seh
old
s w
ho
se m
igra
tio
n i
s w
ork
-rel
ated
3.3
.C
hoic
e se
t g
ener
ati
on
Idea
lly
, w
e w
ant
to e
stim
ate
the
cho
ice
beh
avio
r o
n t
he
actu
al,
reg
ard
ed c
ho
ice
set
of
alte
rnat
ive
dw
elli
ng
s. H
ow
ever
, th
is i
nfo
rmat
ion
is
alm
ost
nev
er a
vai
lab
le i
n r
evea
led
dat
a se
ts.
Th
is i
s w
hy
we
hav
e ch
ose
n t
o g
ener
ate
a sy
stem
atic
ch
oic
e se
t. T
his
ch
oic
e se
t is
a r
and
om
sam
ple
tak
en
form
th
e fu
ll s
et o
f av
aila
ble
alt
ern
ativ
es i
n t
he
per
iod
of
mig
rati
on
. W
e u
se a
sam
ple
bec
ause
th
e
full
set
wou
ld b
e to
o l
arg
e to
est
imat
e th
e m
od
el o
n,
sin
ce w
e w
ork
on
th
e lo
wes
t le
vel
of
det
ail,
nam
ely
(physi
cal)
dw
elli
ngs
on
a l
oca
tion
. A
fu
ll s
et i
n t
his
cas
e w
ould
mea
n t
hou
sands
of
alte
rnat
ives
, w
hic
h m
akes
it
imp
ract
ical
(an
d i
llo
gic
al)
to a
pp
ly.
Ho
wev
er,
McF
add
en (
19
78
) h
as
pro
ven
in
his
est
imat
ion
of
a d
iscr
ete
mo
del
fo
r re
sid
enti
al c
ho
ice
that
a r
and
om
sam
ple
dra
wn
fro
m t
he
full
set
of
avai
lab
le a
lter
nat
ives
yie
lds
con
sist
ent
esti
mat
es.
Th
e ch
oic
e se
ts f
or
each
ho
use
ho
ld i
s g
ener
ated
acc
ord
ing
to
th
e ap
pro
ach
wh
ich
is
oft
en u
sed
in
rou
te c
ho
ice
mo
del
ing
an
d d
escr
ibed
by
Bo
vy a
nd
Ste
rn (
1990).
T
hey
des
crib
e a
step
wis
e
form
ula
tio
n o
f su
bse
ts:
-S
et o
f ex
isti
ng
alt
ern
ativ
es:
all
exis
tin
g d
wel
lin
gs
in t
he
Net
her
lan
ds.
-S
et o
f av
aila
ble
alt
ern
ativ
es:
alte
rnat
ives
th
at w
ere
avai
lab
le i
n t
he
per
iod o
f m
igra
tion.
-S
et o
f fe
asib
le a
lter
nat
ives
: al
l av
aila
ble
dw
elli
ng
s in
a c
on
stru
cted
sea
rch
are
a. S
ince
mig
rati
on an
d co
mm
uti
ng
dis
tan
ce ar
e do
min
ant
aspec
ts in
th
e se
arch
b
ehav
ior,
w
e
con
stru
cted
a s
earc
h a
rea
for
each
ho
use
ho
ld t
yp
e ar
ound
thes
e lo
cati
ons.
Fro
m t
his
are
a
11
a ra
nd
om
set
of
alte
rnat
ives
can
be
dra
wn
to
form
a c
ho
ice
set.
Th
e se
arch
are
a is
dep
icte
d
in
fig
ure
2
, th
e m
easu
res
of
the
area
fo
r ea
ch
ho
use
ho
ld
typ
e in
ta
ble
6
.
Ex
plo
rati
on
of
the
mig
rati
on
dat
a sh
ow
ed t
hat
all
ho
use
ho
ld t
yp
es o
ccu
r in
all
dw
elli
ng
typ
es s
o w
e d
id n
ot
hav
e to
mak
e a
dis
tin
ctio
n i
n d
wel
lin
g c
har
acte
rist
ics,
lik
e co
sts
or
size
, in
gen
erat
ing
th
e ch
oic
e se
t.
-C
ho
ice
set:
th
e ch
ose
n a
lter
nat
ive
and
59
oth
er a
lter
nat
ive
dw
elli
ng
s, w
hic
h a
re d
raw
n
ran
do
mly
fro
m t
he
sear
ch a
rea.
The
(rel
ativ
ely
) la
rge
nu
mb
er o
f al
tern
ativ
es i
s ch
ose
n
bec
ause
it
imp
rov
es t
he
per
form
ance
of
the
mo
del
, in
ter
ms
of
signif
ican
ce l
evel
s of
the
par
amet
ers,
wit
hout
over
load
ing t
he
esti
mat
ion s
oft
war
e.
Wo
rkp
lace
he
ad
Old
dw
elli
ng
dm
ax
dm
ax
95
%
Fig
ure
2:
Con
stru
ctio
n o
f se
arch
are
a
Sin
gle
, lo
w
edu
cate
dS
ingle
, h
igh
ed
uca
ted
Tw
o +
, lo
w
edu
cate
dT
wo
+,
hig
h
edu
cate
d6
0+
yrs
W
ork
in
stig
.d
max
95%
40
km
4
0 k
m30
km
40
km
70
km
7
0 k
m
4.
DA
TA
US
ED
Th
e re
sid
enti
al c
ho
ice
mo
del
is
esti
mat
ed o
n r
evea
led
dat
a fr
om
th
e H
ou
sin
g D
eman
d S
urv
ey (
in
Du
tch
: H
et
Wo
nin
gb
eho
efte
O
nd
erzo
ek
(WB
O);
M
inis
teri
e v
an
Ru
imte
lijk
e O
rden
ing
an
d
Min
iste
rie
van
Vo
lksh
uis
ves
tin
g,
Ruim
teli
jke
Ord
enin
g e
n M
ilie
ub
ehee
r (2
00
3))
. T
his
is
a la
rge
surv
ey h
eld
un
der
ap
pro
xim
atel
y 7
5,0
00
ho
use
ho
lds.
Ab
ou
t 1
1,0
00
mig
rate
d h
ou
seh
old
s w
ere
der
ived
fro
m t
his
su
rvey
, p
rov
idin
g i
nfo
rmat
ion
on
the
new
and
pre
vio
us
dw
elli
ng
type
and
resi
den
tial
lo
cati
on
. W
e h
ave
on
ly i
nfo
rmat
ion
on
th
e m
igra
tio
n b
etw
een
20
00
an
d 2
00
2.
Th
e
12
lev
el o
f d
etai
l o
f re
sid
enti
al l
oca
tio
n a
re 4
-dig
it p
ost
al z
on
es,
wh
ich
hav
e an
av
erag
e si
ze o
f n
ine
squ
are
kil
om
eter
s, v
ary
ing
fro
m a
few
sq
uar
e k
ilo
met
ers
in u
rban
ized
are
as t
o 1
00
km
2 i
n r
ura
l
env
iro
nm
ents
. T
his
rel
ativ
ely
lo
w l
evel
of
spat
ial
det
ail
giv
es t
he
po
ssib
ilit
y t
o a
dd
det
aile
d d
ata
to t
he
mig
rati
on
, li
ke
acce
ssib
ilit
y m
easu
res,
so
cial
-eco
no
mic
sta
tus
and
gen
eral
nei
gh
bo
rho
od
char
acte
rist
ics.
