Spirituality, Religion, Spirituality, Religion, and the Supernaturaland the Supernatural

Part IPart I

What Are Religion and What Are Religion and Spirituality?Spirituality?

Religion is an organized system of Religion is an organized system of ideas about spiritual reality, or the ideas about spiritual reality, or the supernatural, along with associated supernatural, along with associated beliefs and ceremonial practices.beliefs and ceremonial practices.

Spirituality, which also concerns the Spirituality, which also concerns the supernatural, involves less formalized supernatural, involves less formalized spiritual beliefs and practices and is spiritual beliefs and practices and is often individual rather than collective.often individual rather than collective.

What Functions Do Religion What Functions Do Religion and Spirituality Serve?and Spirituality Serve?

All religions serve a number of All religions serve a number of important functions:important functions:– They reduce anxiety by explaining the They reduce anxiety by explaining the

unknown and offer comfort in times of unknown and offer comfort in times of crisis. crisis.

– They provide notions of right and wrong, They provide notions of right and wrong, setting precedents for acceptable setting precedents for acceptable behavior.behavior.

– Through ritual, religion may be used to Through ritual, religion may be used to enhance the learning of oral traditions.enhance the learning of oral traditions.

Spirituality, Religion, and the Spirituality, Religion, and the Supernatural:Supernatural:

From an anthropological point of view, From an anthropological point of view, spirituality and religion are part of a cultural spirituality and religion are part of a cultural system’s superstructure. system’s superstructure.

In their studies of different religious and In their studies of different religious and spiritual beliefs and practices, spiritual beliefs and practices, anthropologists seek to remain unbiased anthropologists seek to remain unbiased regarding any particular cultural tradition regarding any particular cultural tradition

Worldview: the collective body of ideas that Worldview: the collective body of ideas that members of a culture generally share members of a culture generally share concerning the ultimate shape and substance concerning the ultimate shape and substance of their reality of their reality

Spirituality, Religion, and the Spirituality, Religion, and the Supernatural:Supernatural:

Spiritual or religious beliefs and Spiritual or religious beliefs and practicespractices– fulfill numerous social and psychological fulfill numerous social and psychological

needsneeds– gives meaning to individual and group lifegives meaning to individual and group life– provide the path by which people provide the path by which people

transcend their burdensome and mortal transcend their burdensome and mortal existence and attain spiritual hope and existence and attain spiritual hope and reliefrelief

Spirituality, Religion, and the Spirituality, Religion, and the Supernatural:Supernatural:

Religion and spirituality also serve as Religion and spirituality also serve as array of social needs:array of social needs:– reinforces group mornsreinforces group morns– provides moral sanctions for individual provides moral sanctions for individual

conductconduct– furnishes the ideology of common furnishes the ideology of common

purpose and values that support the purpose and values that support the well-being of the communitywell-being of the community

Spirituality, Religion, and the Spirituality, Religion, and the Supernatural:Supernatural:

People often turn to religion or People often turn to religion or spirituality in the hope of reaching a spirituality in the hope of reaching a specific goal, such as the healing of specific goal, such as the healing of physical, emotional, or social illsphysical, emotional, or social ills

Anthropologists know of no group of Anthropologists know of no group of people anywhere on the face of the people anywhere on the face of the earth who, at any time over the past earth who, at any time over the past 100,000 years, has been without 100,000 years, has been without some manifestation of spirituality or some manifestation of spirituality or religionreligion

Spirituality, Religion, and the Spirituality, Religion, and the Supernatural:Supernatural:

In the 19th century, the European In the 19th century, the European intellectual tradition gave rise to the idea intellectual tradition gave rise to the idea that modern science would ultimately that modern science would ultimately replace religion by showing people the replace religion by showing people the irrationality of their spiritual beliefs and irrationality of their spiritual beliefs and practices.practices.– The expectation was that as valid scientific The expectation was that as valid scientific

explanations became available, people would explanations became available, people would abandon their religious beliefs and rituals as abandon their religious beliefs and rituals as superstitious myths and false worship. superstitious myths and false worship.

– To date, despite tremendous scientific To date, despite tremendous scientific advancements, that has not occurred. advancements, that has not occurred.

