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SPECIAL EDUCATION PERSPECTIVESVOLUME 24, NUMBER 1, 2015

A Journal of the Australian Association of Special Education Inc.

ContentsEditorial 2

AASE NSW Special Education Awards 2014 3 Transition to tertiary: Building bridges in Secondary Marion Shields 7School, making it work for young people with Asperger's Syndrome Full steam ahead: Facilitating the involvement of Anne Wilson 15Australian students with impariments in individual Shiralee Poed planning processes through student-led Program Linda J. ByrnesSupport Group meetings

AASE Conference 2015 26

Leading School Communities to implement a Amanda Webster 27sustainable school-wide model leading to outcomes Jane Wilkinsonfor students with ASD

Professional standards for Australian Special Ian Dempsey 38Education Teachers: research project Kerry Dally

The way forward for students with ASD: Anna Bortoli 39Implementing Structured Teaching Gail Preston Margaret Brown

Special Education Perspectives, Volume 24, Number 1, 2015

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EDITORIAL

This issue of Special Education Perspectives contains some more of the refereed conference papers from the 2014 AASE National Conference in Sydney. We have included these because, having a focus on classroom practice, we believe that they will be of particular interest to special education practitioners.In this issue, the first of the three refereed conference papers shifts the focus to tertiary education. The author, Marion Shields, provides a case study of a young man with ASD transitioning from high school to tertiary education. While identifying a range of challenges and strategies for supporting transition, she stresses the importance of planning that occurs in the secondary school years. In the second paper, Anne Wilson, Shiralee Poed and Linda Byrnes explore the issue of student involvement in individual planning. One of those issues that we might all agree is important, the authors report on a small scale study that explicitly taught the skills that students might need to lead a Program Support Meeting. The final refereed conference paper in this issue, by Amanda Webster and Jane Wilkinson, focusses on the significance of leadership in the implementation of school-wide models to support students with ASD. A study conducted in three Queensland schools identified the importance of leadership that was active, empowered and which created rather than consumed various programs.We only have one refereed paper in this issue of SEP and it maintains the focus of the issue on whole-school support for students with ASD. The authors of this paper, Anna Bortoli, Gail Preston and Margaret Brown report on an important study investigating the implementation of Structured Teaching in a specialist school in Melbourne – the first study of this aspect of the TEACCH framework to be conducted in Australia, we believe. The team report on a systematic process of the implementation of Structured Teaching, providing valuable insights about this experience, benefits for staff and students, and highlighting the significance of careful planning.

Studies that our readership may be conducting in their own contexts, whether large or small-scale, contribute to our understanding of ways to improve outcomes for students with disabilities. Hopefully you will have been encouraged, having read the papers in this issue, to investigate your own practice in systematic ways and share the results of those investigations with your colleagues. AASE is committed to supporting research that informs the delivery of special education and your contributions to our journals are always welcome.Finally, I remind you that the 2015 Australian Association of Special Education and the Western Australian Education Support Principals and Administrators’ Association Joint Conference, ‘Engagement for Learning – Behaviour Leads the Way’, will be held this year in Fremantle on 27th-28th August 2015. Early bird registration closes on 29th June so hop in soon! See you there.

David Paterson, EditorMerran Pearson, Editorial AssistantSpecial Education Perspectives

Special Education Perspectives, Volume 24, Number 1, pp.2-6, 2015

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AASE NSW Awards 2014

SpEcIAL EDucATIOn AwARDSAustralian Association of Special Education, NSW Chapter

Catherine Pinnington

Kevin Wheldall AM

David Paterson

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AASE NSW Special Education Awards 2014

Australian Association of Special Education - NSW Chapter

Outstanding Contribution to Special Education Awarded to

Catherine Pinnington

This award, presented posthumously, honours Cate’s wholehearted dedication and commitment to enhancing the quality of education for students with special education needs, and for her significant contribution to the development of special education policy issues at both state and national levels.

Following a highly successful teaching and consultancy period in specialist roles, Cate moved to the Association of Independent Schools (AIS) in 2004 where she rose to the position of Director Student Services in recognition of her substantial expertise in the area. In her roles at the AIS, Cate was greatly admired for the depth of knowledge, skills and professionalism she brought to her work.

Cate was strongly committed to improving inclusive practices in classrooms and schools to ensure students with disability, including those with high support needs, were given the best educational opportunities possible. She delivered many valuable conference papers and conducted practical workshops to assist the professional learning and effectiveness of teachers.

Cate was an exemplary member of a number of curriculum and advisory committees, most notably the NSW Board of Studies Special Education Committee. She was greatly respected and admired not only for her extensive knowledge in the field, but for her capacity to work collaboratively across systems and sectors to ensure the best possible outcomes for students.

In presenting this award, AASE NSW honours with the greatest respect, the outstanding personal and professional contribution Cate has made to special education.

........................................................ Dr Jennifer Stephenson, President, AASE NSW Chapter 19 September 2014

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Outstanding Leadership Awarded to

David Paterson

Associate Professor David Paterson is a dynamic and committed leader in the field of special education who exemplifies the ideals of AASE as reflected in the Association’s aims and goals.

His sustained level of service to AASE has been outstanding. For 28 years, beginning with his co-founding of the AASE Northwest Branch in1986, David has provided collaborative leadership and guidance of AASE activities, programs and projects at local, state and national levels.

David’s significant contribution as editor of Special Education Perspectives for many years, and the influential role he has played as an AASE National Councillor, conference organiser, committee member, reviewer, and advocate for students with disabilities in all aspects of his work - as a teacher, educator, researcher and academic - are well documented and highly commendable.

Throughout his professional service, David has led by example basing his own writing and teaching on research-based best practice. As a critical academic partner in the recent Every Student Every School initiative implemented by the NSW Department of Education and Communities, David’s leadership and input was highly valued by the special school principals with whom he worked.

He has always been well informed and well-intentioned; collegial, congenial and generous. His contributions undoubtedly have raised the profile of AASE and resulted in recognition of the work of AASE throughout Australia.

In presenting this Outstanding Leadership Award to David, AASE NSW pays tribute to his ongoing dedication to advancing the work of the Association.


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Outstanding Contribution to Special Education Awarded to

Kevin Wheldall AM

Emeritus Professor Kevin Wheldall AM has demonstrated an exemplary dedication to furthering the development and implementation of research-based special education programs and services over many years.

Kevin has not only brought innovation and dynamic leadership to the various education professional bodies he has worked with, he has also authored or co-authored over 250 highly regarded academic books, chapters and journal articles which have made a major contribution to the field. The development of the MultiLit suite of programs has been a shining example of how the research-to-practice gap can be successfully bridged.

As an esteemed researcher and academic, Kevin has played a critical role in informing public debate on issues relating to evidence-based practice, the effective teaching of reading, and strategies for improving student learning. He has advised ministers at both federal and state government levels, and has been highly influential in his work with professional bodies on matters relating to special education generally, and more specifically, on addressing behaviour and reading difficulties.

Kevin has always demonstrated a deep commitment to overcoming social disadvantage, particularly by promoting literacy development in indigenous communities and through the development of intensive intervention programs such as MultiLit for low-progress readers.

In presenting this Outstanding Contribution to Special Education Award to Kevin, AASE NSW also pays tribute to his ongoing commitment to the goals of AASE, the highly accomplished service he has given to the Association as a past editor of Special Education Perspectives, and his career-long dedication to promoting and expanding the field of knowledge in special education.



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Refereed Conference Paper

TRAnSITIOn TO TERTIARy: buILDIng bRIDgES In SEcOnDARy SchOOL, mAkIng IT wORk

fOR yOung pEOpLE wITh ASpERgER'S SynDROmE

Marion ShieldsAvondale College of Higher Education

AbstrACtTransitioning from high school to university is a major step for most young people but for those with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) the difficulties are exacerbated by facets of the disability. This paper reviews some of the specific difficulties for highly intelligent young people with Asperger’s syndrome (AS) who would like to undertake tertiary study. It also considers solutions suggested in the literature and the experience of one small private tertiary provider in meeting the needs of a student (whom we shall name Joshua) undertaking a BSc who had been diagnosed with quite severe Asperger’s syndrome and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). A case study method involving interviews with ‘Joshua’, his mother, several peers including a student tutor, current and past lecturers as well as in-class observations was used. This approach enabled the identification of particular issues for Joshua, which together with the effective, practical solutions that were developed and implemented, assisted in achieving a successful outcome for both the student and provider.

IntroDuCtIon“Autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) are lifelong developmental disabilities characterised by marked difficulties in social interaction, impaired communication, restricted and repetitive interests and behaviours and sensory sensitivities” (Autism Spectrum Australia, 2013). The prevalence of ASDs is increasing

and Autism Spectrum Australia gives statistics of one in 110 children with an ASD (2013), while the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in the United States of America cite one in 88 children identified as having an ASD (2008). The term autism ‘spectrum’ indicates a range and at the higher functioning, mildest end some children have been diagnosed with Asperger’s syndrome (AS) or High Functioning Autism (HFA). Sansosti, Powell-Smith and Cowan (2010) noted that while “at present there are no diagnostic guidelines for HFA; the term most commonly is used as a clinical descriptor to differentiate individuals with classic autism”. Attwood (2013) added in relation to AS and HFA, that despite minor differences related to language ability, cognitive delay and neuropsychological profiles, “their similarities are greater than their differences”.Transitioning from high school to university can be challenging and somewhat disorienting for many s tudents , wi th changes in routines, independence requirements, living arrangements, social patterns and different learning and study modes. For those diagnosed with an autism spectrum disorder (ASD), even if it is high functioning autism (HFA) or Asperger’s Syndrome (AS), these general transition difficulties are exacerbated by features of their disorder which often result in a reluctance to attempt university or even a premature withdrawal from the course of study before completion (Madriaga & Goodley, 2010; VanBergeijk, Klin, & Volkmar, 2008).

Correspondence: Marion Shields, email [email protected].

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M. Shields

Increasing numbers of intelligent young people with ASDs in high school (White, Ollendick, & Bray, 2011), who have been educated in an inclusive setting look to tertiary education as the next step in their lives. Camarena and Sarigiani (2009) cited Grigal and Neubert (2004) supported this perspective in suggesting that inclusive education for students with disabilities may predispose them to view college as a natural post-school progression. Increasingly, parents want their children with ASDs, educated with their peers (Zager & Alpern, 2010).A number of specific difficulties that are characteristics of the spectrum are especially relevant within tertiary education. Addressing these and determining solutions in relation to coping with the demands of tertiary education is extremely valuable in achieving tertiary success for young people with ASDs, these include:• Accommodation and living away from

home (Anderson, Shattuck, Cooper, Roux & Wagner, 2013).

• Serious anxiety resulting in physical symptoms such as nausea, sweating, obsessions, fearful anticipation and low frustration tolerance (Trenbath, Germano, Johnason & Dissanayake, 2012), and inability to devise solutions in these conditions (Reaven & Hepburn, 2006).

• Hyper-sensitivity to sensory stimulation – light, sound, smell and touch (Sofronoff, Attwood, & Hinton, 2005; Lawrence, Alleckson, & Bjorklund, 2010).

• Deficits in executive functioning such as lack of organisational skills (White, Ollendick & Bray, 2011) and time management (Roberts, 2010).

• Difficulties understanding non-verbal communication, body language, social cues and social conventions (Adreon & Durocher, 2007; Zager & Alpern, 2010).

• Social interaction and conversational difficulties that are often barriers to group work (Madriaga & Goodley, 2010).

• Stress caused by orientation issues and having to negotiate unfamiliar areas and classrooms at university (Luckett & Powell, 2003).

• Managing change, especially unexpected changes in routines and programs (Roberts, 2010), transitioning between activities and classes.

• Lack of interest in (or motivation towards) areas not related to their personal interests (Schlabach, 2008).

Further, while these characteristics tend to be found frequently in people with autism spectrum disorders, it must be noted that the spectrum is wide ranging and within it there are also wide variations from person to person (Barrett, Prior, & Manjiviona, 2004). Luckett and Powell (2003) observed that the strengths and deficits of young people with ASDs are much particularised. Dr Stephen Shore who consults and presents on ASD is quoted as saying: “If you’ve met one person with autism, you’ve met one person with autism” (2014).Compounding difficulties for young people transitioning from high school to tertiary education are a number of other important issues at this time in their lives. These include changes in social and living arrangements that tend to occur in late adolescence and early adulthood. Social isolation and difficulties encountered while living away from home can lead to depression. Jantz (2011) commented on the apparent lack of support groups for young people with AS and found in her recent study of 35 young adults with AS that they would welcome the opportunities to counteract loneliness and depression through social interactions. However it must be remembered that the very characteristic difficulty experienced in making friends for those with AS impedes the potential attraction of social groups in this context. Further, concern has been expressed by both parents and their children with AS/HFA about the readiness of tertiary institutions to provide programs and settings that address the particular needs of young people with ASDs (Camarena & Sarigiani, 2009). Camarena and Sarigiani (2009) found that both adolescents with HFA and their parents had clear tertiary educational goals but serious apprehensions about the preparedness of tertiary institutions to cater for their needs. Parents in this study were concerned that having had to educate secondary schools about the needs and abilities of their children, they would have to do it again for tertiary institutions (2009). This perception is supported by a comment from Pillay and Bhat (2012, p. 142) “college personnel typically have neither the resources nor the guidelines for best practices when working with a student who has the diagnosis of Asperger’s Syndrome”.

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Refereed conference paper: Transition to tertiary

Jennes-Coussens, Magill-Evans and Koning (2006) noted that as young people with AS move into adulthood they still rely heavily on their families for support (Barnhill, 2007). Hendricks and Wehman (2009) in researching transition for young adults with ASDs found that most continued to live at home. Adreon and Durocher (2007) add that several researchers have suggested that many students with ASD may find it helpful to live at home for at least the first year of tertiary study adjusting to the academic and organisational demands of tertiary study before adding the living away from home challenges.The goal of the present study was to outline the issues that young people with AS/HFA face in attempting to undertake university studies and how these were successfully addressed at Joshua’s tertiary provider. In addition this paper also discusses how the strategies used to assist Joshua could be generalised to other tertiary settings.