Th
e ac
cess
ibil
ity
mea
sure
s u
sed
in
th
e m
od
el c
an b
e d
ivid
ed i
nto
tw
o g
rou
ps:
tra
vel
tim
es a
nd
the
acce
ssib
ilit
y o
f lo
cati
ons.
Th
e tr
avel
tim
es a
re d
eriv
ed f
rom
th
e N
atio
nal
Model
Sy
stem
(in
Du
tch
: L
and
elij
k M
od
el S
yst
em,
LM
S)
and
are
use
d t
o a
dd
mig
rati
on
an
d c
om
mu
tin
g d
ista
nce
to
the
relo
cati
ons.
Th
e se
cond
gro
up
of
mea
sure
s pro
vid
es i
nfo
rmat
ion
on
th
e lo
cal
acce
ssib
ilit
y
situ
atio
n,
lik
e th
e d
ista
nce
to
rai
lway
sta
tio
ns,
hig
hw
ay o
n-r
amp
s an
d t
he
qu
alit
y o
f p
ub
lic
tran
spo
rt.
Th
e la
tter
is
a sc
ore
bet
wee
n m
inu
s an
d p
lus
on
e, r
epre
sen
tin
g t
he
avai
lab
ilit
y o
f p
ub
lic
tran
spo
rt.
As
we
cou
ld s
ee i
n t
he
lite
ratu
re r
evie
w,
the
soci
al-e
con
om
ical
sta
te o
f a
nei
gh
bo
rho
od
is
also
an
imp
ort
ant
exp
lan
ato
ry f
acto
r in
res
iden
tial
ch
oic
e.
We
hav
e g
ath
ered
dat
a o
n s
oci
al e
con
om
ic
issu
es
fro
m
sev
eral
so
urc
es.
The
So
cial
an
d
Cu
ltura
l P
lan
nin
g
Off
ice
of
the
Net
her
land
s
calc
ula
ted
a s
oci
al s
tatu
s sc
ore
. T
his
fac
tor
sco
re v
arie
s b
etw
een
min
us
3 a
nd
plu
s 6
an
d i
s a
com
bin
atio
n o
f ed
uca
tio
n l
evel
, em
plo
ym
ent,
in
com
e si
tuat
ion
and
cri
me
rate
of
a n
eig
hb
orh
oo
d
(fo
r a
des
crip
tion, se
e: (
SC
P,
1998))
.
Co
nce
rnin
g t
he
per
cen
tag
e o
f n
on
-wes
tern
fo
reig
ner
s in
a n
eig
hb
orh
oo
d,
we
had
to
co
nst
ruct
a
mea
sure
du
e to
th
e h
igh
co
rrel
atio
n b
etw
een
th
e “p
lain
“ p
erce
nta
ge
and
th
e h
ou
sin
g d
ensi
ty.
Th
is
is t
he
dif
fere
nce
bet
wee
n t
he
actu
al p
erce
nta
ge
and
the
“ex
pec
ted
” p
erce
nta
ge
of
no
n-w
este
rn
fore
ign
ers
per
den
sity
cla
ss (
i.e.
th
e m
edia
n o
f th
e p
erce
nta
ges
). I
n p
ract
ice
this
mea
ns
that
sco
res
aro
un
d z
ero
(i.
e. n
o d
iffe
ren
ce)
ind
icat
e a
per
cen
tag
e o
f fo
reig
ner
s, w
hic
h i
s cl
ose
to
th
e ex
pec
ted
val
ue
for
a nei
ghbo
rhood
wit
h t
hat
den
sity
.
Fin
ally
, th
e L
ivin
g E
nv
iro
nm
ent
Dat
abas
e p
rovid
es u
s gen
eral
nei
ghborh
ood
ch
arac
teri
stic
s li
ke
the
do
min
atin
g b
uil
din
g a
rea,
th
e p
erce
nta
ge
of
sin
gle
-fam
ily
ho
use
s, a
nd
a c
lass
ific
atio
n o
f fi
ve
liv
ing
en
vir
on
men
ts,
var
yin
g f
rom
cen
tral
urb
an t
o h
igh
ly r
ura
l an
d i
s an
in
dic
ato
r fo
r th
e d
egre
e
of
urb
aniz
atio
n a
nd
nea
rnes
s o
f u
rban
ser
vic
es.
13
Th
e ch
oic
e se
t o
f av
aila
ble
dw
elli
ng
s is
dra
wn
fro
m t
he
SY
SW
OV
dat
abas
e (H
ou
sin
g S
up
ply
Sy
stem
, in
Du
tch
: S
yst
eem
Wo
nin
gv
oo
rraa
dg
egev
ens)
. T
his
dat
abas
e h
old
s th
e am
ou
nt
of
vac
ant
dw
elli
ngs
on f
our-
dig
it p
ost
al z
on
es a
nd
is
a si
mu
late
d s
up
ply
, b
ased
on
tw
o-a
nn
ual
(m
easu
red
)
fig
ure
s. T
her
e is
on
ly l
imit
ed i
nfo
rmat
ion
av
aila
ble
ab
ou
t th
e v
acan
t d
wel
lin
gs.
Th
is r
elat
es t
o
clas
sifi
cati
on
s o
f si
ze,
dw
elli
ng
ty
pe,
te
nu
re an
d p
rice
(s
ee
tab
le
1).
A
co
mb
inat
ion
o
f al
l
clas
sifi
cati
on
s le
ads
to 2
4 d
wel
lin
g t
yp
es.
Th
e ab
bre
via
tio
ns
are
use
d t
o r
efer
to
a s
pec
ific
ty
pe
of
dw
elli
ng
. F
or
exam
ple
: B
UM
ISF
SM
sta
nd
s fo
r a
smal
l, s
ing
le-f
amil
y m
idd
le-p
rice
d o
wn
er-
occ
upie
d h
ou
se.
Tab
le 1
: D
wel
ling c
har
acte
rist
ic c
lass
es
Att
ribu
te
Cla
ssif
icat
ion (
abbre
via
tions
in b
rack
ets)
Ten
ure
B
uy (
BU
) R
ent
(RE
; net
ren
t per
mo
nth
)
Cost
s (!
) L
ow
(L
O)
<=
13613
4
Mid
dle
(M
I)
136134 -
1701
67
Hig
h (
HI)
> 1
70167
Low
(L
O)
<=
340
Mid
dle
(M
I)
340 -
430
Hig
h (
HI)
> 4
30
Ty
pe
Mult
ifam
ily
(M
F)
Sin
gle
-fam
ily
(S
F)
Mult
ifam
ily
(M
F)
Sin
gle
-fam
ily (
SF
)
Sm
all
(SM
)
Lar
ge
(LA
)
Sm
all
(SM
)
Lar
ge
(LA
)
Sm
all
(SM
)
Lar
ge
(LA
)
Sm
all
(SM
)
Lar
ge
(LA
)
Siz
e
(nu
mber
of
roo
ms)
<
= 3
>
3
<=
4
> 4
<
= 3
>
3
<=
4
> 4
5.