Spirituality, Religion, and the Spirituality, Religion, and the Supernatural:Supernatural:

Although traditional, mainline Christian Although traditional, mainline Christian religions have shown some decline, religions have shown some decline, nondenominational spirituality is on the rise. nondenominational spirituality is on the rise.

Also on the rise are fundamentalist religions, Also on the rise are fundamentalist religions, which often take a strong antiscience position. which often take a strong antiscience position.

Examples include Islamic fundamentalist in Examples include Islamic fundamentalist in countries such as Afghanistan, Algeria, and countries such as Afghanistan, Algeria, and Iran; Jewish fundamentalism in Israel and the Iran; Jewish fundamentalism in Israel and the United States; and Hindu fundamentalism in United States; and Hindu fundamentalism in India. India.

Spirituality, Religion, and the Spirituality, Religion, and the Supernatural:Supernatural:

Among the fastest growing religious Among the fastest growing religious communities in the world are the indigenous communities in the world are the indigenous churches of Africachurches of Africa

Within the United States, non-Christian Within the United States, non-Christian religions are also growing. religions are also growing. – Islam (3 to 5 million followers – up from 527,000 Islam (3 to 5 million followers – up from 527,000

in 1990)in 1990)– Buddhism (2 to 3 million – up from 401,000 in Buddhism (2 to 3 million – up from 401,000 in

1990)1990)– Hinduism (1.28 million – up from 227,000 in 1990)Hinduism (1.28 million – up from 227,000 in 1990)

Major Religions of the WorldMajor Religions of the World

The Anthropological Approach The Anthropological Approach to Religion:to Religion:

Anthropologist Anthony F. C. Wallace believes Anthropologist Anthony F. C. Wallace believes that the major functions of religion are to that the major functions of religion are to reduce anxiety and boost confidence, thereby reduce anxiety and boost confidence, thereby helping people cope with realityhelping people cope with reality

Religion: an organized system of ideas about Religion: an organized system of ideas about the spiritual sphere or the supernatural, along the spiritual sphere or the supernatural, along with associated ceremonial practices by which with associated ceremonial practices by which people try to interpret and/or influence aspects people try to interpret and/or influence aspects of the universe otherwise beyond their control of the universe otherwise beyond their control

Spirituality: concern with the sacred, as Spirituality: concern with the sacred, as distinguished from material mattersdistinguished from material matters

The Anthropological Approach The Anthropological Approach to Religion:to Religion:

Since no known culture, including those of Since no known culture, including those of modern industrial societies, has achieved modern industrial societies, has achieved complete certainty in controlling existing or complete certainty in controlling existing or future conditions and circumstances, future conditions and circumstances, spirituality and/or religion play a role in all spirituality and/or religion play a role in all known cultures. known cultures.

At one end of the spectrum are food-At one end of the spectrum are food-foraging peoplesforaging peoples– Among food foragers religion is likely to be Among food foragers religion is likely to be

inseparable from the rest of daily lifeinseparable from the rest of daily life At the other end of the spectrum is Western At the other end of the spectrum is Western

civilizationcivilization– Here religion is less a part of daily activities and Here religion is less a part of daily activities and

is restricted to more specific occasionsis restricted to more specific occasions

The Practice of Religion:The Practice of Religion: Beliefs and ceremonial practices of Beliefs and ceremonial practices of

religions vary considerably. religions vary considerably. Rituals that seem bizarre to an Rituals that seem bizarre to an

outsider can be shown to serve the outsider can be shown to serve the same basic social and psychological same basic social and psychological functions as do his or her own functions as do his or her own distinct rituals distinct rituals

Supernatural Beings and Supernatural Beings and Prowess:Prowess:

A hallmark of religion is belief in A hallmark of religion is belief in supernatural beings and forcesupernatural beings and force

Beginning with spiritual beings, we Beginning with spiritual beings, we may divide them into three may divide them into three categories: categories: – major deities (gods and goddesses)major deities (gods and goddesses)– ancestral spiritsancestral spirits– other sorts of spirit beingsother sorts of spirit beings

Gods and Goddesses:Gods and Goddesses: Gods and goddesses are the great and Gods and goddesses are the great and

more remote beings. more remote beings.