MEthoDThis investigation used a case study approach to examine the pathway of a young man (Joshua), diagnosed with severe Asperger Syndrome and ADHD, who had successfully completed his third year of tertiary studies (at reduced load) towards a BSc with a major in Information Technology and minors in Physics and Mathematics in a small, Christian, College of Advanced Education in NSW, Australia. Following a behaviourally difficult childhood, Joshua’s diagnosis of Asperger’s, ascertainment at level 6, was first made at the age of 11. Displaying an aloof, self-centred manner, he was also diagnosed with ADHD manifesting in an inability to relax and concentrate. During the semester time of his tertiary study he typically took two kinds of medication: slow release Ritalin in the morning to assist his concentration during the day, and Catapress in the evening, in order to relax and sleep better. Data were obtained from a number of sources including Joshua’s lecturers (current and previous), his peers in the School of Science and Mathematics, his family and of course, Joshua himself. Using observation and interviews, both the impediments to a successful study program and the strategies used by lecturers and Joshua himself to overcome these difficulties were explored. Multiple in-class observations were conducted in Joshua’s Mathematics

classes and in a required subject concerning the nature and philosophy of science. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with three of Joshua’s peers, from both Physics and Maths classes for approximately 30 minutes each; with his mother alone and finally Joshua with his mother present for support. Three of Joshua’s lecturers (two current and one from the previous year) were also interviewed at length. All interviews took place towards the end of the first three years of Joshua’s tertiary study, by which stage it was clear he had completed his minors in Mathematics and Physics.

rEsults / DIsCussIonDuring the student’s Individual Education Planning sessions in high school it is essential that consideration be given to life after school. In addition, for students with AS/HFA their active participation in the planning is important; however, Hendricks and Wehman (2009) reported that this happened in less than half of the meetings they investigated. Hendricks and Wehman (2009, p. 83) commented: “Placing the individual at the center of the transition process is a pivotal component of planning that has been greatly overlooked.” These authors also strongly recommended that the sessions should be led by the students themselves and that planning should begin when the students are aged between 10 and 13, intensifying in upper secondary. For some of these students and their parents, as noted previously, tertiary education at university is the next logical step, and so the transition planning process needs to be very practical, addressing both the student’s own needs as well as the likely deficits in the receiving institution’s programs.An important part of transition planning is working through the issues with the student, in an interactive dynamic process so that the decision-making is carefully considered which is critical in achieving self-determination (Wehman, Schall, Carr, Targett, West, & Cifu, 2014). It is important for the student and his/her parents to understand the requirements of a particular career, by including work experience or even observation, to investigate the student’s interests and abilities and to find the closest match as should be done for any student. However for students with AS/HFA it is vital to also to ensure that the particular deficits and characteristics related to AS/HFA do not clash with the chosen career, such requirements to

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interact with people they do not know. In addition, the subjects chosen at university need to be investigated carefully. For example, many students with ASDs find group work difficult and it may be more appropriate to undertake some subjects online (Adreon & Durocher, 2007). However, even some on-line subjects have group work. Regarding group work, Joshua commented: “Online group subjects. That did not work at all. One of the subjects that I failed.” Joshua goes on to explain the difficulty with the sequential process that was required to complete the assignment as a group. His mother added: we’ve called XX Uni now and contacted the equal opportunities officer there and organised for him to do alternate work instead of group work. So if any of the subjects come up with group work, we’ve already crossed that bridge; his lecturer has to, by law, offer him something instead of doing group work. It was an expensive and painful lesson to learn.Additionally, Joshua undertook a reduced load of three rather than four subjects per semester which reduced his stress level and which he was then able to complete successfully.While some tertiary institutions are trying to address the students’ general needs through training in communication, socialisation, appropriate behaviour and self-advocacy skills (Camarena & Sarigiani, 2009) some are also charging for this additional program. Farrell (2004) noted a fee of $4,500 a semester in the Pittsburgh, USA, area that was in addition to a government grant to the institution to assist in supporting students with AS. Smith (2007) pointed out that if this is considered a reasonable accommodation for the student then there is a conflict. However, intentional training in these skills, especially for university, may be more appropriately conducted by high schools over a number of years, including on campus sessions at the local university.The critical role for a tertiary provider would seem to involve understanding, accepting and supporting the young person with AS/HFA. However, rather than a default reaction by universities to problems arising after the student has commenced studies, secondary schools are well-placed to develop supportive, effective transition plans that could build a bridge to the tertiary sector and smooth the pathway for young people with ASDs. The following

paragraphs consider some of the specific issues mentioned previously, drawing on research literature and using Joshua’s experience to suggest solutions for young people with AS/HFA attempting university study.

Accommodation For many young people aged 18 - 25, leaving home for independent accommodation has been considered to be the desirable norm (Anderson, Shattuck, Cooper, Roux, & Wagner, 2013). These authors noted that in recent years increasing numbers of young adults are remaining longer in the family home, frequently for tertiary educational reasons (2013). Therefore young adults with ASDs who continue to live with parents as they undertake tertiary studies (as recommended by Adreon and Durocher, 2007) are not failing to achieve independence but are actually following an emerging social trend with practical benefits. Joshua, the student in this study, remained in the family home while undertaking tertiary studies which enabled him to have support in regulating his medication for his ADHD; provided meals and general necessities as well as assistance in organisation.

AnxietyAnxiety is also a common problem for people with AS and the impact of anxiety on young adults with ASD was investigated by Trenbath, Germano, Johanson, & Dissanayake (2012). Three major themes emerged: triggers for anxiety (such as interactions with others and fearful anticipation); experiences of anxiety (such as emotional reactions, physiological reactions or obsessive thoughts); coping strategies (such as computer games and withdrawal). For these young people undertaking tertiary studies, the effects of anxiety can severely impede if not prevent, successful academic outcomes unless addressed. It is clear from this study that much of the anxiety is linked to new, unknown experiences, environments and change, as well as interaction with people with whom they are not familiar. Another aspect of anxiety management within the IEP goals relates to the student’s own ability to understand and manage their anxiety. A number of studies have explored Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT) to address anxiety issues for people with ASDs with some success (Reaven et al, 2009; Sofronoff, Attwood, & Hinton,

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2005). Gaus (2007) described dysfunctions and distortions in the cognitive processing of people with AS leading them to misperceive information about themselves, others and the world around them. CBT offers an approach to realign these inaccurate perceptions with reality and therefore reduce some of the anxiety. The necessity for stress-related coping strategies (including CBT) needs to be acknowledged and accommodated by both secondary schools and tertiary providers.To address anxiety experienced by young people with AS/HFA, Individual Education Plan (IEP) planning in the final years of secondary school needs to consider the various aspects of university life that may cause stress. Gillott and Standen (2007, p. 359) found that “change, anticipation, sensory stimuli and unpleasant events” were critical issues for young adults with AS. Many visits need to be made to the university, to classrooms, facilities and routes between buildings. Krell and Perusse (2012, p. 35) suggested being “a college student for a day” is very helpful. Visits and interviews are also essential to particular personnel including Disability Services and lecturers. Disability Services provide support for students with special needs including authorisation for additional support from lecturers and are an essential contact for potential students. It is important for the student and his/her parent(s) to have initial face-to-face contact with lecturers. Pillay and Bhat (2012) cited an example of a professor who was reluctant to provide a quiet place for the student with AS to undertake a quiz, free from distractions. However, upon realising that Disability Services would find a suitable site and provide monitoring, thus also supporting him, he was quite amenable. Nevertheless, as Smith (2007) also notes, Disability Services provide support for students with many different disabilities which may not always meet the particular needs of student with AS, therefore parent contact and discussion are essential.

hypersensitivity to sensory stimulationUniversity cafeterias and student meeting places are frequently noisy and crowded consequently it may be more expedient for the student to bring lunch from home initially rather than face the confusing hubbub of a cafeteria unless they can go with a support person such as a friend. However sensory overload may be an issue even

then (Lawrence, Alleckson, & Bjorklund, 2010). Similarly registration is another difficult area that often includes waiting time in an unfamiliar environment. Joshua’s mother commented: ‘Registration is a hard time, a lot of people, sitting around, waiting, noise, confusion... since then we’ve done it on-line.’ Initially visiting the library, negotiating an unknown environment and interacting with library staff could also be problematic so that using the online facilities of the library can be a practical alternative. Fortunately for Joshua, the college at which he studied is small, with lecture rooms in the School of Science clustered around a courtyard, which limited the need for transition over lengthy distances. His parents met the lecturers with him and were able to negotiate solutions to some of the issues including a small private office in which to study quietly. Joshua commented:

...pretty important because I can’t focus in crowded areas. If I can’t hear myself think, I can’t get anything done, I can’t figure out what I need to do and what I’m having problems with. I think having a place that was isolated for most of the time certainly helped ...

Joshua also found bringing lunch from home (which also then accommodated his particular food preferences) and using the online library helped to reduce anxiety-raising experiences. In addition, a cell phone and the ability to text his mother as needed, decreased his stress levels and gradually reduced in usage as he settled into his study program (as recommended by Adreon & Durocher, 2007).

Executive FunctioningGobbo and Shmulsky, (2013, p. 14) define executive functions as: “higher order mental abilities governing the capacity to start, stop, and persist at cognitive, emotional, and behavioral goals”. Within the context of tertiary study executive functions are essential as students undertake assignments designed to increase their knowledge and academic abilities. Time management and organisation are two vital areas that frequently present difficulties. Adreon and Durocher (2007) mentioned a number of simple strategies including the use of tutors. Within this context Joshua found having peer-tutor support extremely valuable. His lecturer

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prearranged a student who had successfully completed the subject previously and who was well-organised, to assist him two or three times a week for one or two hours. Joshua was able to pay the student for their time from his disability allowance. The tutor commented:

I set up specific questions/ tasks for him to work on; this is written down and I leave it with him. Some days when I’m explaining it, it just clicks and he’s eager to start writing even before I’ve finished explaining it, and he shuts down what I’m continuing to say. So I let him get out what he’s got on his mind, so to speak.

Joshua’s Mother added: The first time I walked into Michael’s room after she’d been tutoring him I said “Oh my goodness XX’s been here, hasn’t she?!” and he laughed at me because everything on the desk was in neat piles with lists on the top telling him what he had to do, and he takes it all very seriously.

Additional support also came through several peers. The lecturer explained the situation and asked them to help keep Joshua on track, look out for him, go and talk to him in his room from time to time about the subject, assignments etc. This proved quite effective and had the added benefit of increasing Joshua’s social interaction. Another lecturer commented:

He has interaction with the other students; he might even crack a joke in class. Sometimes he’ll come out with some really funny things in class related to that lesson. Also, the other students aren’t fazed if he gets up to pace at the back of the room if he’s a bit stressed.

Communication and lecturers’ InterestDespite people with AS frequently being described as having “serious impairments in communication, social interaction and language” (Montgomery, Stoesz, & McCrimmon, 2012, 4.), difficulties with reciprocal conversation (Barnhill, 2007), or one-sided interaction (Madriaga & Goodley, 2010), there is evidence that many young people with AS do value people showing a supportive interest in them. Madriaga and Goodley’s (2010) study of young

adults with AS at university noted that “students desire their lecturers to enjoy being with them and being interested in them”; they appreciated the lecturers who worked to “break down the communication barrier” (p.121). In fact one of the respondents in the study perceived that a “lack of interest became a barrier to his achieving a sense of inclusion” (p.121).Joshua’s mother noted:

He works very well on a personal basis. It was absolutely critical that he had somebody that he could connect with who was interested in what he was doing. That personal relationship will develop, it doesn’t happen overnight, obviously. The adult/lecturer will need to keep coming back to develop the connectivity.

The personal interest by his lecturers, tutor and peers contributed greatly to Joshua’s success.

lecturers’ understanding of AsDIn addition, it is vital that lecturers have a basic understanding of the characteristics of students with ASD, as well as their learning needs; such as: direct language, clear, specific instructions, peer note taking, preferential seating and communication with support persons e.g. tutors or parents (Smith, 2007). This understanding of and interest in, students with AS was illustrated by a comment from another of Joshua’s lecturers:

A lot of times he’s (Joshua) staring out the window and you think that he’s not taking any notice and then you ask him a question and he’ll be the first one to answer. And he’s got it right. He might not be watching the board or what you’re doing but he knows what’s going on.

The lecturer was asked: “For other students with Asperger’s what would be your advice to their lecturers to help the students get through?” He replied,

They need a tutor to give them that individual help and the lecturers need to have some time for the student as well. Personal time. I kept encouraging him and having good communication with him and now he’ll come and ask me questions if he needs to know something.

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ConClusIon AnD rECoMMEnDAtIonsStudents with Asperger’s Syndrome who wish to continue their studies past secondary education into the tertiary field and are intellectually capable deserve the opportunity to do so. However, without communication, collaboration and cooperation between all parties, success is at risk. Secondary schools, where identification of potential and individualised planning begins, can be the start of the bridge to further education. In secondary school the student, parent, learning support teacher and counsellor can address the necessary development in anxiety reduction, management of change, problem solving, communication and social interaction. Secondary learning support staff and school counsellors can pave the way for and expedite parent and student contact with lecturers and disability officers at the selected tertiary institution. In addition, they can supply a report suggesting specific strategies that will support the student in the new educational setting. Secondary schools can be the critical factor in the lives of young people with Asperger’s Syndrome in bridging the gap between school and tertiary education.