RE
SU
LT
S
We
hav
e u
sed
th
e N
log
it s
oft
war
e p
ack
age
to e
stim
ate
the
par
amet
ers
of
the
log
it m
od
el (
Gre
ene,
20
02
). T
he
resu
lts
of
the
esti
mat
ed r
esid
enti
al c
ho
ice
mo
del
s ar
e d
isp
lay
ed i
n t
able
s 2
th
rou
gh
6,
in t
he
bac
k o
f th
is p
aper
beh
ind
th
e re
fere
nce
s. T
he
tab
les
sho
w t
he
esti
mat
ed c
oef
fici
ents
,
ind
ices
fo
r si
gn
ific
ance
lev
els
and
th
e st
and
ard
err
ors
. W
e h
ave
no
rmal
ized
th
e co
effi
cien
ts a
nd
stan
dar
d e
rro
rs t
o t
he
par
amet
er c
oef
fici
ent
of
the
mig
rati
on
dis
tance
(p
rese
nte
d i
n t
able
2a)
. In
this
way
the
esti
mat
ion
s fo
r th
e d
iffe
ren
t h
ouse
ho
ld t
yp
es c
an b
e co
mp
ared
eas
ier.
Bef
ore
we
dis
cuss
th
e m
ost
im
po
rtan
t o
utc
om
es,
we
wil
l fi
rst
loo
k a
t th
e in
tera
ctio
n v
aria
ble
s w
e cr
eate
d
and
th
e re
fere
nce
val
ues
of
attr
ibu
tes
we
hav
e u
sed
.
14
In o
rder
to
ad
d m
ore
in
form
atio
n a
bou
t th
e hou
seho
ld t
o t
he
mo
del
, w
e cr
eate
d s
ever
al v
aria
ble
s
that
are
in
tera
ctio
ns
of
ho
use
ho
ld c
har
acte
rist
ics
wit
h a
ttri
bu
tes
of
the
dw
elli
ng
or
nei
gh
bo
rho
od
.
Sim
ilar
to
Tiw
ari
& H
aseg
awa
(20
04
), w
e in
tera
ct t
he
ho
use
ho
ld i
nco
me
wit
h a
co
mb
inat
ion
of
dw
elli
ng
pri
ce a
nd
ten
ure
, an
d h
ou
seh
old
siz
e (n
um
ber
of
mem
ber
s) w
ith
dw
elli
ng
siz
e an
d t
yp
e.
Fu
rth
erm
ore
, to
ac
cou
nt
for
inte
ract
ion
w
ith
n
eig
hb
orh
oo
d
attr
ibu
tes,
w
e co
mb
ined
ca
r
ow
ner
ship
wit
h t
he
pro
xim
ity
of
on
-ram
ps
hig
hw
ay a
nd
rai
lway
sta
tio
ns,
and
th
e re
lati
ve
qu
alit
y
of
publi
c tr
ansp
ort
. A
nal
ogou
s, w
e lo
oked
at
the
dis
tan
ce t
o p
rim
ary
sch
oo
ls f
or
ho
use
ho
lds
wit
h
and
wit
ho
ut
a ch
ild
under
13
yea
rs.
Fin
ally
, w
e al
so i
ncl
uded
tw
o v
aria
ble
s th
at r
epre
sen
t th
e
sim
ilar
ity
of
the
ethnic
ity
of
the
hea
d w
ith
th
e nei
gh
bo
rhood c
on
cern
ed.
Th
e h
ou
seh
old
in
com
e is
mea
sure
d i
n u
nit
s o
f 1
.00
0 e
uro
s p
er m
on
th (
Keu
ro).
To
mak
e th
e
coef
fici
ents
fo
r d
wel
ling t
yp
es (
du
mm
ies)
eas
ier
to i
nte
rpre
t an
d c
om
par
e, w
e u
sed
an
ad
just
ed
ho
use
ho
ld i
nco
me.
Th
is i
s th
e d
iffe
ren
ce b
etw
een
th
e m
od
al i
nco
me
of
all
ho
use
ho
lds
in d
e
surv
ey a
nd
the
inco
me
of
the
ho
use
hold
(1
.7 K
euro
). T
he
du
mm
y c
oef
fici
ents
now
show
th
e
uti
lity
fo
r a
dw
elli
ng
ty
pe
in c
om
par
iso
n w
ith
a h
ou
seh
old
wit
h a
mod
al i
nco
me.
Th
e co
effi
cien
ts
for
the
inte
ract
ion
v
aria
ble
s re
pre
sen
t th
e ch
ang
e in
u
tili
ty d
eriv
ed fr
om
th
e d
wel
lin
g ty
pe
acco
rdin
g
to
the
dif
fere
nce
b
etw
een
th
e h
ou
seh
old
in
com
e an
d
the
mod
al
inco
me.
T
he
par
amet
ers
also
in
dic
ate
ho
w m
uch
ex
tra
uti
lity
a h
ou
seh
old
rec
eiv
es f
rom
in
ves
tmen
ts i
n t
he
dw
elli
ng,
i.e.
: h
ow
mu
ch i
t ap
pre
ciat
es a
mo
re e
xp
ensi
ve
(and p
robab
ly m
ore
luxuri
ous)
dw
elli
ng
in c
om
par
ison
wit
h o
ther
con
sum
er g
ood
s.
In a
mu
ltin
om
ial
reg
ress
ion
mo
del
lik
e th
e o
ne
we
app
lied
in
th
is s
tud
y,
per
fect
ly c
orr
elat
ed
(gro
up
s) o
f al
tern
ativ
es n
eed
to
be
avo
ided
. T
his
is
wh
y w
e in
tro
du
ced
ref
eren
ce p
oin
ts f
or
som
e
of
the
var
iab
les.
Th
e es
tim
ated
co
effi
cien
ts g
ive
the
dif
fere
nce
of
uti
lity
wit
h r
esp
ect
to t
he
refe
ren
ce v
alu
e. F
or
exam
ple
: th
e re
fere
nce
dw
elli
ng
ty
pe
is a
ch
eap
, m
ult
i-fa
mil
y s
mal
l re
nte
d
ho
use
. T
he
esti
mat
ed c
oef
fici
ents
fo
r th
e d
wel
lin
g t
yp
e d
um
mie
s an
d t
he
inte
ract
ion
var
iab
les
no
w i
nd
icat
e th
e ex
tra
uti
lity
th
at a
ho
use
ho
ld d
eriv
es f
rom
ch
oo
sin
g t
his
dw
elli
ng
ty
pe.
In
gen
eral
, w
e h
ave
cho
sen
th
e m
ost
co
mm
on
(i
.e.
mo
st
cho
sen
or
mo
st
avai
lab
le)
val
ue
as
refe
ren
ce p
oin
t. R
efer
ence
po
ints
of
oth
er v
aria
ble
s ar
e th
e ru
ral
livin
g e
nvir
onm
ent
and
the
bu
ild
ing
are
a 196
0-1
99
5.