They are usually seen as controlling the They are usually seen as controlling the universe. universe.

Gods and Goddesses:Gods and Goddesses: Polytheism: belief in several gods and/or Polytheism: belief in several gods and/or

goddesses goddesses – Such was the case with the gods and goddesses Such was the case with the gods and goddesses

of ancient Greece: Zeus was lord of the sky, of ancient Greece: Zeus was lord of the sky, Poseidon was ruler of the sea, and Hades was Poseidon was ruler of the sea, and Hades was lord of the underworld and ruler of the deadlord of the underworld and ruler of the dead

Pantheon: the several gods and goddesses Pantheon: the several gods and goddesses of a people.of a people.– Since states typically have grown through Since states typically have grown through

conquest, often their pantheons have expanded conquest, often their pantheons have expanded as local deities of conquered peoples were as local deities of conquered peoples were incorporated into the official state pantheon.incorporated into the official state pantheon.

Gods and Goddesses:Gods and Goddesses: Generally speaking, societies that Generally speaking, societies that

subordinate women to men define the subordinate women to men define the supreme deity in masculine terms. supreme deity in masculine terms. – Male-privileging religions developed in Male-privileging religions developed in

traditional societies with economies based traditional societies with economies based upon the herding of animals or intensive upon the herding of animals or intensive agriculture carried out or controlled by men, agriculture carried out or controlled by men, who are domination figures to their children. who are domination figures to their children.

– Goddesses, by contrast, are likely to be most Goddesses, by contrast, are likely to be most prominent in societies where women play a prominent in societies where women play a significant role in the economy, where women significant role in the economy, where women enjoy relative equality with men, and where enjoy relative equality with men, and where men are less controlling figures to their wives men are less controlling figures to their wives and childrenand children

Ancestral Spirits:Ancestral Spirits: A belief in ancestral spirits is consistent with A belief in ancestral spirits is consistent with

the widespread notion that human beings the widespread notion that human beings are made up of two closely intertwined are made up of two closely intertwined parts: a physical body and some mental parts: a physical body and some mental component or spiritual self. component or spiritual self.

Found in many parts of the world, especially Found in many parts of the world, especially among people having unilineal descent among people having unilineal descent systems with their associated ancestor systems with their associated ancestor orientation. orientation.

Particularly appropriate in a society of Particularly appropriate in a society of descent-based groups with their associated descent-based groups with their associated ancestor orientation. ancestor orientation. – these beliefs provide a strong sense of continuity these beliefs provide a strong sense of continuity

that links the past, present, and future.that links the past, present, and future.

Sacred Places: Sacred Places: Some religious traditions consider certain Some religious traditions consider certain

geographic places to be spiritually significant geographic places to be spiritually significant or even sacred. or even sacred.

Typically, such sites are rivers, lakes, Typically, such sites are rivers, lakes, waterfalls, islands, forests, caves and waterfalls, islands, forests, caves and mountains. mountains.

They are often associated with:They are often associated with:– origin mythsorigin myths– splendid abodes of the godssplendid abodes of the gods– dwelling places for the spirits of the deaddwelling places for the spirits of the dead– heights where prophets received their divine heights where prophets received their divine

directionsdirections– retreats for prayer, meditation, and vision questsretreats for prayer, meditation, and vision quests

Sacred Places: Sacred Places: Three sacred mountains are shared by the Three sacred mountains are shared by the

Jewish, Christian, and Muslim traditions. Jewish, Christian, and Muslim traditions. – Mount Ararat where the ark of the ancient Mount Ararat where the ark of the ancient

patriarch Noah is said to have landed after the patriarch Noah is said to have landed after the Great Flood. Great Flood.

– Mouth Horeb where the prophet Moses Mouth Horeb where the prophet Moses received the stone tablets with the ten sacred received the stone tablets with the ten sacred rules of behavior form his god. rules of behavior form his god.

– Mount Zion where Solomon, the Israelite kind, Mount Zion where Solomon, the Israelite kind, is believed to have been divinely ordered to is believed to have been divinely ordered to build the Great Temple and where an build the Great Temple and where an important Muslim mosque is located. important Muslim mosque is located.