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Jantz, K. (2011). Support groups for adults with Asperger syndrome. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 26, 119–128. doi:10.1177/1088357611406903

Jennes-Coussens, M., Magill-Evans, J., & Koning, C. (2006). The quality of life of young men with Asperger syndrome: A brief report. Autism, 10, 403-414.

Krell, M., & Perusse, R. (2012) Providing college readiness counseling for students with autism spectrum disorders: A Delphi study to guide school counsellors. Professional School Counseling, 16, 29-39.

Lawrence, D., Alleckson, D., & Bjorklund, P.

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(2010). Beyond the roadblocks: Transitioning to adulthood with Asperger’s Disorder. Archives of Psychiatric Nursing, 24, 227-238.

Luckett, T., & Powell, S. (2003). Students with Asperger’s syndrome. In T. Powell (Ed) (2003, 81-89). Special teaching in higher education: Successful strategies for access and inclusion (pp. 81-89. London, UK: Kegan Page.

Madriaga, M., & Goodley, D. (2009). Moving beyond the minimum: Socially just pedagogies and Asperger’s syndrome in UK higher education. International Journal of Inclusive Education, 14, 115-131. doi:10.1080/13603110802504168

Montgomery, J., Stoesz, B., & McCrimmon, A. (2012). Emotional intelligence, theory of mind, and executive functions as predictors of social outcomes in young adults with Asperger syndrome. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 28, 4–13. doi:10.1177/1088357612461525

Pillay, Y., & Bhat, C. (2012). Facilitating support for students with Asperger's syndrome. Journal of College Student Psychotherapy. 26, 140-154. doi:10.1080/87568225.2012.659161

Reaven, J., & Hepburn, S. (2006). The parent’s role in the treatment of anxiety symptoms in children with high-functioning autism spectrum disorders. Mental Health Aspects of Developmental Disabilities, 9, 73-80.

Reaven, J., Blakeley-Smith, A., Nichols, S., Dasari, M., Flanigan, E., & Hepburn, S. (2009).

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Sansosti, F., Powell-Smith, K., & Cowan, R. (2010). High-functioning autism/Asperger syndrome in schools: Assessment and intervention. New York, NY: The Guilford Press.

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Weidle, B., Bolme, B., & Hoeyland, A. (2006). Are peer support groups for adolescents

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Wenzel, C., & Rowley, L. (2010). Teaching social skills and academic strategies to college students with Asperger’s syndrome. Teaching Exceptional Children, 42(5), 44-50.

White, S.W., Ollendick, T.H. & Bray, B. C. (2011). College students on the autism spectrum: Prevalence and associated problems. Autism, 15, 683-701. doi:10.1177/1362361310393363

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Refereed Conference Papers

fuLL STEAm AhEAD: fAcILITATIng ThE InvOLvEmEnT Of AuSTRALIAn STuDEnTS

wITh ImpAIRmEnTS In InDIvIDuAL pLAnnIng pROcESSES ThROugh STuDEnT-LED

pROgRAm SuppORT gROup mEETIngS

Anne Wilson, Shiralee Poed, Linda J. ByrnesMelbourne Graduate School of Education

AbstrACtIn Catholic schools in Victoria, Program Support Groups are integral to the support of students with an impairment and the formulation of their Individual Learning Plans. However, the degree of direct involvement of students in these meetings varies greatly. This paper describes a small pilot study in two Catholic primary schools in the Diocese of Sale, where, with training and support, students with an impairment successfully led their Program Support Group meetings. Future plans include a broadening of the initial limited study to include students across a wide range of cultural backgrounds, ages, and categories and severity of impairment.

IntroDuCtIonIn Victorian Catholic schools, Program Support Group meetings, held each term, provide an opportunity for parents of children with impairments, their teachers, and other staff, to celebrate achievements, plan future goals, discuss concerns, and address support needs. Yet, despite an abundance of international literature supporting this practice (Danneker & Bottge, 2009; Mason, McGahee-Kovav, & Johnson, 2004; Van Dycke, Martin, & Lovett, 2006) students with impairments are rarely invited to attend these meetings.One of the key factors for successful student

Correspondence: Anne Wilson, Melbourne Graduate School of Education, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne Vic 3010; email [email protected]

involvement in Program Support Group meetings reported by Wilson (2011) was specific and structured teaching of the leadership skills necessary for them to take a meaningful role coupled with thorough preparation, rehearsal and familiarity with the meeting protocols and format. However, barriers identified were lack of teacher confidence, lack of information and strategies as to how to develop the necessary skills in students for this particular leadership role, and inadequate teacher preparation (Danneker & Bottge, 2009; Van Dyke et al., 2006). Mason et al. (2004) have presented a three stage model of ongoing cumulative training was developed by Mason et al. (2004). Under this model, initial student involvement consists of opening and closing the meeting, progresses to include contribution to discussion and culminates in the role of meeting chairperson. Students are prepared in small groups over a number of weeks. Neale and Test (2010) suggest the use of a pre-existing program, “I Can Use Effort” to improve students’ communication skills, but overall there is a dearth of detailed support materials, as well as Australian research, on how to prepare students for this leadership role.This paper reports on a small scale study in the Catholic Diocese of Sale (Victoria). It was launched as the first step towards an ambitious long term goal of the Diocese: to establish

16

A. Wilson, S. Poed & L.J. Byrnes

student-led Program Support Group meetings as usual practice for students with impairments. The short term goals of the pilot study were to ascertain the reactions of students, teachers, support staff and parents to the concept of student- led Program Support Group meetings and to evaluate the success of a particular approach to student training. The research questions were:1. Is there support for student-led Program

Support Group meetings from students, school staff and parents?

2. Is a student training approach based on a flexible template package, specific skills training and ongoing support effective in allowing students to contribute to their meetings?

MEthoDEthics approval for this pilot study was gained from The University of Melbourne and The Catholic Education Office, Diocese of Sale. All potential participants (student, school and family) were alerted to the fact that due to the small number of research participants involved, complete anonymity could not be guaranteed. Protocols to support students at all stages of the meetings were established.Two Catholic primary schools in close proximity in the Diocese of Sale were invited to participate in the project. The original plan was to invite two students with impairments from each school to take part in training sessions designed to assist the student to lead a meeting, and then to observe them during the meeting. However, because of unanticipated delays three, rather than four, students were involved in the pilot. These students were selected by their school’s Special Needs Co-ordinator. Two were year 6 students funded under the category of Intellectual Disability, and the third, a year 3 student, was funded under Severe Language Disorder (verbal and motor dyspraxia).The Special Needs Coordinator at each school was provided with a copy of the article “Why is this cake on fire?” (Van Dycke et al., 2006) and a literature review (Wilson, 2011) detailing the key factors that support, and barriers that impede, student involvement in the development of their Individual Learning Plan (Wilson, 2011). They were also supplied with the Catholic Education Office, Sale template package (Appendix B) to use as models to

facilitate preparation for meetings. Once students were selected and permissions and involvement confirmed for all (Principal, Student Support Coordinator, teaching staff, Learning Support Officer, parent(s)/carer and student), school staff prepared the students for the meeting. The pilot endorsed a training model based on information, modelling, practice and simulation of the actual meeting, with the training adapted to best suit each individual student. Premises underpinning the choice of training model and strategies arising from these premises are documented in Appendix A. Individual schools were free to choose whether the training was carried out by teaching or support staff. The two trainers involved have very different roles within their school: one was a trained teacher and Deputy Principal whilst the other was an experienced Learning Support Officer. Preparation times varied according to the pre-existing skills of students, however, a minimum of three 30 minute sessions was recommended. In addition, all students assembled a folio of work or demonstrated activities as was suggested in the template “Getting Ready for My Student-Led PSG Meeting”. As part of this training, the researcher met individually with each student to ascertain how training was progressing. During this time, students also had opportunity to demonstrate and/or share some of the preparatory work that they had undertaken. The formal Program Support Group meeting time was of 30 minutes duration. The researcher attended each meeting and collected data on student performance and the use of templates. This was done through written notes of observations and checklists. Leadership skills and involvement of students was assessed using a three point scale (Table 1).To gather data concerning participant views on Student-led Program Support Group meetings, a debriefing and feedback session led by the researcher was held with all of the adults who attended the meeting including the Special Needs Co-ordinator, teaching staff, Learning Support Officer and parents/carers. A second debriefing and feedback session was also held with individual students. Templates to facilitate discussion were provided at these feedback sessions and responses were recorded in note form. Data were also obtained from notes of conversations in feedback sessions and

17

Refereed conference paper: Student-led meetings

written dot point summaries were provided by all meeting participants in response to four prompts. These are itemised in Table 2.

rEsultsData gathered by the researcher through direct observation at the meetings indicated that all three student had the skills to lead a meeting when supported by their trainer and visual prompts from the template package (Appendix 2). Students received a minimum of three half hour training sessions with extra time been allocated for the creation of work folios and self- assessment tasks. All three were scored at the highest rating “Achieved with Consistency and Confidence” on the eight criteria Observation Scale (Figure 1). The post meeting interviews

with students demonstrated that for students, involvement had been a positive learning experience. Student feedback elicited with the use of a prompt template included:

“One thing I learned was I could be a better person if I stopped fighting with other people.”“I could have spoken a little more slowly and clearly.” “The best thing was learning what the teachers think of me.”“One thing I learned was what to do in a meeting.”“My mother learned that I can run a meeting.”

Achieved with consistency and confidence

Attempted, but was hesitant and inconsistent

Not attempted

Opened the meeting (welcomed participants)Led the prayer (optional)Spoke clearlyMade eye contactFollowed the agendaListened attentivelyContributed to discussionAnswered direct questionsShared folio of work (optional)Closed the meeting (thanked participants)Gave feedback after the meeting

Adult Prompts Student PromptsI came expecting ... The best thing about the meeting was ...The best thing was ... Things would have gone better if ...I learnt ... One thing I learnt was ...I would suggest ... I think my parents learnt ...

Table 2 Prompt used to gather participant feedback

Table 1 Observation Scale used to measure leadership skills

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Teachers and Learning Support Officers commented on student confidence and skill level, genuine student input and engagement. Representative comments included:

“The student’s achievements exceeded expectations.”“The student was in control of the meeting and it was structured and flowed well.”“The student understands the areas he needs to work on.”“Adults often underestimate student capabilities.” “The meeting was insightful for all parties involved.”“The adults were actually listening to student.” “The best thing was watching the student interact confidently with everyone at the meeting.”“It was also great to see her feel positive about her learning.”“The best thing was that she was so involved in the meeting. She was smiling by the end so I knew she was pleased with herself.”

Parents commented particularly on the confidence shown by students. The parent feedback included:

”I thought he might get anxious and crack under the pressure but this didn’t happen.” “The best thing was watching my son’s growing confidence after being offered this opportunity to be involved and actually chair the meeting and have his say about himself.”“My son has grown incredibly throughout his school years and he showed that today.”“Children should be involved more in their Program Support Group meetings as their input can prove valuable.”

Data gathered in the post meeting interviews and debriefing sessions indicated general support for the concept of student-led Program Support

Group meetings by students, school staff and parents. The graphic agenda templates were fully used at all meetings to keep the conversation on track and to remind students as to whose turn it was to speak at various stages of the meeting. One trainer colour coded the student prompt script to match the colours used on the agenda template. The value of the Work Habits and Social Skills student self-evaluation templates was evident in the discussion that arose when teacher evaluations were compared with that of the student during the meeting.

DIsCussIonIt would be misleading to draw wide sweeping conclusions from such a small pilot study with only three students from two schools. However, even a small sample size can provide useful information on which to base future investigation (Asher, 2011). With this in mind, a number of observations can be offered. The short term goal of the pilot project, to ascertain the level of support given by students, teachers, support staff and parents to the concept of Student-led Program Support Group meetings, was reached through the feedback process. All adults expressed some uncertainty coming into the meeting regarding either the feasibility of the idea of a primary school student chairing this type of meeting and/or the ability of particular students to manage the tasks involved efficiently and without undue anxiety. American research by Mason et al. (2004) on methods used for developing self- determination in students, showed that student-led Individual Education Plan meetings were the least practised strategy of those studied and were usually considered too challenging for students with impairments. However, feedback from both students and adults in this pilot demonstrated that all students performed well above adult expectations. There was a common recommendation amongst the adults that the experience should be repeated and the opportunity extended to other students. As in some previous overseas studies, (Barrie & McDonald, 2002; Eiseman et al., 2005), parents saw their children in a new light and were surprised at the level of skill and confidence that they displayed. Conderman, Ikan and Hatcher (2000) reported improved communication between students and parents after students led their Individual Education Plan meetings and this was reflected in this pilot study when

19


a parent highlighted the opportunity that the training process had provided to improve communication with her child at home as she voluntarily reinforced the training undertaken at school. The two year 6 students were keen that the researcher should speak with the secondary college with the view of continuing the meeting format in year 7. Students elected to attend their feedback sessions with the researcher without the presence of their trainer and interacted with confidence.The second short term goal of evaluating the template package as a useful training tool was also met. Danneker and Bottge, (2009) found that primary school students can be taught to communicate goals and identify accommodations and the results of this pilot support that view. The use of a substantial number of templates was evident throughout the meetings. Positive feedback was received from the two trainers in relation to the worth of a template approach over a more prescriptive curriculum package. The fact that, despite the tight timeline, all three students demonstrated the full range of meeting skills is a testimony to both the skill of the trainers and the relevance of the package to the task. In addition, the focus of all meetings on the student as leader may also be attributed in part to the format and language of the templates as well as the goodwill of the adults concerned. The flexibility of the template package was demonstrated through this pilot. Despite some reservations about the inclusion of a year 3 student in the same pilot study as year 6 students, after a combination of group and individual preparation sessions, the year 3 student was able to perform at a level that was equal to that of his year 6 training partner. Observation during the meetings suggested the worth of particular templates. Because both schools are Catholic schools, a prayer was included in the package as a matter of course. By beginning with a student led prayer, attention was immediately drawn to the student as chairperson and the positive tone for the whole meeting was established. In settings where a prayer is not appropriate, it could, perhaps be replaced by a short non -religious reflection that encapsulates the idea of empowering the student.The ability of students to talk about their strengths, challenges and to set new goals for

themselves may also be attributed to templates that facilitated preparation and pre-meeting discussion in these areas. A concern that meetings would be “warm and fuzzy” events with little meaningful discussion of challenges and future goals was not realised. As noted by Condorman et al. (2000), challenges were reframed in terms of goals rather than deficits. Given the success of this small scale initiative, it was hoped that after consultation with students, the active participation in student-led Program Support Group meetings and the associated leadership skills developed would become an integral part of each student’s Individual Learning Plan and tied to the Victorian Essential Learning Standards (VELS) curriculum through the Personal Learning domain (The Individual Learner strand and the Managing Personal Learning strand). This would progress to the Personal and Social Capability in the Australian Curriculum in future years (Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority, 2013). Outside the study participants, some teachers have questioned the suitability of this meeting format for all students with impairments. Further investigation is needed to ascertain how widely this model can be applied, if the long term goal of making student-led Program Support meetings general practice in the Diocese of Sale is to be realised. The possibility of cultural barriers was not addressed in this pilot study. In an address to principals of primary and secondary schools in the Diocese of Sale (Soraghan & Mullett, 2012), the Advisor for Indigenous Education and Kurnai elder, Linda Mullett, spoke of the mismatch between accepted classroom practices and the social and cultural expectations in indigenous families and communities. She explained that Aboriginal children listen to remember, not to respond and that being put on show to speak in front of groups is culturally alien. Accordingly, the student-led Program Support Group meeting as presented in this pilot project may not be suitable for indigenous students. These mismatches may well extend to other cultural groups, such as recent immigrants and refugees. The model presented in this pilot may need to be reframed to facilitate student leadership and responsibility in ways that are culturally sensitive.