15
Res
ult
s: A
cces
sib
ilit
y
The
coef
fici
ents
for
mig
rati
on
and c
om
muti
ng
dis
tance
s o
f th
e h
ead
an
d p
artn
er (
if p
rese
nt)
hav
e
the
corr
ect
sig
n a
nd
are
(v
ery
) si
gn
ific
ant
for
all
ho
use
ho
ld t
yp
es.
Nota
bly
th
e m
igra
tio
n d
ista
nce
has
a
ver
y l
arg
e im
pac
t o
n t
he
resi
den
tial
beh
avio
r. T
his
in
dic
ates
a
stro
ng
bo
nd
w
ith
th
e
nei
gh
bo
rho
od
, ca
use
d b
y r
elat
ion
s w
ith
fam
ily
, fr
ien
ds
and
oth
er s
oci
al a
ctiv
itie
s. F
urt
her
mo
re,
ho
use
ho
lds
are
also
bet
ter
info
rmed
abo
ut
the
loca
l h
ou
sing
mar
ket
th
en o
ther
mar
ket
s. T
his
rela
tio
nsh
ip i
s o
ften
rec
og
niz
ed i
n o
ther
stu
die
s (C
lark
& D
iele
man
, 1996).
Th
e pre
sence
of
one
or
mo
re c
hil
dre
n o
ften
lea
ds
to a
n e
ven
lar
ger
sen
siti
vit
y t
ow
ard
s m
igra
tio
n d
ista
nce
, w
hic
h i
s
pro
bab
ly c
ause
d b
y t
he
acti
vit
y n
etw
ork
of
the
chil
dre
n,
i.e.
sch
oo
l, s
po
rts
and
lei
sure
.
Ho
wev
er,
ther
e ar
e d
iffe
ren
ces
in s
ensi
tiv
ity
tow
ard
s m
igra
tio
n d
ista
nce
bet
wee
n h
ou
seh
old
typ
es:
hig
her
edu
cate
d h
ou
seh
old
s ar
e w
illi
ng
to
co
mm
ute
fu
rth
er a
nd
mig
rate
fu
rth
er.
Th
e la
rger
com
mu
tin
g d
ista
nce
is
a w
ell-
kn
ow
n p
hen
om
eno
n w
ith
hig
her
edu
cate
d p
eop
le (
Sch
utj
ens
e.a.
,
1998).
T
he
reas
on
for
the
dif
fere
nce
in
m
igra
tio
n
dis
tan
ce
pro
bab
ly
lies
in
th
e sm
alle
r
imp
ort
ance
th
ey a
ttac
h t
o s
oci
al a
nd
fam
ily
co
nta
cts
and
th
e fa
ct t
hat
mo
st h
ou
seh
old
s w
ith
a
hig
h e
du
cate
d h
ead
als
o h
ave
a h
igh
ed
uca
ted
par
tner
wit
h a
jo
b.
Th
is m
ean
s th
at t
hey
hav
e to
com
pro
mis
e b
etw
een
bo
th w
ork
lo
cati
on
s, o
ften
res
ult
ing
in
lar
ger
mig
rati
on
dis
tan
ces
(van
Om
mer
en, 1
99
6).
Th
e re
sult
s fo
r th
e p
refe
ren
ce o
f tr
ansp
ort
fac
ilit
ies
are
var
ied
. T
he
nea
rnes
s o
f an
on
-ram
p t
o
ho
use
ho
lds
wit
h a
car
is
a p
osi
tiv
e at
trib
ute
for
ho
use
ho
lds
that
are
co
nsi
der
ed m
ore
mo
bil
e,
nam
ely
th
e h
igh
ly e
du
cate
d s
ing
les
and
th
e h
ou
seh
old
s th
at m
igra
ted
fo
r w
ork
rel
ated
rea
son
s.
On
th
e o
ther
h
and
, h
igh
er
edu
cate
d
peo
ple
w
ithout
a ca
r ch
oose
si
gnif
ican
tly
m
ore
a
nei
gh
bo
rho
od
wit
h g
oo
d p
ubli
c tr
ansp
ort
fac
ilit
ies.
The
dis
tance
to t
he
nea
rest
rai
lway
sta
tion i
s
on
ly i
mp
ort
ant
for
ho
use
hold
s w
ith
a c
ar w
ho
mov
ed b
ecau
se o
f w
ork
rea
sons.
Fin
ally
, th
ere
is
no
sig
nif
ican
t pro
ve
that
hou
seho
lds
wit
h a
ch
ild
ag
ed s
ix t
o 1
2 a
re r
elo
cati
ng
clo
ser
to p
rim
ary
sch
oo
ls
than
h
ou
seh
old
s w
ith
ou
t ch
ild
ren
. A
p
lau
sib
le
reas
on
fo
r th
is
is
the
Du
tch
p
oli
cy
reg
ard
ing
pri
mar
y s
erv
ices
. T
his
pre
scri
bes
th
at e
ver
y r
esid
enti
al a
re w
ith
en
ou
gh
inh
abit
ants
sho
uld
hav
e a
pri
mar
y s
cho
ol.
16
Ho
use
ho
lds
that
h
ave
ind
icat
ed
they
m
ov
e w
as
wo
rk
rela
ted
sh
ow
a
sig
nif
ican
t d
iffe
ren
t
sen
siti
vit
y t
ow
ard
s m
igra
tio
n a
nd
co
mm
uti
ng
dis
tan
ce.
As
cou
ld b
e ex
pec
ted
, th
e d
ista
nce
to
th
e
wo
rkp
lace
is
far
mo
re i
mp
ort
ant
than
it
is f
or
oth
er h
ou
seh
old
ty
pes
(w
ith
oth
er m
igra
tio
n
reas
on
s).
Nev
erth
eles
s, a
cco
rdin
g t
o o
ur
esti
mat
ion
res
ult
s, i
t se
ems
that
th
is i
nfl
uen
ce i
s n
ot
larg
er t
han
th
at o
f th
e m
igra
tion
s d
ista
nce
. T
his
is
pro
bab
ly c
ause
d b
y t
he
rela
tiv
e su
bje
ctiv
e w
ay
the
qu
esti
on
is
inte
rpre
ted
by
th
e h
ou
seh
old
s: s
om
e m
igra
tio
ns
can
be
wo
rk i
nst
igat
ed b
ut
stil
l
are
mad
e ov
er r
elat
ivel
y s
ho
rt d
ista
nce
s, f
or
exam
ple
wh
en a
hou
sehold
has
its
wo
rkp
lace
at
ho
me
(e.g
. a
do
cto
r o
r ar
tist
) an
d n
eed
s m
ore
spac
e. T
his
ph
eno
men
on
als
o o
ccu
rs i
n o
ur
surv
ey.
Res
ult
s: S
oci
al-
eco
no
mic
att
rib
ute
s
Hou
seh
old
s w
ith
tw
o o
r m
ore
per
son
s te
nd
to
rel
oca
te t
o a
nei
gh
bo
rho
od
wit
h i
nh
abit
ants
of
a
sim
ilar
et
hnic
al
bac
kgro
und
. T
his
ca
use
s (a
nd
h
as
cau
sed
) et
hn
ical
se
gre
gat
ion
in
th
e
Net
her
land
s, p
rim
ary
in
urb
aniz
ed a
reas
. N
ext
to t
his
pre
fere
nce
, th
ese
house
ho
ld t
ypes
(2+
)
hav
e a
sig
nif
ican
t p
refe
ren
ce f
or
area
s w
ith
a h
igh
er s
oci
al s
tatu
s sc
ore
, p
rob
ably
in
flic
ted
by
th
e
sear
ch f
or
a q
uie
ter
and
bet
ter
nei
gh
bo
rho
od
to
rai
se c
hil
dre
n i
n.
Res
ult
s: G
ener
al
att
rib
ute
s
Alm
ost
al
h
ou
seh
old
ty
pes
, ex
cep
t si
ng
le
hig
hly
ed
uca
ted
, p
refe
r a
nei
gh
bo
rho
od
w
ith
a
rela
tiv
ely
hig
h a
moun
t o
f si
ngle
-fam
ily
ho
mes
. T
hes
e ar
eas
are
assu
med
to
be
mo
re q
uie
t an
d
spac
iou
s. N
ext
to t
hat
th
ese
ho
use
ho
ld t
yp
es a
lso
choo
se t
o r
elo
cate
to
are
as w
ith n
ew h
ou
sing
dev
elo
pm
ent,
wh
ich
wer
e v
ery
po
pu
lar
in t
he
20
00
-20
02
per
iod
, w
hen
mig
rati
ons
wer
e m
ade.
Th
e d
um
mie
s fo
r re
sid
enti
al e
nv
iro
nm
ent
alm
ost
nev
er h
ave
a si
gn
ific
ant
infl
uen
ce.
Th
is c
ou
ld
mea
n t
hat
eit
her
ho
use
ho
ld t
yp
es d
o n
ot
shar
e a
com
mo
n p
refe
ren
ce i
n c
om
par
iso
n w
ith
ru
ral
area
s (t
he
refe
ren
ce e
nv
iro
nm
ent)
, o
r th
at t
he
oth
er v
aria
ble
s in
th
e m
od
el l
ike
dw
elli
ng
ty
pe,
ethn
ical
and s
oci
al s
tatu
s, a
mount
of
single
-fam
ily
hom
es a
nd b
uil
din
g p
erio
d a
lrea
dy c
over
man
y o
f th
e en
vir
on
men
tal
pre
fere
nce
s.
Res
ult
s: D
wel
lin
g a
ttri
bu
tes
Th
e co
effi
cien
ts t
hat
co
nce
rn d
wel
lin
g c
har
acte
rist
ics,
the
du
mm
ies
as w
ell
as t
he
inte
ract
ion
var
iab
les,
all
hav
e th
e ex
pec
ted
sig
n a
nd
are
alm
ost
alw
ays
signif
ican
t. T
hat
is
to s
ay:
the
chan
ce
that
a h
ou
seh
old
rel
oca
tes
to a
mo
re e
xp
ensi
ve,
ow
ner
occ
up
ied
ho
use
is
det
erm
ined
by
its
inco
me.
A s
imil
ar l
ogic
al r
elat
ionsh
ip i
s fo
und f
or
the
nu
mb
er o
f h
ou
seh
old
mem
ber
s an
d t
he
17
size
an
d t
ype
of
the
dw
elli
ng
. T
his
is
in l
ine
wit
h o
ther
res
earc
h i
nto
th
e re
sid
enti
al p
refe
ren
ces
of
ho
use
ho
lds.
6.
CO
NC
LU
SIO
NS
Reg
ard
ing
th
e in
flu
ence
o
f ac
cess
ibil
ity
, th
e m
ost
im
po
rtan
t re
sult
s ar
e th
e se
nsi
tiv
ity
of
ho
use
ho
lds
for
the
mig
rati
on
an
d c
om
mu
tin
g d
ista
nce
s fo
r h
ead
an
d i
ts p
artn
er.
In a
dd
itio
n,
the
com
bin
atio
n
of
car
ow
ner
ship
an
d
the
pro
xim
ity
o
f on-r
amps,
ra
ilw
ay
stat
ion
and
publi
c
tran
spo
rt q
ual
ity
is
sig
nif
ican
t w
ith
th
e ex
pec
ted
sig
n f
or
som
e o
f th
e h
ou
seh
old
s. A
lth
ou
gh
car
ow
ner
ship
is
rela
ted
wit
h w
ealt
h,
we
bel
iev
e th
at i
n t
his
mo
del
it
also
sta
nd
s fo
r a
life
sty
le t
hat
is
env
iro
nm
enta
lly
aw
are,
bec
ause
we
also
ad
ded
oth
er,
soci
al-e
con
om
ic v
aria
ble
s in
th
e m
od
el.
Th
e re
sult
s sh
ow
th
at p
eople
wh
o d
o n
ot
ow
n a
car
sig
nif
ican
tly
rel
oca
te t
o n
eighb
orh
oods
wit
h
bet
ter
pu
bli
c tr
ansp
ort
fac
ilit
ies.
Th
e ov
eral
l in
fluen
ce o
f ac
cess
ibil
ity m
easu
res,
ap
art
fro
m m
igra
tion
and
co
mm
uti
ng
dis
tance
, is
ver
y s
mal
l, w
het
her
or
no
t in
tera
cted
for
ho
use
ho
ld s
pec
ific
ch
arac
teri
stic
s. T
his
is
pro
bab
ly
cau
sed
by
th
e re
lati
ve
hig
h q
ual
ity
of
the
Du
tch
tra
nsp
ort
sy
stem
an
d t
he
spat
ial
dis
trib
uti
on
of
serv
ices
, w
hic
h h
as r
esult
ed o
ver
yea
rs i
n a
ho
mo
gen
ou
s (h
igh
) le
vel
of
acce
ssib
ilit
y.
Th
is i
s
pro
bab
ly t
he
reas
on
why
em
pir
ical
res
earc
h o
n r
evea
led
res
iden
tial
beh
avio
r in
th
e N
eth
erla
nd
s
(as
des
crib
ed i
n t
his
pap
er)
is n
ot
able
to
fin
d a
sig
nif
ican
t an
d/o
r la
rge
infl
uen
ce o
f ac
cess
ibil
ity
.
More
ov
er,
we
did
not
find
a s
trong p
refe
rence
fo
r th
e re
siden
tial
liv
ing e
nvir
on
men
t; i
t se
ems
that
th
e d
wel
lin
g t
yp
e is
of
mo
re i
mp
ort
ance
. O
f co
urs
e, t
he
rela
tio
n b
etw
een
dw
elli
ng
ty
pe
and
nei
gh
bo
rho
od
is
stro
ng
: so
me
typ
es o
nly
occ
ur
in s
om
e n
eig
hb
orh
oo
ds,
bu
t w
hen
a d
wel
lin
g t
yp
e
is c
ho
sen
, th
e en
vir
on
men
t o
f th
e dw
elli
ng
see
ms
not
ver
y i
mpo
rtan
t. O
nly
so
cial
nei
ghbo
rhood
asp
ects
lik
e st
atu
s an
d e
thn
icit
y i
ssu
es h
ave
imp
act.