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ConClusIons AnD FuturE DIrECtIonsThe question of authentic student voice requires more investigation. While for the students in the pilot study the experience of being involved in a student-led Program Support Group meeting was a positive experience, the personal ownership of their contributions was not tested. Trainers concentrated on preparing students in the area of meeting protocol and also in alerting them to likely areas of discussion with opportunities to rehearse their responses. Whilst this is a good foundation on which to begin, the facilitation of conditions in which students have both the skills and the confidence to respectfully advocate for themselves in a way that directly influences educational goals, accommodations, strategies and resources is the ultimate goal of this specific approach to leadership training. The next step in this voyage of discovery is the concurrent dissemination of information, propagation of modest pilot programs that collectively represent the diversity present in the Diocese of Sale schools and the establishing of a clearly focussed, contained but substantial research study. A preliminary research question has been formulated: “Can students across a range of ages, cultural backgrounds and impairments be successfully trained to lead their Program Support Group Meetings?" and this will be further refined and adapted as the work progresses. Taking note of the size limitations, this pilot study has demonstrated that with proper preparation and training, primary age students with impairments are able to successfully lead their Program Support Group meetings. Involvement in the pilot was a positive experience for students, school staff and parents. At the conclusion of the pilot, future plans included the facilitating of this practice in other primary schools and widening the number and diversity of students involved. It was also planned to discuss this pilot study with secondary schools, particularly those who receive students from primary schools implementing this approach. It is optimistically hoped that the small pilot study described in this paper will initiate a ripple that would gather momentum and ultimately create a tidal wave of change that will empower students in their formative years and equip them with skills and confidence that they can carry into adult life.

And so the voyage begins; aboard are the researcher, interested observers, critical friends and enthusiastic participants. It is envisaged that there will be a reciprocal relationship between the development of the formal research project and the organic growth of the student-led Program Support Group meeting. The researcher will be both the communications officer and the navigator. It is her responsibility to ensure that all interested parties are updated as the research unfolds and also to plot and adjust the course as time goes on. Because the researcher regularly attends Program Support Group meetings as part of her professional daily work, and as she has no desire to impose foreign or artificial data gathering structures on this important element of support for students with impairments, the research is likely to be undertaken within an ethnographic framework with the researcher as a participant observer. This will present its own set of challenges. There will inevitably be hidden reefs and periods of stormy weather ahead, but the potential gains outweigh the risks. To explore the possibility of empowering students with impairments by acknowledging the legitimacy of student voice and by specifically and incrementally training these students in the skills that will allow their voices to be clearly heard both now and in their adult future, is a destination worth travelling towards.

rEFErEnCEsAsher, A. (2011). So you want to do anthropology

in your library? Or a practical guide to ethnographic research in academic libraries. Retrieved from http://www.erialproject.o rg / w p - c o n t e n t / u p l o a d s / 2 0 11 / 0 3 /Toolkit-3.22.11.pdf

Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority. (2012). General capabilities in the Australian Curriculum. Retrieved from http://www.acara.edu.au/curriculum

Barrie, W., & McDonald, J. (2002). Administrative support for student-led individualised education programs. Remedial and Special Education, 23, 116-121.

Conderman, G., Ikan, P., & Hatcher, R. (2000). Student-led conferences in exclusive settings. Intervention in School and Clinic, 36, 22-26.

Danneker, J., & Bottge, B. (2009). Benefits and barriers to elementary student-led individual education programs. Remedial and Special Education, 30, 225-233.

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Eiseman, L., Chamberlin, M., & McGahee-Kovac. M. (2005). A teacher inquiry group on student-led IEPs: Starting small to make a difference. Teacher Education and Special Education, 28, 195-206.

Mason, C., McGahee-Kovav, M., & Johnson, L. (2004). How to help students lead their IEP meetings. Teaching Exceptional Children, 36(3), 18-25.

Mason, C., Field, S., & Sawilowsky, S. (2004). Implementation of self-determination activities and student participation in IEPs. Paper 2. Wayne State University: Centre for Self-Determination and Transition.

Neale, M., & Test, D. ( 2010). Effects of the "I Can Use Effort" strategy on the quality of student verbal contributions and Individualized Education Progam participation with third and fourth grade students with impairments.

Remedial and Special Education, 31, 184-194.

Soraghan, B., & Mullet, L. (2012). Responding to the National Action Plan: Building local capacity. Address to Principals in the Diocese of Sale, Catholic Education Office Warragul.

Van Dycke, J. M., Martin. J. E., & Lovett, D. L. (2006). Why is this cake on fire? Inviting students into the IEP process. Teaching Exceptional Children, 38(3), 42-47.

Wilson, A. L. (2011). Crew or captains? Empowering students to take the lead. A literature search investigating Student-led Program Support Group meetings. Unpublished manuscript submitted as part of the requirements for Master of Education (Special Education, Early Intervention and Inclusion), The University of Melbourne.

Appendix APremises underlying and strategies arising from the training approach.Premises1. Teachers know how to teach leadership skills and that they already do this in a variety of ways

to both whole classes and targeted groups such as student captains, student councils, buddy programs participants etc.

2. Schools should be free to choose the training approach that is best fit with existing classroom curriculum and leadership programs and to individualize the program to make it relevant and suitable for each student.

3. Despite teacher experience in leadership training, a major barrier to the implementation of student-led Program Support Group meetings, is an uncertainty of how to prepare students with an impairment to take an active role and a lack of support materials to facilitate delivery of a training program.

4. Student training should be an integral part of the total learning program.

strategies 1. A package of templates was developed by the student researcher that was student centred in both

language and format (see Appendix B for examples). These templates are tools to aid training rather than a prescriptive discrete program. Trainers are free to select, modify or discard particular templates according to the needs of the individual student. However, whist providing training support, the primary purpose of the template package is to firmly establish the notion of student leadership, control and input through both the language employed and the graphic layout.

2. Goals relating to developing leadership skills through participation in Student-Led Program Support Group Meetings were identified to incorporate into Individual Learning Plans. Links to the VELS Personal Learning domain and in the future to the General Capabilities (Personal and Social Capability) section of the Australian Curriculum (Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority, 2012) were made to highlight the preparation and meeting participation as legitimate curriculum activity.


22

Me My Parents My teachersIntroduction

successes

Challenges

Continuing Goals

new Goals

Conclusion

Appendix bSamples from Template PackageAgenda

23


Appendix B continued

Getting Ready for my Student Led PSG Meeting

I am good at

The hardest thing is

I have improved in

Things go well when

Things don’t go well when

Examples of work and/or photos I will show at my PSG:1.2.3.

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Practice 1 Practice 2

Appendix B continued

Yes Not yet Yes Not yet

I opened and closed

the meeting

I spoke slowly and

clearly

I looked at people

when I spoke

I followed the

agenda

I contributed to the

discussion

25


Appendix B continuedsocial skills self-evaluation My name: Date:

Me My Teacher

Most of the time

Some times

Needs improvement

Most of the time

Some times

Needs improvement

Cooperates in groups

Listens

Keeps hands and feet to self

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2015 AASE Conference


27

Refereed Conference Papers

LEADIng SchOOL c0mmunITIES TO ImpLEmEnT A SuSTAInAbLE SchOOL-wIDE

mODEL LEADIng TO EnhAncIng LEARnIng OuTcOmES fOR STuDEnTS wITh ASD

Amanda Webster & Jane WilkinsonGriffith University

AbstrACtThe crucial role of school leaders in inclusive schools for students with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) has received more attention in recent years. A pilot study was conducted in three Australian/Queensland schools to trial a shared model of school leadership in implementing a whole school approach for students with ASD. Schools established an ASD leadership team, which was headed up by the school principal and head of special education (HOSE) but also included a classroom teacher, and a parent of a child with ASD. Together the principal and HOSE led the team in assessing their current practices and establishing an action plan to establish effective practices for students with ASD at a whole school, classroom and individual student level. Findings indicate that the active engagement of the principal in leading the vision and development of inclusive practices was essential to empowering the HOSE to become an instructional leader in the school. In addition, the partnership between the principal and head of special education were important in helping the principal to gain knowledge and skills in effective practice for students with ASD, and to position the HOSE to create effective instructional practices throughout the school for students with ASD.

IntroDuCtIonThe number of students with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) attending mainstream schools has increased dramatically over the past

Correspondence: Amanda Webster, Autism Centre of Excellence, Griffith University, 176 Messines Ridge Road, Mt Gravatt Qld 4166; [email protected].

decade. According to a report by the Australian Bureau of Statistics (2012), approximately 115,400 Australians had a diagnosis of ASD in 2012. This number includes an estimated 84,000 children from 5 to 19 years, most of whom attend mainstream schools. More importantly the majority of respondents (86%) reported experiencing both academic and social difficulties in school. The increase in numbers of students with ASD attending mainstream schools has placed a great deal of pressure on school leaders and teachers to support these students to achieve better outcomes. Researchers (Bays & Crockett, 2007) have highlighted the important role that school principals play in the overall leadership of inclusive schools and achievement of students with disabilities. The role the principal plays in schools has also been cited as a key element of effective programs for students with ASD and other disabilities, with the principal assuming the responsibility of organisational leader, instructional leader, and moral leader (Crockett, 2002). Principals have reported, however, that they often have had little training to equip them in leading school programs for individuals with ASD (Praisner, 2003; Weller, 2012). Shaddock, Giorcelli and Smith (2007) emphasise that to be an effective leader for students, including those with ASD, school leaders need to establish a clear vision for inclusion of students with diverse needs. In addition effective school leaders in inclusive schools foster a culture in which staff are continually developing their

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A. Webster & J. Wilkinson

knowledge and skills as well as their ability to collaborate and build partnerships with families. Most importantly, research has stressed that the active engagement of principals with students with ASD, and the modelling of learning and collaborative processes by principals is extremely important to the realisation of school communities in which students with ASD achieve enhanced social and academic outcomes (Mrozowicz, 2009).Shared, or distributed leadership has also been cited as an important aspect of successful school communities (Dempster, 2009; Leithwood, Day, Sammons, Harris, & Hopkins, 2006). Bays and Crockett (2007) report that successful school principals in inclusive schools share instructional leadership in both formal and formal ways. As inclusion in mainstream schools has become more common for students with ASD (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2012), special education teachers have redefined their roles and responsibilities for students with ASD and have increasingly moved into roles as school leaders for inclusion (Crockett, 2002). At the same time general classroom teachers are being asked to take on more responsibility for instruction of students with ASD, but are reporting they often feel unequipped and anxious about meeting the needs of these students (Humphrey & Lewis, 2008). Both special education and general education classroom teachers have reported that the support of the school principal is essential to enable them to collaborate and develop effective strategies for students with ASD (Valeo, 2010; Weller, 2012).Despite the extant research on successful school programs for students with ASD, limited studies have been conducted on how school leaders can utilise a shared model of leadership to implement a whole of school approach for students with ASD. This paper will discuss a recent project conducted in three Queensland schools1 in which principals and HOSEs led the establishment of school leadership teams. These teams were provided with training and support to lead their school communities in the implementation of a sustainable school-wide approach enabling students with ASD to achieve higher levels of academic and social outcomes. The key aim of this project was to examine the

role of school principals and special education leaders in implementing a school-wide approach for students with ASD.

MEthoD This study was part of a wider project to investigate the employment of a whole of school approach to build the capacity of school leaders, leadership teams and school communities to achieve outcomes for students with ASD. The project took place over 18 months from August 2012 to December 2013. Full ethics approval was obtained from ethics committees at both Griffith University and the Queensland Department of Education, Training and Employment.