Th
e p
refe
ren
ce f
or
dw
elli
ng
ty
pe
is v
ery
str
on
g,
also
in
ter
ms
of
the
max
imu
m p
erce
ived
uti
lity
.
In p
ract
ice
this
im
pli
es t
hat
peo
ple
are
wil
ling
mig
rate
or
com
mu
te o
ver
lo
ng
er d
ista
nce
s, w
hen
they
can
hav
e th
e d
wel
lin
g t
yp
e th
ey l
on
g f
or.
Th
is h
as i
mp
lica
tio
ns
for
the
(Du
tch
) h
ou
sin
g a
nd
tran
sport
p
oli
cy.
Aft
er
all,
un
less
tr
avel
ing
h
as
bec
om
e su
ch
a b
urd
en
in
term
s o
f ti
me
(co
ng
esti
on
) an
d c
ost
s (e
xtr
a ta
xes
an
d p
eak
-ho
ur
char
ges
), h
ou
seh
old
s w
ill
ten
d t
o r
elo
cate
18
furt
her
aw
ay f
rom
th
eir
pre
vio
us
resi
den
tial
lo
cati
on
an
d w
ork
pla
ce w
hen
th
e p
refe
rred
dw
elli
ng
is n
ot
avai
lable
in t
he
dir
ect
vic
init
y.
Th
is c
ou
ld r
esult
in
mo
re c
ar t
raff
ic.
This
pro
cess
is
enh
ance
d b
y t
he
tig
htn
ess
on
th
e h
ou
sin
g m
ark
et i
n D
utc
h u
rban
ized
are
as l
ike
the
Ran
dst
ad,
the
wes
tern
par
t o
f th
e N
eth
erla
nd
s.
Fu
ture
pla
nn
ers
and
/or
po
licy
mak
ers
wil
l h
ave
to k
eep
th
e st
ron
g i
nfl
uen
ce o
f h
ou
sin
g t
yp
e in
min
d,
bec
ause
it
co
uld
o
bst
ruct
p
lan
s th
at
wan
t to
st
imu
late
sm
art
gro
wth
an
d
red
uce
ca
r
mil
eag
e.
Fu
ture
res
earc
h p
lan
s to
fo
llo
w u
p t
his
stu
dy
incl
ud
e th
eref
ore
th
e co
nst
ruct
ion
of
a
sim
ula
tio
n m
od
el to
ex
amin
e th
e o
utc
om
es o
f v
ario
us
(po
licy
) sc
enar
ios,
lik
e th
e ef
fect
of
allo
win
g r
ura
l li
vin
g, d
isco
ura
gin
g c
ar-u
sag
e an
d r
evit
aliz
ing
th
e ci
ty c
ente
rs.
7.
AC
KN
OW
LE
DG
EM
EN
TS
Th
e p
rese
nte
d r
esea
rch
is
mad
e p
oss
ible
by
th
e su
pp
ort
of
oth
er p
arti
es.
We
wou
ld l
ike
to t
han
k
the
foll
ow
ing
in
stit
ute
s fo
r th
eir
con
trib
uti
on
in
mea
ns
of
kn
ow
ledg
e, d
ata
and
so
ftw
are:
-T
he
Net
her
land
s In
stit
ute
fo
r S
pat
ial
rese
arch
(R
uim
teli
jk
Pla
nb
ure
au),
D
en
Haa
g,
Net
her
lan
ds.
-A
BF
Res
earc
h, D
elft
, T
he
Net
her
lands
-G
eo-D
atab
ase
Man
agem
ent
Cen
tre
fro
m
the
dep
artm
ent
Geo
det
ic
En
gin
eeri
ng
o
f D
elft
Un
iver
sity
of
Tec
hn
olo
gy
, D
elft
, T
he
Net
her
lan
ds.
19
8.
RE
FE
RE
NC
ES
Alo
nso
, W
. (1
964)
Loca
tio
n a
nd l
and u
se:
tow
ard
a g
ener
al
theo
ry o
f la
nd r
ent,
Har
var
d U
niv
ersi
ty P
ress
, C
ambri
dge,
Mas
sach
use
tts.
Axhau
sen,
D.M
., S
cott
, A
. K
önig
& J
ürg
ens
(2001)
Loca
tions,
co
mm
itm
ents
and a
ctiv
ity s
pac
es,
Pre
sente
d
at t
he
Surv
ive
Work
sho
p,
Bon
n,
Dec
emb
er 2
00
1,
Arb
eitb
eric
ht
Ver
kehrs
- und R
aum
pla
nnin
g96,
IVT
, E
TH
Züri
ch.
Boeh
m,
T. P
. (1
982)
A h
iera
rchic
al m
odel
of
housi
ng c
ho
ice.
Urb
an s
tud
ies
19 (
1)
pp
. 17-3
1.
Börs
ch-S
upan
, A
. (1
98
7)
Eco
nom
etri
c A
naly
sis
of
Dis
cret
e ch
oic
e –
wit
h a
ppli
cati
ons
on t
he
dem
and
for
housi
ng i
n t
he
U.S
. and W
est-
Ger
many.
Hei
del
ber
g:
Spri
ng
er,
Ber
lin
.
Bro
wm
, L
. A
. &
E
.G.
Moo
re
(1970).
T
he
intr
a-urb
an
mig
rati
on
pro
cess
: a
per
spec
tive.
G
eogra
fisk
a
Annale
r se
ries
B52, p
p.
1-1
3.
Cla
rk,
W.A
.V.
& F
.M.
Die
lem
an (
19
96
) H
ouse
hold
s and
Housi
ng:
Cho
ice
and O
utc
om
es i
n t
he
Ho
usi
ng
M
ark
ets,
CU
PR
Pre
ss,
Rutg
ers
Univ
ersi
ty, N
ew J
erse
y.
Cla
rk,
W.A
.V.
&
.F.J
. V
an
Lie
rop
(1986),
R
esid
enti
al
mob
ilit
y
and
house
hold
lo
cati
on
mo
del
ing,
Hand
book
of
regio
nal
an
d u
rban e
con
om
ics:
Volu
me
I (e
d.
P.
Nij
kam
p),
Els
evie
r S
cien
ce P
ubli
sher
s.
Colo
mbin
o,
U.
& M
.L.
Bie
y (
2001)
Model
ling
ho
use
hold
choic
es o
f dw
elli
ng a
nd l
oca
l p
ubli
c se
rvic
es.
Cen
tre
for
house
hold
, in
com
e, l
abour
and d
emo
gra
ph
ics,
Ita
ly.
Die
lem
an,
F.M
. (2
001)
Model
ling r
esid
enti
al m
ob
ilit
y;
a re
vie
w o
f re
cent
tren
ds
in r
esea
rch,
Journ
al
of
housi
ng a
nd t
he
buil
t en
viro
nm
ent
16,
pp.
249-2
65.
Dök
mec
i, V
. &
. B
erköz
(1999)
Res
iden
tial
-loca
tion p
refe
rence
s ac
cord
ing t
o d
emog
raphic
char
acte
rist
ics
in I
stan
bul.
Landsc
ape
an
d u
rban p
lannin
g 4
8 (
1-2
), p
p.
45-5
6.
Ever
s, G
.H.M
. (1
990)
The
resi
den
tial
loca
tion a
nd
work
pla
ce c
ho
ice:
a n
este
d m
ult
ino
mia
l lo
git
mo
del
. Spati
al
Ch
oic
es a
nd P
roce
sses
(ed
. M
.M.
Fis
cher
, P
. N
ijkam
p a
nd Y
.Y.
Pap
ageo
rgio
u)
Els
evie
r S
cien
ce
Publi
sher
s, B
.V.
(Nort
h-H
oll
and),
pp.
313-3
29.
Fae
ssen
, W
.B.M
. (2
002)
Pre
sent
and p
refe
rred
housi
ng o
f one-
per
son h
ouse
hold
s in
the
Net
her
lands,
1998
Jo
urn
al
of
hou
sing a
nd t
he
Buil
t E
nvi
ronm
ent
17(3
) pp.
33
7-3
50.
Fei
jten
, P
. (2
00
5)
Lif
e ev
ents
and
the
hou
sing c
are
er:
A r
etro
spec
tive
analy
sis
of
tim
ed e
ffec
ts.
Eburo
n,
Del
ft.
Foll
ain,
J.R
. &
E.
Jim
enez
(1
984)
Est
imat
ing t
he
dem
and f
or
housi
ng c
har
acte
rist
ics:
Surv
ey a
nd C
riti
que,
R
egio
na
l Sci
ence
and U
rban E
conom
ics
15 p
p.
77-1
07.
Gär
ling,
T.
and F
rim
an,
M.
(2002)
A P
sych
olo
gic
al C
once
ptu
aliz
atio
n o
f R
esid
enti
al C
hoic
e. R
esid
enti
al
Envi
ronm
ents
: C
hoic
e,
Sati
sfact
ion,
and
Beh
avi
or
(ed.
J.
Ara
go
nés
, G
. F
ran
sces
cato
&
T
. G
ärli
ng
),
Gre
enw
ood, W
estp
ort
, C
T.
Geu
rs,
K.T
. an
d R
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l M
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ng
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ort
R
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A C
onnec
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esid
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rice
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oca
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hoic
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Pre
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t th
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Annual
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f th
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itute
TR
ED
Con
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Mas
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use
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Wei
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acto
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aki
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6.
21
Tab
le 2
: M
od
el c
har
acte
rist
ics
Sin
gle
, lo
w e
d.
Sin
gle
, hig
h e
d.
Work
inst
ig.
Tw
o +
, lo
w e
d.
Tw
o +
, hig
h e
d.
60+
yrs
N
848
475
807
357
3201
5
104
5In
itial l
og-
like
liho
od
: -3
47
2.0
04
-1
94
4.8
14
-330
4.1
36
-14
62
9.0
93
-825
0.1
04
-4
27
8.5
90
Fin
al lo
g-
like
liho
od
: -1
60
0.9
53
-9
75.9
56
-14
84
.49
4-7
11
1.0
73
-375
5.8
01
-1
44
0.5
75
Rho-s
quare
: 0.5
38
0.4
97
0.5
50
0.5
14
0.5
45
0.6
63
Tab
le 3
a: C
oef
fici
ents
fo
r m
igra
tion
dis
tance
S
ingle
, lo
w e
d.
Sin
gle
, hig
h e
d.
Work
inst
ig.
Tw
o +
, lo
w e
d.
Tw
o +
, hig
h e
d.
60+
yrs
Mig
ratio
n
dis
tance
-2
.83
5
-2.6
73
-1.7
50
-2.5
95
-2.4
09
-2
.86
7
22
Table 3: Estimated coefficients for accessibility and social neighborhood attributes
NB: All coefficients and standard errors are normalized to the coefficient for migration distance ln
: Natural logarithm of the Euclidean distance **: significant at 5% level *: significant at 10% level
Variable Single, low ed.Single, high ed.Work instig.Two +, low ed.Two +, high ed.60+ yrs
coeff.st.e.coeff.st.e.coeff.st.e.coeff.st.e.coeff.st.e. coeff.st.e.
Accessibility attributes Migration distance (natural logarithm off-peak travel time (minutes) by car) -1.000**0.026-1.000**0.035-1.000**-0.042 -1.000**-0.018-1.000**-0.023-1.000**-0.023 - additional value for hh. with one or more children under 17 years
--0.082-0.073 -0.041-0.026-0.106**-0.0400.175-0.172
Commuting distance head of hh. (natural logarithm peak-hour travel time (minutes) by car) -0.286**0.041-0.220**0.054-1.000**-0.044 -0.227**-0.022-0.123**-0.030-0.330**-0.148Commuting distance partner (natural logarithm peak-hour travel time (minutes) by car)
--1.027**-0.060 -0.397**-0.024-0.466**-0.030-0.664**-0.169
Quality of public transport:
- for hh. without a car 0.1850.117-0.0990.2200.016-0.328 0.061-0.0930.448**-0.193-0.103-0.116
- for hh. with a car -0.1930.151-0.0470.249-0.019-0.345 -0.078-0.099-0.480**-0.1980.049-0.140
Distanceln to on-ramp highway:
- for hh. without a car 0.073*0.0380.213**0.069-0.035-0.100 0.049-0.0340.056-0.0550.081**-0.041
- for hh. with a car 0.132**0.054-0.194**0.0800.182*-0.107 0.056-0.0370.049-0.0580.033-0.051
Distanceln to railway station:
- for hh. without a car -0.0330.041-0.0930.070-0.261**-0.117 -0.010-0.038-0.077-0.059-0.045-0.050
- for hh. with a car 0.0350.0620.0280.0840.272**-0.129 0.047-0.0420.075-0.0620.024-0.063
Distanceln to primary school
- for hh. without a child under < 13 years -0.039-0.078 0.000-0.027-0.031-0.0340.062-0.048
- for hh. with a child under < 13 years -0.461**-0.168 -0.087-0.063-0.037-0.094-1.032-0.830
Social neighborhood attributes
Index for percentage of non-western
- for hh. with a head with western ethnicity -0.2990.214-0.444*0.2650.147-0.363 -0.404**-0.130-0.350**-0.175-0.200-0.237
- for hh. with a head with non-western ethnicity 1.165**0.3570.5570.6711.397-0.905 1.670**-0.1971.141**-0.3891.170-0.867
Score for social status of the neighborhood 0.0140.0230.0420.0290.029-0.038 0.085**-0.0140.030*-0.0180.052**-0.026
23
Table 4: Estimated coefficients general neighborhood attributes
Variable Single, low ed.Single, high ed.Work instig.Two +, low ed.Two +, high ed.60+ yrs
coeff.st.e.coeff.st.e.coeff.st.e. coeff.st.e.coeff.st.e.coeff.st.e.