Participantsschools. The study was conducted in three government schools located in an urban area of Queensland. A few months prior to the commencement of the project in August 2012, a full day workshop was held for schools in the area to discuss the needs of students with ASD as well as the challenges encountered by teachers and schools in supporting these students. This initial workshop generated an interest in the region in trialling a whole school approach. The three schools were selected based on the willingness of both the principal and HOSE to create whole school practice in their schools for students with ASD. In addition, schools were selected to represent both primary and secondary programs as the researchers wished to examine whether school leaders would need to assume different roles in the two settings.The three schools included one Prep to Year 12 school (School 1), one primary school (School 2), and one high school (School 3). School 1 had a population of approximately 1800 students (800 primary and 1000 secondary), including 52 students (27 primary, 25 secondary) who had been diagnosed with ASD, and an additional 12 students who were awaiting diagnosis. School 2 had 900 students, including 14 students with a diagnosis of ASD, and nine additional students awaiting diagnostic assessment. School 3 was close to School 2 and had 790 students, including 17 students with ASD, with two additional students waiting for assessment. It

1. The authors would like to acknowledge the contribution of the Queensland Department of Education, Employment and Training and Griffith University.

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Refereed conference paper: Leading school communities

should be noted that although these were the initial numbers given when the schools first agreed to participate, during the project each school reported their population of students with ASD increased by 30-40%. In addition, this particular region of Queensland did not currently have a special school and all students with disabilities including students with ASD were enrolled in mainstream schools.AsD school leadership team Members. At the beginning of the project, each school was asked to select individuals to comprise a school ASD leadership team. In keeping with previous research on shared leadership in special education (Bays & Crockett, 2007; DiPaola, Tschannen-Moran, & Walther-Thomas, 2004; Theoharis & Causton, 2014), the first two members of the team selected were the principal and head of special education (HOSE) at each school. In addition, in order to foster a culture of shared responsibility for students with ASD, schools were asked to include a classroom teacher. Finally, to incorporate the perspectives of parents and foster family involvement in educational programs for students with ASD, each school selected at least one parent to participate on the committee. As School 1 encompassed both a primary and secondary campus, the school’s ASD leadership team included two parent representatives, two classroom teachers and two special education teachers. Information on schools and school-based leadership team members is presented in Table 1.

Implementation of the ModelThe purpose of the project was to trial a model focusing on a whole school approach to build the capacity of school leaders and schools to improve outcomes for students with ASD. Engagement of school leaders is an initial component of the model and utilises Dempster’s Blueprint for Leadership to target best practice for students with ASD (Iovannone, Dunlap, Huber, & Kincaid, 2003; Simpson, deBoer-Ott, & Smith-Myles, 2003) in the areas of: shared leadership, curriculum and teaching, conditions for learning, professional development, and connections with families and communities (Dempster, 2009). A professional development session was run by the researchers one month prior to the commencement of the project to provide school principals and HOSE with a theoretical background and understanding of

the steps required for implementing the project. Following this session, school principals and HOSEs were asked to establish the ASD leadership team. Implementation of the whole school model included: firstly, school leaders working with ASD leadership teams to establish a shared vision statement for students with ASD at the school; and secondly, teams working together to assess their current practices and to develop an action plan that would address whole school, teacher, and individual practices leading to outcomes for both teaching staff and students with ASD across the school. In formulating school action plans, school leaders built on the research regarding use of a three-tiered model of systems change and programs for students with ASD in schools (Crosland & Dunlap, 2012), targeting outcomes and developing strategies at a whole school (primary), classroom or group (secondary), and individual student (tertiary) levels.In addition, although it was initially planned that the research team would provide both initial and ongoing professional development and would assist with troubleshooting, it quickly became apparent that the support of an external coach/mentor/critical friend, who had specialised knowledge and expertise in research and practice of autism spectrum disorder, was necessary for school principals and HOSEs to implement the model over time. This role was assumed by one of the authors and member of the research team who assumed different roles over time including providing professional development and “coaching” sessions to individual schools as needed, touching base on a regular basis to discuss issues and targets with school leaders, and providing expertise and research-based knowledge when issues arose. The support of the coach/mentor/critical friend was subsequently identified by school principals and HOSEs as being necessary for the successful implementation of the whole school capacity building model in schools.

Data CollectionPrior to the commencement of the project, baseline data was collected through conducting initial semi-structured interviews with school principals and HOSEs regarding current issues and outcomes for students with ASD and current practices regarding leadership and

30


implementation of programs for these students. Additionally school leadership teams employed a whole school profiling instrument to complete a self-assessment of their school’s current practices for students with ASD in the five key areas of leadership outlined by Dempster (2012).2

Information on roles and responsibilities of school ASD leadership teams and individual team members (principals, HOSEs, classroom teachers, parents) was collected through interviews at the end of the project. Interviews were semi-structured and involved discussions with each team member around eight open-ended questions regarding the roles and actions of team members and of the team as a whole in implementing the whole school approach at their school. A list of interview questions is presented in Appendix A. In addition, this second set of interviews was designed to facilitate discussion of the ways in which team members had worked together to implement a shared leadership model for students with ASD across the schoolThe second set of interviews were conducted individually with members (i.e., principal,

HOSE, classroom teacher representative, and parent representative) of each school’s ASD leadership team. A total of 17 interviews were conducted, each lasting approximately 1 hour. All interviews were audio-recorded and were later transcribed for analysis. Participants were given a copy of the questions ahead of time and were asked to use these to guide their discussion of the impact of the project and particularly of their participation and role in the project.

Data AnalysisResults of interviews were analysed and coded for themes using the method of thematic analysis described by Boyatzis (1998) and Creswell (2007). After interviews were transcribed, transcriptions were read through a number of times, noting key points, words and phrases in the margins. From these memos, initial codes were constructed and a deductive approach was utilised to compare codes across transcripts and to consolidate these codes into initial subthemes based on the key roles of school leaders in inclusive schools identified by Crockett (2002). Finally subthemes were analysed in relation to the research questions and were compared to build and collapse subthemes into overall

School Level Students with ASD

Team Members Designators Gender

School 1 Prep - 12 52 diagnosed12 awaiting diagnosis

1. Principal2. Head of Special

Education (HOSE)3. Classroom Teacher

1. P12. H13. CT 14. SP 15. CT 1-2

1. M2. F3. F4. F5. F

School 2 Primary (Prep-7)

14 diagnosed9 awaiting diagnosis



1. P12. H13. CT 1

1. M2. F3. F

School 3 High School(8-12)

17 diagnosed2 awaiting diagnosis



1. P12. H13. CT 1

1. M2. F3. F

Table 1 School and School-based Team Member Information

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themes, reflecting the essential experience for the participants. Themes and subthemes are presented in Table 2 – see following section. In order to check the validity of data analysis, member checks were conducted with participants from each school.

FInDInGs Interviews revealed key themes regarding the varying roles school principals and HOSEs assumed throughout the project and the ways in which they engaged with school communities to implement the action plan for students with ASD at their school. In addition, subthemes were identified that reflected the specific actions and responsibilities of principals and HOSEs in relation to the overall theme. These themes and subthemes are presented below in Table 2.

theme 1: Active versus PassiveThe first theme encapsulates the experience of principals as school leaders during the project. Among the three principals, the amount to which they were either Active versus Passive had a profound impact on the ability of the team and the school to implement practices for students with ASD at the primary or whole school level. Principals reported that they were active leaders as they engaged with HOSEs, school staff, and parents to construct and model programs and outcomes for students with ASD. The principal at School 2 particularly indicated that they felt a critical part of their role was to model the implementation of the vision for students with ASD at the school. The degree and ways in which principals actively engaged with team members and participated in the project varied between the three schools from active and ongoing participation and support to regular monitoring and strategic support. In relation to the impact of active and ongoing participation and support on the practice of the HOSE and classroom teachers one principal (P2) stated, “It’s looking at those three frames: high quality teaching, working out how your personal pedagogy interacts with what’s going on in other teacher’s classrooms and how that connects to theory”. Another principal (P3) stressed the active engagement of principals as key to the implementation of the whole school approach for students with ASD saying:

That leadership issue and I think that’s probably one of the things that really differentiates this project because you know, that has been demonstrated to be such a key thing, to get that leadership from the principal.

Although this principal (P3) did recognise the importance of active leadership, he reported that he was distracted by other things and challenged to maintain an active role in leadership for students with ASD, engaging more routinely in regular monitoring and strategic support, which is reflected in his comment:

So I guess it was providing feedback as well, probably the role of oversight didn’t occur as much because the work was led from a position within the school. The oversight there was more probably checking in with me to know that I knew what was going on, rather than me checking in to make sure what was going on and that, you know is not the best system there.

Evaluation of action plans by school leadership teams and researchers indicated there was a link between the level of active engagement of the principal with the leadership team and implementation of actions and outcomes at both the school and student level. This finding concurs with Vivian Robinson’s research, which indicates that promoting and participating in teacher learning and development had the largest effect size in terms of making a difference to students’ academic outcomes (Robinson, Hohepa, & Lloyd, 2007). The school in which the principal was the most actively involved in leadership team meetings and overseeing the actions of the project was also the school in which the most participants stated they knew about the project, were involved in implementing the actions of the project and felt they had strong support and programs for students with ASD at the school. The following comment by a HOSE (H2) typified this kind of response:

Obviously the principal’s been very, very supportive. The leadership team have, through his guidance, accepted that there’s value in this. And I think

2. A copy of the whole school profiling instrument is available upon request from the authors.

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probably that we did not keep it, we didn’t sell it as it’s just about ASD kids. This is about helping everybody, anybody who can use these approaches. I think that’s been important in making it successful.

The school in which the principal was the least engaged in active leadership of the project and who spent more time on enabling others to take on responsibility for actions, was the school that reported the least systematic change at the whole school level, although the principal and HOSE reported improved awareness of teachers and outcomes for individual students as a result of actions implemented by the HOSE and leadership team. The HOSE (H3) also reported that the active leadership of the principal was essential in establishing the project as a priority at the school stating, “but when (principal) was bringing up that perspective it had a little bit more impact” (H3).Underpinning the active or passive leadership of principals were the responsibilities and functions that principals reported they assumed both within the school ASD leadership team and in the overall implementation of the whole school approach. The responses of principals indicated that they saw themselves as taking on four essential functions: an enabler of people and spaces; philosophical leader; organisational leader of administrative and instructional processes; and an active and engaged leader. All three principals reported that they felt their role was primarily one of an enabler of staff providing support to the HOSE and staff to implement the project, as

exemplified by the statement of one principal (P3) “Enabling people, to say continue, keep going, you’re doing a good job”. HOSEs also confirmed that the principal’s role of enabler involved them creating positive physical environments and spaces for students with ASD as indicated by the statement of one HOSE (H2), “That probably is a good place to start, yeah, look, it’s just the physical environment as well, I think is something that we overlook for all students”.Principals also described ways in which they acted in the role of philosophical leader for the project and for inclusion of students with ASD in the school. This included actions such as communicating the intent, aspiration and ideas of the project and lending an authority to the project, (P3) “so going back to staff and explaining what we were doing, why we were doing, being able to do that and show that there was research based evidence”. A third function described by principals was that of an organisational leader of administrative and instructional processes. Administrative tasks included checking in with the HOSE on dates and times, making sure the school had a functional ASD leadership team, and making sure the requirements of the project were being met. Additionally principals verified that they were responsible for overseeing and monitoring the implementation of the plan and working with HOSEs to troubleshoot issues as they arose. Principal 1 highlights this:

Certainly my role is to make sure that all the accountabilities around what’s required of us in the project are being

Theme Role SubthemeActive versus Passive leader

Principal • Philosophical leader • Organisational leader –

administrative and instructional• Enabler – people and spaces

Empowered leader versus Operative

Head of Special Education (HOSE)

• Instructional leader • Project Manager • Implementer

Partnerships Principal/HOSE • Collaboration• Reflection

Table 2 Roles of Principals and HOSEs in Leading School ASD Leadership Teams

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met and we did have a leadership team that is functional, we did have a committee that is functional and certainly having regular updates and progress from (HOSE) was my role. So I guess knowing that the support’s there from the top down is pretty important.

Principals also said that as an organisational leader they were also responsible for overseeing the development of instructional strategies for individuals with ASD, “It’s about really mapping it out, well researched and well documented, that these practical applications are successful” (P1).

theme 2: Empowered leader versus operativeA key theme for the Heads of Special Education was their journey from functioning as a School Operative for students with ASD (i.e., following rules and policies rather than leading initiatives) to an Empowered School Leader, not just for students with ASD, but for high quality teaching and practices for all students. One HOSE stressed that by getting the school principal actively supporting and leading the project, this in turn facilitated the involvement and interest of the administrative team (i.e., deputy principals, heads of curriculum) and ultimately empowered the HOSE to lead staff across the school in implementing strategies for students with ASD. Another HOSE reported that participating in the school leadership team, and particularly her work with the school principal, had enabled her to discern her own leadership skills and to implement systematic change at the school level. She (H2) observed:

I had the opportunity to show that you can, things that I’ve believed in or been talking to people about for years as I went around in my previous job visiting schools, I’ve actually had the opportunity to say “This is how you can, you can make it work. It’s possible”. Yeah. The fact that you can demonstrate that, yeah, you can be successful at doing these things.

and also added,I don’t think that they should just see it about ASD. It should be about best practice for meeting individual’s needs.

It needs to be embedded. What we’ve done is we won’t have a separate ASD plan. The emphasis is on elements that will be embedded in our annual school implementation plan. So it’s seen as like everybody, that guides everybody’s specific roles, and expectations. Yeah. I don’t think that you are going to be as effective if you just make it about a certain type of kid.