General neighborhood attributes
Residential environments
Rural <reference> <reference> <reference> <reference> <reference> <reference>
Rural village 0.0320.0810.1580.1240.148-0.105-0.072**-0.033-0.098**-0.0490.077-0.068
Green urbanized 0.0240.0880.1920.1300.106-0.123-0.088**-0.0390.007-0.0540.107-0.079
Urbanized0.0050.0830.1450.1240.141-0.117-0.092**-0.037-0.100*-0.051-0.022-0.076
Central urbanized -0.0490.0940.244*0.1330.301**-0.142-0.186**-0.049-0.152**-0.0650.045-0.092
Percentage of total number of houses per postal zone
built between 1995 and 2003 0.1970.1370.462**0.1740.567**-0.1730.544**-0.0550.642**-0.0750.406**-0.114
built between 1960 and 1995 <reference> <reference> <reference> <reference> <reference> <reference>
built between 1945 and 1960 -0.2460.170-0.0820.2460.137-0.3110.008-0.095-0.008-0.144-0.219-0.185
built before 1945 -0.1460.0950.1350.118-0.244-0.155-0.488**-0.058-0.085-0.073-0.545**-0.108
single-family 0.314**0.1050.2250.1380.590**-0.1830.471**-0.0630.180**-0.0840.668**-0.112
NB: All coefficients and standard errors are normalized to the coefficient for migration distance **: significant at 5% level *: significant at 10% level
24
Table 5: Estimated coefficients for dwelling attributes, interacted with household characteristics.
Variable Single, low ed.Single, high ed.Work instig.Two +, low ed.Two +, high ed.60+ yrs
coeff.st.e.coeff.st.e.coeff.st.e. coeff.st.e. coeff.st.e. coeff.st.e.
Dwelling attributes
Interaction variables with household attribute Interaction hh. income (Keuro, difference with modal income) with …
- cheap rented house <reference> <reference> <reference> <reference> <reference> <reference>
- medium-expensive rented house 0.571**0.1010.513**0.1320.553**-0.125 0.280**-0.0340.277**-0.0610.321**-0.080
- expensive rented house 0.616**0.1090.973**0.1230.884**-0.111 0.477**-0.0350.550**-0.0550.597**-0.073
- cheap owner-occupied house 0.839**0.0960.891**0.1120.903**-0.107 0.631**-0.0300.636**-0.0490.608**-0.075
- medium expensive owner-occupied house 1.120**0.1350.902**0.1611.075**-0.112 0.717**-0.0340.723**-0.0520.633**-0.080
- expensive owner-occupied house 0.984**0.1461.055**0.1271.139**-0.109 0.739**-0.0330.818**-0.0510.710**-0.076
Interaction household size (number of members) with …
- a small multi-family house --<reference> <reference> <reference> <reference>
- a large multi-family house --0.380**-0.095 0.267**-0.0310.331**-0.0720.266**-0.083
- a small single-family house --0.430**-0.081 0.201**-0.0290.365**-0.0650.119*-0.067
- a large single-family house --0.711**-0.084 0.377**-0.0290.604**-0.0640.300**-0.089
NB: All coefficients and standard errors are normalized to the coefficient for migration distance **: significant at 5% level *: significant at 10% level
25
Table 6: Estimated coefficients for dwelling type attributes.
Variable Single, low ed.Single, high ed.Work instig.Two +, low ed.Two +, high ed.60+ yrs
coeff. st.e.coeff. st.e. coeff. st.e. coeff.st.e.coeff.st.e. coeff. st.e.
Dwelling types
REMFSMLO <reference> <reference> <reference> <reference> <reference> <reference>
REMFSMMI 0.391 ** 0.084 0.553** 0.0930.705** -0.1640.426** -0.0560.424** -0.0990.522** -0.074
REMFSMHI 0.576 ** 0.093 0.836** 0.1021.327** -0.1590.677** -0.0620.642** -0.0991.044** -0.074
REMFLALO-0.210 ** 0.068 -0.1800.124-0.525** -0.258-0.395** -0.101-0.324*-0.193-0.606** -0.160
REMFLAMI 0.249 ** 0.118 -0.0110.186-0.069-0.289-0.077-0.104-0.269-0.203-0.318*-0.185
REMFLAHI 0.443 ** 0.116 0.488** 0.1700.498*-0.2720.190*-0.1050.127-0.1940.170-0.175
RESFSMLO -0.281 ** 0.058 -0.215** 0.103-0.860** -0.230-0.181** -0.088-0.590** -0.173-0.341** -0.118
RESFSMMI 0.060 0.103 0.366** 0.133-0.314-0.2530.216** -0.091-0.246-0.179-0.079-0.142
RESFSMHI 0.125 0.149 0.498** 0.1600.359-0.2310.247** -0.097-0.027-0.1790.110-0.159
RESFLALO -0.426 ** 0.107 -0.2750.212-1.243** -0.293-0.658** -0.098-1.271** -0.200-1.256** -0.232
RESFLAMI -0.275 *0.158 -0.0200.213-1.485** -0.372-0.463** -0.099-1.140** -0.200-0.996** -0.277
RESFLAHI -0.001 0.182 0.2810.200-0.478*-0.248-0.248** -0.100-0.921** -0.184-0.649** -0.239
BUMFSMLO 0.379 ** 0.083 0.701** 0.0820.495** -0.1560.262** -0.0560.288** -0.0820.364** -0.083
BUMFSMMI -0.423 0.369 0.319*0.192-0.029-0.341-0.008-0.1340.060-0.1500.617** -0.120
BUMFSMHI -0.047 0.215 0.513** 0.1520.240-0.2730.127-0.1170.004-0.1330.351** -0.135
BUMFLALO0.338 ** 0.123 0.582** 0.1220.149-0.2700.004-0.104-0.252-0.191-0.219-0.206
BUMFLAMI -0.284 0.366 0.2730.2960.218-0.344-0.554** -0.162-0.505** -0.2240.172-0.208
BUMFLAHI -1.392 33.904 0.0940.278-0.235-0.333-0.585** -0.148-0.697** -0.215-0.246-0.216
BUSFSMLO 0.096 0.082 0.351** 0.0950.016-0.2000.091-0.086-0.211-0.165-0.331** -0.142
BUSFSMMI -0.137 0.133 0.0610.163-0.364-0.225-0.152-0.093-0.433** -0.172-0.269*-0.148
BUSFSMHI -0.379 ** 0.160 -0.1460.172-0.604** -0.232-0.185** -0.094-0.612** -0.171-0.296** -0.151
BUSFLALO -0.259 ** 0.125 0.235** 0.118-0.681** -0.226-0.237** -0.090-0.681** -0.167-0.868** -0.195
BUSFLAMI -0.462 ** 0.170 -0.3190.250-0.863** -0.238-0.531** -0.095-0.845** -0.171-0.747** -0.208
BUSFLAHI -0.568 ** 0.163 -0.2500.159-0.911** -0.230-0.611** -0.093-0.947** -0.168-0.635** -0.191
NB: All coefficients and standard errors are normalized to the coefficient for migration distance **: significant at 5% level *: significant at 10% level