HOSEs also acted as school leaders of knowledge of ASD. Often principals reported they didn’t really have specific knowledge about needs of students with ASD and relied on their HOSE to lead schools in developing this knowledge. One principal (P1) noted, “The (HOSE) has done a fair bit of work on getting some clear expectations for the case managers and that’s desperately needed”.All three HOSEs recounted that they served primarily as the project manager. Their approach differed depending on the amount in which their principal actively engaged in the implementation of the project and the amount of time HOSEs were able to interact with their principal about project issues. As project managers their role involved managing both administrative and collaborative aspects of the project including guiding the direction of the ASD leadership teams in a collaborative fashion and overseeing professional development of staff, particularly in regard to goal setting and overseeing data collection for students. They also assumed the role of managing communication about the stages of the research process, and worked closely with the coach/mentor/critical friend to identify and address particular issues and needs as they arose at their school, assuming responsibility for the paperwork involved in the project, and communicating with the research team. The following statement of one HOSE (H2) best sums up the role of project leader, “follow the process, engage people, and gather the data, come up with the actions, start implementing those”. Responses of HOSEs also indicated that they saw themselves as implementers of key actions throughout the project. The HOSEs were most directly involved in establishing case management processes for individual students, including setting targets and collecting data

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on student progress. The HOSE were also responsible for working with staff to create snapshots of student strengths and needs and to develop smart goals and goal attainment scales for students. In addition, HOSEs worked very closely with staff to develop and implement staff training and to identify and implement more effective strategies for students with ASD in classroom and playground settings, as illustrated by one classroom teacher team member (CT 2):

We have open dialogue with the group (ASD leadership team) and staff so kids are looked after. People are becoming aware in the playground that kids might have issues. (HOSE) makes people aware. Management plans have made people aware of needs across the school.

As the person most respons ib le for communication of the project to a range of stakeholders, HOSEs also reported that a critical role they facilitated was as the chief parent liaison within the ASD leadership team. All three HOSEs stressed that working with parents was an extremely important aspect of their position. Each of the three HOSE implemented specific actions to engage parents within the team and the school, including implementing parent workshops, and establishing regular communication with parents. Parent representatives also reported that they communicated primarily with the HOSE regarding the purpose of the project and their role in the team. Parents differed on their comfort with communicating with other team or staff members. While the parent at School 2 reported she felt she could go to anyone on the staff, the parents at Schools 1 and 3 were less certain of whom to talk with other than the HOSE. As one parent (Pt 1) noted:

But only last week when I finally sat down with (HOSE) and (HOSE) goes "Yes, we can do this. Yes, we can do this." There were suggestions that I'd brought up at the end of term two with my daughter's teachers at parent/teacher interview, and with her case manager and everybody there told me "No, we can't do this. We don't have the resources." But when I spoke to (HOSE) she goes "Yes, of course we can do that." And so those things have been put into place.

theme 3: PartnershipsNot only did individual members of the ASD leadership teams play a critical role in the implementation of the whole school model, but various partnerships between team members were identified that were essential to the ability of schools to successfully implement the model and change practices at both the whole school and individual student level. Of particular importance was the partnership that developed between the school principal and HOSE. It was apparent that at all schools, the amount and type of collaboration between principals and HOSEs and the way that these individuals worked together to manage the various roles and responsibilities for students with ASD at their school was linked to higher degrees of implementation of strategies across the school, change in practice demonstrated by staff throughout the school, and outcomes achieved by individual students with ASD. This was particularly true at School 2 in which the principal and HOSE reported that the process gave them an action research framework from which they could examine key questions in relationship to the needs of students with ASD and utilise data to critically reflect on the current practices throughout the school and outcomes for students with ASD. They were then able to use this reflection as a springboard for engaging in the change process. Most importantly the HOSE and principal related that the process allowed them to engage in collaborative reflection around critical factors for students with ASD stating, “That they’re able to use data to work out where the child is at along that continuum and then go from there in terms of what they need to do next to support the child” (H2). This was reiterated by another of the principals (P3) who reported that the model brought the needs of students with ASD to the forefront of his discussions with the HOSE and focused their work together on developing specific processes and outcomes throughout the school. This is evident in his statement:

Again I firmly believe it was an enabling thing. I think there was work in place that I had either identified or (HOSE) and myself had identified together. As you know we had already used our full time effective numbers to try and raise awareness, to try and improve the support, not just within what traditionally

35


has been seen as the allocated resources which would be the special education unit staffing. But to build capacity in staff, and I think that we’ve been able to build capacity in staff.

DIsCussIonIn today’s culture of high expectations and inclusion for students with ASD (ACARA, 2011), building the capacity of school leaders and school communities to meet the unique needs of these students has been the subject of intense discussion. Previous studies (Weller, 2012) however, have suggested that many school leaders have limited knowledge about the needs of students with ASD and often feel ill equipped to make decisions regarding educational programs for these students. The current study was conducted to examine the role of school principals and special education leaders in leading a team in implementing a school-wide approach for students with ASD. Consistent with previous research (Hoppey & McLeskey, 2010), the amount in which principals were active or passive leaders was linked to whether HOSEs were empowered as leaders or merely operatives of practice. Crockett (2002) contends that school leaders in inclusive schools must assume a variety of new roles including moral collaborative leadership. The three principals assumed different roles during the project, but particularly focused on enabling school staff and acting as the philosophical leader for inclusion and improved outcomes of students with ASD. More importantly there was a difference in the degree to which each of the three principals were actively engaged in leading the project as opposed to passively overseeing the project. Confirming the findings of previous studies (Bays & Crockett, 2007; Mrozowicz, 2009), active engagement of the principal in leading and modelling implementation of strategies was connected with higher engagement of staff across the schools in the implementation of school-wide practices, as well as increased partnerships between principals and HOSEs. Active engagement of the principal was also linked to higher levels of knowledge and involvement of classroom teachers on the leadership team. This supports previous findings that school principals play an extremely important part in establishing the inclusion of

students with ASD as a priority (Kugelmass & Ainscow, 2004) for staff across the school. These results also suggest that building the capacity of schools to cater for students with ASD is only achieveable if the principal is actively engaged in the process.The characteristics of the partnerships that developed between principals and HOSEs was also important as principals played a critical role in enabling the HOSE to assume an increased leadership role across the school. Changing the perception of special education teachers has been identified as an important element of the change from traditional to inclusive school communities (Rhein et al., 2010). By placing the HOSE as a leader for developing effective instructional practices and environments for students, the principal modeled the shared ownership of students with ASD by both special education and general education teachers. Correspondingly, the partnership between the principal and HOSE also built the knowledge of principals about ASD and ways in which principals could enable staff to collaborate and take more responsibility for outcomes for students with ASD. Previous research (Horrocks, White, & Roberts, 2008) has found that principal’s knowledge about ASD as well as their direct involvement with students with ASD, positively influences the decisions they make about school programs and processes for these students. Although all principals spent time with their HOSEs, there was a difference between the three schools in the amount and ways that the principals and HOSEs worked together. In two of the schools, the partnership between the HOSE and principal evolved around more traditional roles, with the HOSE assuming more of a management role for the project and the principal supporting their actions with staff. In the third school, however, the principal and HOSE worked together to lead the school staff in school-wide inquiry of systemic change processes. The finding that this partnership and facilitation of all staff in the process affirms Mrozowicz’s (2009) contention that effective leaders in inclusive schools empower others in a search for understanding and growth.

ConClusIons School Principals and HOSEs working together can enable leadership teams derived from a school-wide, shared-leadership model to

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effectively implement a whole school approach for students with ASD and develop a sustainable model of shared responsibility and partnerships for students with ASD across the school. The active leadership of the school principal was critical in establishing the ethos and vision for the school and in empowering the head of special education to become an instructional leader through the school. In implementing a whole school approach for students with ASD, HOSEs assumed the role of project leader but also developed increasing roles as a school leader for ASD and effective practice. Partnerships between principals and HOSEs were critical in supporting the role of the HOSE as an instructional leader and in developing the knowledge and practice of principals for students with ASD.

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Information Sheet: Guidance for using the Australian Curriculum with Students with Special Education Needs. ACARA Retrieved from http://www.australiancurriculum.edu.au/Curriculum/Special-education-needs.

Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2012). Autism in Australia. Canberra, Australia: Retrieved from http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/[email protected]/Lookup/4428.0Main+Features12012?OpenDocument.

Bays, D.A., & Crockett, J.B. (2007). Investigating instructional leadership for special education. Exceptionality: A Special Education Journal, 15, 143-161. doi: 10.1080/09362830701503495

Boyatzis, R.E. (1998). Transforming qualitative information: Thematic analysis and code development. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Creswell, J. (2007). Qualitative inquiry and research deisgn: Choosing among five approaches (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Crockett, J.B. (2002). Special education's role in preparing responsive leaders for inclusive schools. Remedial and Special Education, 23, 157-168. doi: 10.1177/07419325020230030401

Crosland, Kimberly, & Dunlap, Glen. (2012). Effective strategies for the inclusion of children with autism in general education classrooms. Behavior Modification, 36, 251-269.

Dempster, N. (2009). Leadership for Learning:

a framework synthesising recent research. EdVentures: Australian College of Educators.

DiPaola, Michael, Tschannen-Moran, Megan, & Walther-Thomas, Chriss. (2004). School Principals and Special Education: Creating the Context for Academic Success. Focus on Exceptional Children, 37(1), 1.

Hoppey, D., & McLeskey, J. (2010). A case study of principal leadership in an effective inclusive school. The Journal of Special Education, 46, 245-256. doi: 10.1177/0022466910390507

Horrocks, J.L., White, G., & Roberts, L. (2008). Principals' attitudes regarding inclusion of children with autis in Pennsylvania public schools. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 38, 1462-1473. doi: 10.1007/s10803-007-0522-x

Humphrey, Neil, & Lewis, Sarah. (2008). What does ‘inclusion’ mean for pupils on the autistic spectrum in mainstream secondary schools? Journal of Research in Special Educational Needs, 8(3), 132-140. doi: 10.1111/j.1471-3802.2008.00115.x

Iovannone, R., Dunlap, G., Huber, J., & Kincaid, D. (2003). Effective educational practices for students with autism spectrum disorders. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 18(3), 150-165.

Kugelmass, J., & Ainscow, M. (2004). Leadership for inclusion: a comparison of international practices. Journal of Research in Special Educational Needs, 4, 133-141. doi: 10.1111/j.1471-3802.2004.00028.x

Leithwood, K., Day, C., Sammons, P., Harris, A., & Hopkins, D. (2006). Seven strong claims about successful school leadership. Nottingham, UK: National College for School Leadership.

Mrozowicz, E.A. (2009). Leader practices in an elementary school effectively serving a diverse student population, specifically students with autism spectrum disorder. (Doctor of Philosophy), Saint Louis University. (UMI Number: 3404023)

Praisner, C.L. (2003). Attitudes of elementary school principals toward the inclusion of students with disabilities. Exceptional Children, 69, 135-145.

Rhein, Barbara, Shaw, Stan F., Madaus, Joseph W., Simonsen, Brandi, Faggella-Luby, Michael, Alfano, Michael, Sugai, George. (2010). A Schoolwide Model for Service Delivery: Redefining Special Educators as Interventionists. Remedial

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and Special Education, 31(1), 17-23. doi: 10.1177/0741932508324396

Robinson, V., Hohepa, M., & Lloyd, C. (2007). School leadership and student outcomes: identifying what works and why - Best evidence synthesis iternation (BES). In ACEL (Ed.), ACEL Monograph Series. Wellington, NZ: Ministry of Education.

Shaddock, A., Giorcelli, L., & Smith, S. (2007). Students with disabilities in mainstream classrooms. A resource for teachers. Retrieved from: http://www.dow.catholic.edu.au/MSSD/Resources/Learning%20Support%20Centres/Students%20with%20disabilities%20in%20mainstream%20classes%20-%20A%20resource%20for%20teachers.pdf

Simpson, R.L., deBoer-Ott, S.R., & Smith-Myles, B. (2003). Inclusion of learners with Autism Spectrum Disorders in general education settings. Topics in Language Disorders, 23, 116-133.

Theoharis, George, & Causton, Julie. (2014). Leading inclusive reform for students with disabilities: a school- and systemwide approach. Theory into Practice, 53(2), 82.

Valeo, A. (2010). "Be strong; know what you need": A narrative on inclusive leadership. in Education, 16, 91-107.

Weller, Lynda G. (2012). Principals' attitudes toward inclusion: Including students with autism in elementary classrooms. (Dissertation/Thesis), ProQuest, UMI Dissertations Publishing.

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Professional standards for Australian Special Education Teachers: I. Dempsey & K. Dally

Professional standards for Australian Special Education

Teachers

If you’re an Australian Special Education teacher, please give us your views on the extent to which a set of draft

statements describing the essential work of special education teachers apply to you. This research is beingconducted by Associate Professor Ian Dempsey and Dr.

Kerry Dally from the University of Newcastle.

If you’d like more information about this research, please follow the link below and if, after reading the Information Statement you agree to participate, you can complete the

questionnaire online.

Kind regards,Ian Dempsey and Kerry Dally

newcastle.edu.au/survey0066


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Refereed Papers

ThE wAy fORwARD fOR STuDEnTS wITh ASD: ImpLEmEnTIng STRucTuRED TEAchIng

Anna Bortoli, Gail Preston, Eastern Ranges SchoolMargaret Brown, Research Consultant

AbstrACtThis paper first describes how a school for students with Autism Spectrum Disorder underwent significant whole-school change in both its philosophy and practice. The second part of the paper reports the results of a study investigating changes in teacher practices and outcomes for the students following the implementation of a structured teaching approach. Data were gathered on nine teachers and 27 students. Results showed that all teachers changed their practice but to differing degrees. The major changes were to the way in which they used visual schedules, and the way they set up activities. Similarly, changes were evident for the students for all items, with the most dramatic changes being for independence, the use of visual schedules and use of work stations. Teachers’ increasing use of visual schedules was positively associated with students’ task attention and completion, and teacher’s increased careful planning of activities was positively associated with student use of work stations. These results suggest that with a clear philosophy and carefully planned change processes that are underpinned by a mentoring programme, teachers can bring about clear and positive changes in their practice which have a rapid impact on outcomes for students with autism.

IntroDuCtIonAutism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a complex condition. It is a neurological developmental disability affecting several adaptive skills such as daily living skills, communication, behaviour

and social interaction (Mesibov & Howley, 2003; Wing, 2004). The deficits in these domains jeapordize students’ learning, and the quality of their interactions and relationships (Goodman & Williams, 2007), with particular difficulty in relating to others and interpreting verbal and non-verbal communication. Their behaviour is often interpreted as non-compliance (Marks, Shaw-Hegwer, Schrader, Longaker, Peters, Powers et al., 2003) and is characterised by inflexible thinking and intolerance to change (Pittman, 2008). As a result, students with ASD are more likely to avoid interpersonal interactions, show an increase in inappropriate behaviour, and risk becoming disengaged in their learning. From a cognitive perspective, students with ASD have also been found to display difficulty in attending and executing tasks (Hume & Reynolds, 2010; Pittman, 2008). These skills of planning and organisation are governed by the executive function system (Hill, 2004). According to research, executive functioning enables an individual to plan, organise and execute a skill with some degree of precision and fluidity. Therefore, everyday classroom expectations of sustaining attention, remembering the sequence of events in a day and remaining organised for each event, become challenging for the student with ASD (Hume & Reynolds, 2010). In summary, autism impacts the way in which the individual processes information (Rao & Gagie, 2006). While every child with ASD is unique, there is still commonality and

Correspondence: Dr Anna Bortoli, Eastern Ranges School, PO Box 400, Ferntree Gully Vic 3156; phone 03 9758 3772; fax 03 9758 2936; email [email protected].

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A. Bortoli, G. Preston & M. Brown

predictability in the behavioural features of this group of students which has led to the notion of “A Culture of Autism” (Mesibov et al., 2003). Due to the distinct features of ASD and increasing awareness of this condition, there is a need for teachers to gain more information about effective educational approaches to address the learning and behavioural styles of this group of student. One such approach is Structured Teaching, which is a key element of the TEACCH (Treatment and Education of Autistic and related Communication handicapped CHildren) framework, established in the 1960s at the University of North Carolina.Planning to meet the learning, behavioural, and social needs of students with ASD requires teachers to differentiate in the same way as for students without ASD (Pittman, 2008). Research shows that an effective differentiated practice requires the application of structure and, while there is no single definition of ‘best practice’, Rao and Gagie (2006) recommend adopting approaches that are based on the use of visual structure. A focus on visual structure for students with ASD is further supported by Cohen (1998) who contends that students with ASD prefer to learn using visual rather than auditory modes. The use of visual structure enables the student with ASD to understand the expectations placed upon them. For instance, according to Hodgdon (2000), while educators can continually repeat verbal instruction, there is no guarantee that the student will understand. The application of visual structure, however, is more likely to engage the student with ASD in the learning environment with greater success regardless of their ability (Rao & Gagie, 2006). Rogers (2000) is of the view that teachers are more likely to implement approaches that are not only evidence-based but also field-tested as they are more likely to be effective and of practical use. The use of visual structure is one such evidence-based practice that emanates from the research of Division TEACCH (Goodman & Williams, 2007). The TEACCH framework has been applied to the teaching of students with ASD for more than 40 years, and it is inclusive, as the key elements can be generalised to more than one environment in which the student engages (Mesibov et al., 2003). A further key element of TEACCH is Structured Teaching, which highlights the use of visual supports and physical structure to encourage maximum

independence in the environments in which the student is involved (Ryan, Hughes, Katsiyannis, McDaniel & Sprinkle, 2011). Structured Teaching was designed specifically to teach to the “Culture of Autism”, and includes four critical components that are deemed necessary to address the learning style of these students in order to reduce the anxiety they commonly experience. The four components of Structured Teaching are the physical structure, the use of a work system, the use of visual schedules and how teachers organise tasks. Attention to the physical structure of the classroom involves teachers de-cluttering the classroom, removing potential distracting elements and reducing stimulation. The use of a work system is individualised and conveys to the student what work needs to be completed, how much work is to be done, how to track progress towards completion and what to do next. Visual schedules are also individualised and serve as permanent cues for the students as to where and with whom tasks are to be undertaken. The organisation of tasks involves teachers setting up activities in a way that reinforces reflective problem solving and which addresses the students’ distractibility and attention needs.Structured Teaching requires the teacher and support staff to prepare and organise themselves and the learning opportunities in such a way that will increase the student’s access to the curriculum (Pittman, 2008). The structure that is provided aims to support the student in becoming engaged with learning, organised, and understanding the demands that are placed upon them. By addressing these critical areas, it has been posited that the anxiety created over the misunderstanding of information is likely to reduce (Pittman, 2008). In summary, the Structured Teaching approach requires the learning environment to be arranged in such a way that it will meet the unique learning style of these students (Bennett, Reichow & Wolery, 2011; Ryan et al., 2011), promote independence (Carnahan, Hume, Clarke & Borders, 2009) and increase student engagement in the tasks presented to them (Goodman & Williams, 2007). Unless teachers are equipped with the knowledge underpinning this approach, they will continue to plan without understanding the learning needs of this group of student (Pittman, 2008). As a result, the characteristics of ASD will continue to interfere with their learning and lead to a

41

Refereed paper: Implementing structured teaching

decrease in student engagement (Goodman & Williams, 2007; Harrower & Dunlap, 2001).

This paper outlines the model which a school specialising in the education of students with ASD has adopted, and describes the process by which the school underwent a change to its philosophy and teaching practice. The results of a small study measuring the effects of this change are reported. The aims of this study were twofold. The first aim was to investigate how the implementation of Structured Teaching could change teaching practice within the school. The second aim was to investigate whether the introduction of Structured Teaching would significantly change student engagement.

MEthoD

setting and backgroundThe study was conducted in a specialist school for students with ASD, located in the outskirts of Melbourne. Currently the school caters for students who are in the first year of school through to students who are in the first year of their secondary education. By 2018 the school will have expanded and provide programs to Year 12. The school’s enrolment criteria are threefold. First, the students must have a confirmed diagnosis of ASD based on the DSM-V criteria and a Vineland Adaptive Behaviour score of two or more standard deviations below the mean; they must also have an intellectual disability (with an IQ score of 70 or below) and finally a severe language disorder in both expressive and receptive language as well as a severe pragmatic disorder. In total, the school currently employs 25 teachers and 25 teacher assistants. All teachers have a formal teaching qualification and must have teacher registration with the Victorian Institute of Teaching. Most teachers also have an additional qualification in special education. The class sizes range between five and eight students, with each classroom supported by a full-time teacher assistant. In 2011, the three members of the Principal Class Officer (PCO) team undertook a literature review on evidence-based teaching practices for students with ASD. Using McWilliam’s (1999) criteria on controversial practices, the PCO team analysed and compared several teaching approaches. McWilliam identified

five criteria which were: claims of a cure; questionable research; the presence of legal issues; cost of the approach; and intensity of the approach. The analysis showed that the Structured Teaching approach was not only upheld as an evidence- based practice, but it was a field-tested approach (Rogers, 2000). It was therefore considered by the PCO team to be a recommended practice for this school. In 2012 the PCO team participated in a five-day summer training program with Division TEACCH in Chapel Hill, North Carolina. This confirmed that the implementation of Structured Teaching was an appropriate course to take. On returning from this training programme, the PCO team worked on setting up a model for the future development of the school. The model that was developed consisted of three tiers. The fundamental tier consists of foundational aspects such as a clear mission, adoption of research based practice, organisational clarity, internal communication, accountability, collegiality and partnerships. Essentially, this is the role of the PCO team. The middle tier focuses on individual teacher performance aspects such as data-driven assessment and teaching, classroom ecological management, personalising the curriculum to individual students, transitions, adoption of structured teaching and development of partnerships. Success of the model would be assessed at the top tier (school performance) which would be measured in terms of how the school made a difference to individuals, within the school itself, beyond the school and in society.

Ethical considerationsVictorian schools and the Victorian DEECD share a commitment to continual, evidenced-based improvement in teaching and learning and to improving student outcomes. Schools set the direction for school improvement by developing local, evidence-based initiatives and innovations that support continued improvement of teaching and learning (Department of Education and Early Childhood Development, 2013). The DEECD promotes and supports schools in evidence-based practice and the sharing of case study models of practice. Therefore, the Principal has the authority to give ethics approval for school based research. At Eastern Ranges School, parents understand that research assists in the evaluation and development of the school’s practice to improve student learning

42


gained were unlike anything previously seen at the foundation level. All students were able to generalise and maintain their skills over extended periods of time and within differing conditions whilst demonstrating continuous engagement in their learning’.

On the basis of the reported success of the pilot, two school policy documents were developed which were presented to, and endorsed by, the School Council. Subsequently, a professional development programme, conducted by the PCO team, was delivered to all staff at a pupil-free day, to introduce the whole school to the principles of Structured Teaching, present the results of the pilot programme, and outline the future direction of the school.Having made this decision to introduce Structured Teaching on a school-wide basis, the first two authors of this paper (who are part of the PCO team), returned to Division TEACCH in early 2013 to complete Advanced Training in Structured Teaching. In term 2 of the 2013 school year, the first-named author developed a coaching program to implement the Structured Teaching approach. She was the main coach and was supported by the two Leading Teachers of the school who shadowed her coaching in each classroom. The coaching model consisted of a two-week intervention period for each classroom at a set time three times a week (Monday, Tuesday and Thursday). For some teachers this was extended until they felt more confident in the approach. The Leading Teachers gradually began to coach independently of the main coach. Where there were identified challenges with classroom dynamics, the main coach and a Leading Teacher coach worked together. The formal coaching program was completed within a 9-week period, with the coaching team returning to classrooms to trouble-shoot and review practices with the teacher and the teacher assistant as required.

Impact of the implementation of structured teachingThis study adopted a combined quantitative and qualitative approach to data collection. Data were collected from two primary sources: questionnaires and minutes of staff meetings.

opportunities, and so, when parents enrol their child, the parents give consent for their child to be subjects for research conducted either by ERS or with a University. An explanation about the study and an information session was held with the teachers who were randomly selected and invited to participate in this study. An information package was given to these teachers outlining the aim and purpose of the study and what the expectations would be should they consider being a participant. These teachers completed a consent form which was included in the package. Later in 2012, a Structured Teaching pilot programme was implemented in five classrooms by the first author who acted as a coach. Five teachers were selected by the PCO team on the basis of their willingness to implement changes to their classrooms and their approach. At the end of the pilot, the teachers reported back about the changes that had been made, not only to their classrooms and their practice, but also in terms of the children’s outcomes. For instance, ‘Anne’ reported

‘… many changes were observed in student learning and my own classroom teaching practices’ and ‘Developing a whole-school approach to teaching’ would provide ‘a shared language and more unified method for reaching our students’ unique learning needs. It challenged my thinking about teaching and learning’.

‘Jane’ commented‘Structured Teaching brought about a positive change to my personal teaching philosophy as it provided clarity’.

‘Grace’ was a graduate teacher who listed many changes in her students as a result of reducing distractions in the classroom and the introduction of structured routines and workstations. She also found that

‘Students working independently at individual stations around the room gave me the opportunity to free myself up and observe the students, make observations and collect important data’.

‘Jane’ also noted that‘The flexibility, independence, confidence and organisational skills the students

43


Instrumentation and data collectionQuestionnairesThe first source of data came from teachers’ responses to questionnaires which probed for information about the effectiveness of Structured Teaching on teaching style and student engagement. There were two questionnaires. The first questionnaire was concerned with the teachers and the organisation of their classrooms, and the second questionnaire was focussed on describing their students’ current classroom engagement and performance. Copies of the questionnaires are given in the Appendices to this paper. The teacher questionnaire was divided into three sections. The first section was open-ended, asking the teachers to describe their classroom. The second section contained a total of 10 statements to which the participants indicated their response as either ‘not true’, ‘unsure’, ‘almost true’ or ‘true’. These were allocated scores of 0, 1, 2 and 3 respectively. Collectively, nine of the items covered five main areas: the structure of teaching activities, the visual structure and visual schedules, the physical structure of the classroom, student independence, and data collection as a basis for planning individualised activities. One item gathered data on how dependent the students were on verbal prompts. The final section of the teacher questionnaire consisted of five open-ended questions requesting teachers to describe their teaching style, the use of visual schedules, work systems, the use of data collecting and areas for improvement in their practice. The student questionnaire was also divided into three sections. In the first section, which was open-ended, the teacher was asked to describe the student’s classroom. In a similar manner to the teacher questionnaire, section 2 had a total of 10 items rating individual students’ attention, independent task completion, use of visual schedules, use of work systems and their understanding of symbols on their visual schedules. The teacher indicated their response as ‘not true’, ‘unsure’, ‘almost true’ or ‘true’ and which were allocated scores of 0, 1, 2 and 3 respectively. One item addressed the degree to which the student was dependent on teacher verbal prompts. The final section of the student questionnaire consisted of five open-ended questions, which gave the teachers the opportunity to comment on the student’s current functioning. These questions focused

on describing the student’s behaviours relating to anxiety, their level of independence, their motivators, their use of visual schedules, and their work system. The two questionnaires were distributed to a group of 10 teachers who were selected from the staff of 25 based across the range of their teaching experience. Of these 10 teachers completed questionnaires were received from nine. This group of teachers was female with an age range of 25-50 years. Three participants had a formal special education qualification, while the remaining six had commenced or were about to complete postgraduate study in special education. All participants had been working in a specialist setting for more than five years. Each teacher received one teacher questionnaire and three student questionnaires and they were asked to select three students randomly from their class. The questionnaires were completed at two points in the year. The first point was at the commencement of the school year in February, which was prior to the coaching in Structured Teaching in Term 2, and the next point of data collection was post coaching, in August (Term 3). Minutes of staff meetingsThe second source of data came from minutes of the school’s staff meeting. These meetings were held fortnightly, and a major item on the agenda was student behavioural issues. Baseline data were collected from student behaviour issues reported at staff meetings and minuted from February to August in 2011. Comparative data were collected in 2013 over the same period February to August. Data from 2012 were excluded as it was the training year for the PCO team and the implementation of the pilot. The data collected related to the frequency of student issues raised by the staff.

rEsultsFor both questionnaires, there was a 90% return rate. For the current study, only items from section 2 of the questionnaires were analysed. The responses were compared using T-tests for dependent samples to investigate possible changes over time for each item. For the teacher questionnaire, statistically significant changes (one tailed) were found for nine of the ten items. The item concerned with the teachers’ observations of student dependence on verbal prompts (item 10) was

44


not significant. As Figure 1 shows, at Time 1, the teachers felt that they did not perform well on any of the items with the highest score being 1.44 (out of a possible 3) for item 6 ‘fostering of student independence’. Their major weaknesses were the structure of their teaching activities (item 1), the individualisation of their visual schedules (item 3) and basing their activities on data collection (item 9). The most significant of the gains were for item 3 the individualisation of their visual schedules (Mean T1 = .33: Mean T2 = 3.00, t = 8.00, p < .01) and item 1 the structure of their teaching activities (Mean T1 = .22: Mean T2 = 2.78, t = 10.55, p < .01).For the student questionnaire, statistically significant differences (one tailed) between T1 and T2 were also found for all of the items. The item concerned with student dependence on verbal prompts (item 4) showed a statistically significant decrease (Mean T1 = 2.30: Mean T2 = 1.50, T = 3.10, p< .01). These results are shown in Figure 2.As this figure shows, the teachers reported that the students had few strengths at Time 1. The students were seen as very dependent on verbal prompts (item 4) with a score of 2.3 out of 3. They had low scores for item 6 (independently using the work system) [0.19], item 7 (independently taking their schedule to

the work station) [0.3] and Item 10 (spending a balanced time between work stations) [0.33]. These were also the items on which the most significant gains were found. For instance, at Time 2, item 6 had increased to 2.63 (T = 14.25, p < .001), item 7 had increased to 2.3 (T = 8.83, p < .001) and item 10 to 2.59 (T = 12.43, p < .001).It should be noted that sometimes the content of the items in the questionnaire overlapped. For example, in the teacher questionnaire, Item 2 ‘The physical structure of the classroom is organised’ overlapped with Item 5 ‘The physical structure of the classroom emphasises independence’. Both items address the physical structure but from a different perspective. Combining items in different ways thus enabled composite variables to be created. This was done in the following ways. Items 2 and 5 were summed and a mean calculated to create the variable ‘Physical structure’; Items 3, 4, 7 and 8 were used to create ‘Use of Visual Schedules’, Items 5 and 6 combined to make ‘Fostering Independence’, and Items 1 and 9 were used to create ‘Structuring Activities’. Note that Item 5 was used twice, once for the Physical Structure variable and also for the Fostering Independence variable. In a similar manner, four composite variables were made using the items in the

Figure 1 Teacher questionnaire responses at Time 1 and Time 2.

45


student questionnaire. Student Independence was created by summing and calculating the mean of Items 2, 3 6, 7, and 8. Using the Visual Schedule Appropriately was created from Items 3, 5, 7, 8, and 9. Items 6, 7 and 10 were used to create the composite variable Appropriate Use of the Work Station; and Task Attention and Completion was created from Items 1 and 2. The next analysis sought to investigate whether changes in the teacher composite variables were associated with changes in the students. To calculate reported change both in teacher and child, the Time 1 scores were subtracted from the Time 2 scores for each of the composite variables. These teacher and student composite variable change scores were then subjected to a series of correlations (two tailed). Two significant correlations were found. First, teacher Use of Visual Schedules was found to be positively associated with student Task Attention and Completion (r = 412, p < .05) and teacher Structuring Activities was correlated with student Appropriate Use of the Work Station (r = .543, p < .01). Data from staff MeetingsOne agenda item at the staff meeting each month provided teachers with the opportunity

to raise issues concerned with behaviour in relation to their students and their management of that behaviour. Previously, these student issues related to classroom and playground management, anxiety and frustration leading to property damage, harm to self and others, and student engagement strategies. Prior to the introduction of structured teaching, the reporting of student issues was frequent and regular. For example, in February 2011, 18 student issues were raised. Given that February is the first full month of term 1 in Australia, this number is not surprising as students and teachers become familiarised with each other. During the period from March to July, however, this evened out to about 8 issues per month. In August the number of issues was 3. In 2013, the range of student issues was narrowed and related to the less structured sessions in the school day such as playground behaviour. For the same reporting period in 2013, the number of student issues being reported had decreased and for the months of June and August no student issues were reported. Importantly, 2013 was a major transition year for the school for two reasons. First the school had relocated to a new site and secondly, this was the first year of implementation of structured teaching after the coaching period. Despite these factors, the

Figure 2 Student questionnaire response at Time 1 and Time 2.

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frequency and number of reports at staff meeting remained less than for the year of 2011. Figure 1 shows the number of student reported issues during the years of 2011 and 2013.

DIsCussIonThis paper has described the processes adopted by the school to implement a Structured Teaching approach. The process was carefully developed and led by the PCO team. Implementing major change is a complex process (Fullan, 2005) which has risks. Such risks affect all those involved: the students, their teachers, parents, other stakeholders, and those who seek to bring about change. To minimise these potential risks, change should be underpinned by a moral purpose (Fullan) and implemented with attendant support. The coaching model used here allowed teachers to be guided through change at their own pace and to work towards achieving performance in line with what was now expected throughout the school.The model the school adopted incorporated Structured Teaching practices that have been researched and shown to be successful as they aim directly to address the characteristics and culture of autism spectrum disorder. Inherent in this approach is careful planning and structuring

of activities within clear routines, organisation of the student’s environment to minimise distraction and enhance focus, and the use of visual prompts that are unambiguous. Adopting the same approach throughout the whole school will enable several things. First, there will be smoother transitions within the school as children move from teacher to teacher each year. Second, when the approach is coupled with strong partnerships with agencies beyond the school years those transitions will also be smoother. Third, parents will have a clearer understanding of how their children learn best and, with support, will be able to implement similar strategies adapted for the home. They will also have higher expectations of their children. Teachers, likewise, should have higher expectations of their students’ learning since their teaching practices dovetail with the students’ learning characteristics.The second part of this paper reported the results of an initial study which was designed to measure change in the teachers’ practices and students’ outcomes. Structured Teaching is a component of TEACCH that focuses on structuring the student’s environment in ways that are responsive to the behavioural array characteristic of autism spectrum disorder. The

Figure 3 Student issues reported at staff meetings.

47


major components of structured teaching are the fostering of student independence, attention and task completion through careful analysis and structuring of tasks, the use of visual schedules and work stations, and organisation of the classroom to minimise the possibility of over stimulation. The results showed that the teachers’ reports of their practices in relation to setting up their classrooms had changed from the start of the study to its completion in many ways. In particular, the teachers felt that they had made major changes to individualising student schedules and structuring their teaching activities which were two of their weakest elements prior to the implementation of the coaching programme.The major changes for the students were reported as increasing independence in using their work systems and their work schedules and balancing out their attention to different tasks. They became less dependent on verbal prompts from the teacher. Such increased independence in the classroom has advantages not only for individual students’ learning, but also for the teacher’s management of the classroom and behaviour. As Grace noted at the end of the pilot programme:

‘The physical room was reorganized to be "autism friendly" to minimise distractions, e.g, the room was de-cluttered, stationery was put away in a cupboard, displays on walls were taken down and individual areas were set up in the room - a computer area, quiet area, listening post and a couple of workstations consisting of table, chair and in and out work trays.’‘Students presented with less anxiety and were more productive.’

Grace also noted a marked reduction in noise levels in the classroom and that behaviours in general improved. This trend was confirmed in the data from the staff meetings, showing reduced concerns over student behaviour and teacher behaviour management. A reduction in behavioural issues in the classroom coupled with increased student independence has the effect of enabling the teacher to spend more time in positive support of individual students, observations of students and the collection of student data on which to base forward planning. An additional advantage would likely be less

teacher stress.The correlational analysis showed that when teachers increased their use of easily understood visual schedules students were more able to complete tasks and maintain their focus on the task. Similarly, the teachers’ increased skill in structuring the students’ activities was positively associated with more appropriate use of the work station. Clearly then, the time teachers spend in preparation of the activities and the structure provided for the students has very important benefits for the student.Although the results found here are pleasing, there are some limitations which should be noted. First, this was a very small sample of teachers and students. The school had gone through an important change process and, as a result, a small number of teachers were invited to participate in the initial pilot study by providing feedback about their experiences of implementing Structured Teaching. These teachers were selected because of their positive attitude to improving their practice. Secondly, for the questionnaire data, teachers were randomly selected to participate based on their years of teaching experience. Only 10 teachers were selected because the school had undergone major change, and of this sample, one teacher did not return any questionnaires. It is possible that the nine teachers who did respond were coincidentally those who positively embraced change, or felt most confident about their understanding of how to implement Structured Teaching. Thirdly, the data collected were representative of teachers’ views about their practices and their students’ outcomes and it is not possible to gauge the accuracy of those views. At the time of the research the focus was on developing an understanding of the structured teaching process in terms of students and teachers. Developing this approach in the classroom we believed would lead to a positive learning climate and thence to improved student learning outcomes. Further research into the educational outcomes for these students measured against AusVELS benchmarks is required. In light of these limitations, further independent research is needed to document teacher and student change over a broader sample. In summary, this research demonstrates how a school underwent significant change in its adoption of an approach based on practices that

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are upheld by field-tested and research evidence. The leadership team carefully planned each stage in the change process and supported its staff through that change. Further research is planned to document outcomes for the school as it expands and consolidates its approach.

rEFErEnCEsBennett, K., Reichow, B., & Wolery, (2011).

Effects of structured teaching on the behaviour of young children with disabilities. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 26(3), 143-152.

Carnahan, C. R., Hume, K., Clarke, L. & Borders, C. (2009). Using structured work systems to promote independence and engagement for students with Autism Spectrum Disorders. Teaching Exceptional Children, 47(4), 6-14.

Cohen, S. (1998). Targeting autism: What we know, don’t know, and can do to help young children with autism. Berkley, CA: University of California Press.

Department of Education and Early Childhood Development. (2013). The Compact: Roles and responsibilities in Victorian government school education. Communications Division for Priority Policy Division: Melbourne.

Goodman, G., & Williams, C.M. (2007). Interventions for increasing the academic engagement of stduents with autism spectrum disorders in inclusive classrooms. Teaching Exceptional Children, 39(6), 53-61.

Harrower, J.K., & Dunlap, G. (2001). Including children with autism in general education classroom: A review of effective strategies. Behaviour Modification, 25, 762-784.

Hill, E. (2004). Executive dysfunction in autism. TRENDS in Cognitive Sciences, 8, 26-32.

Hodgdon, L. (2000). Visual strategies for improving communication: Practical supports for school and home. Troy, MI: Quirk Roberts.

Hume, K., & Reynolds, B. (2010). Implementing work systems across the school day: Increasing engagement in students with autism spectrum disorders. Preventing School Failure, 54(4), 228-237.

McWilliam, R.A. (1999). Controversial practices: The need for a reacculturation of early intervention fields. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 19(3), 177-188.

Marks, S.U., Shaw-Hegwer, J., Schrader, C., Longaker, T., Peters, I., Powers, F., et al. (2003). Instructional management tips for

teachers of students with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Teaching Exceptional Children, 35, 50-55)

Mesibov, G., & Howley, M. (2003). Accessing the curriculum for pupils with autistic spectrum disorders. Using the TEACCH programme to help inclusion. Oxford: David Fulton Publishers.

Pittman, M.J. (2008). Helping students with Autistic Spectrum Disorders to learn. Melbourne: Hawker Brownlow Education.

Rao. S., & Gagie, B. (2006). Learning through seeing and doing: Visual supports for children with autism. Teaching Exceptional Children, 38(6), 26-33.

Rogers, S.J. (2000). Interventions that facilitate socialisation in children with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 30, 399-409.

Ryan, J.B., Hughes, E.M., Katsiyannis, A., McDaniel, M., & Sprinkle, C. (2011). Research-based educational practices for students with autism spectrum disorders. Teaching Exceptional Children, 43(3), 56-64.

Sparrow, S.S., Cicchetti, D.V. & Balla, D. A. (2006). Vineland Adaptive Behaviour Scales, 2nd edition. Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service.

Wing, L. (1998). The autistic spectrum. A guide for parents and professionals. Great Britain: Constable.

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Appendix 1

Teacher Questionnaire Items

In my classroom...

No.

Item

Not true

Unsure

Somewhat

true

True

1

Teaching activities are stabilised

2

The physical structure of the classroom is organised

3

Visual schedules are individualised

4

Visual schedules communicate “where and who” to the students

5

The physical structure emphasises independence

6

Teacher instruction encourages independence

7

Visual schedules are clearly accessible to the students

8

Visual structure of the activities encourages independence

9

Set tasks are based on regular data collection

10

Students rely on verbal instruction

50

A. Bortoli, G. Preston, M. Brown

Appendix 2

Student Questionnaire Items

This student...

No.

Item

Not true

Unsure

Somewhat

true

True

1

Has increased attention to set tasks

2

Independently completes set tasks

3

Independently reads a visual schedule

4

Waits for teacher verbal instruction

5

Locates their visual schedule

6

Independently uses an individualised work system

7

Independently takes their visual schedule to their work stations

8

Independently checks their visual schedule

9

Understands the “my choice or break” symbol on their visual schedule

10

Spends a balanced time between different work stations

51

Notes

52

Notes

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