Sacred Places: Sacred Places: Symbolic of the supreme being, or Symbolic of the supreme being, or

associated with various important associated with various important deities or ancestral spirits, sacred deities or ancestral spirits, sacred mountains may feature in religious mountains may feature in religious ceremonies or spiritual rituals. ceremonies or spiritual rituals. – In some religious traditions, these In some religious traditions, these

towering geographic features towering geographic features

Sacred PlacesSacred Places Pilgrims at Mount Kailash Pilgrims at Mount Kailash

in Tibet. Rising 22,000 in Tibet. Rising 22,000 feet, this mountain has feet, this mountain has been held sacred for been held sacred for thousands of years by thousands of years by Hindus, Buddhists, Jains, Hindus, Buddhists, Jains, and followers of Bön.and followers of Bön.

Year after year pilgrims Year after year pilgrims follow the ancient tradition follow the ancient tradition of circling the mountain on of circling the mountain on foot, a holy ritual they foot, a holy ritual they believe will remove sin believe will remove sin and bring good fortune. and bring good fortune.

Animism Animism Animism: a belief that nature is animated Animism: a belief that nature is animated

(enlivened or energized) by distinct (enlivened or energized) by distinct personalized spirit beings separable from personalized spirit beings separable from bodies.bodies.– Spirits such as souls and ghosts are thought to Spirits such as souls and ghosts are thought to

dwell in humans and animals but also in dwell in humans and animals but also in human-made artifacts, plants, stones, human-made artifacts, plants, stones, mountains, wells, and other natural features. mountains, wells, and other natural features.

Generally speaking though, they are less Generally speaking though, they are less remote than gods and goddesses and are remote than gods and goddesses and are more involved in people’s daily affairs. more involved in people’s daily affairs.

AnimismAnimism Animism is typical of those who see Animism is typical of those who see

themselves as being a part of nature themselves as being a part of nature rather than superior to it. rather than superior to it. – This includes most food foragersThis includes most food foragers– In such societies, gods and goddesses In such societies, gods and goddesses

are relatively unimportant, but the are relatively unimportant, but the woods are full or spirits. woods are full or spirits.

Animatism Animatism Animatism: a belief that nature is Animatism: a belief that nature is

enlivened or energized by an enlivened or energized by an impersonal spiritual power or impersonal spiritual power or supernatural potency. supernatural potency.

Notably, animism and animatism are Notably, animism and animatism are not mutually exclusive. not mutually exclusive. – They are often found in the same They are often found in the same

culture.culture.

QuestionQuestion _______________ may be defined as _______________ may be defined as

the beliefs and patterns of behavior the beliefs and patterns of behavior by which people try to control those by which people try to control those aspects of the universe that are aspects of the universe that are otherwise beyond their control.otherwise beyond their control.

A.A. Political organizationPolitical organizationB.B. B. GovernmentB. GovernmentC.C. C. KinshipC. KinshipD.D. Common-interest associationsCommon-interest associationsE.E. ReligionReligion

Answer: EAnswer: E ReligionReligion may be defined as the may be defined as the

beliefs and patterns of behavior by beliefs and patterns of behavior by which people try to control those which people try to control those aspects of the universe that are aspects of the universe that are otherwise beyond their control.otherwise beyond their control.

QuestionQuestion A people’s collection of gods and A people’s collection of gods and

goddesses is called a goddesses is called a _______________._______________.

A.A. ManaManaB.B. ShamanShamanC.C. PantheonPantheonD.D. PriestPriestE.E. FetishFetish

Answer: CAnswer: C A people’s collection of gods and A people’s collection of gods and

goddesses is called a goddesses is called a pantheon.pantheon.

QuestionQuestion The belief that nature is animated The belief that nature is animated

with spirits is called _______________.with spirits is called _______________.A.A. AnimationAnimationB.B. AnimaAnimaC.C. AnimatismAnimatismD.D. AnimismAnimismE.E. EnnuiEnnui

Answer: D Answer: D The belief that nature is animated The belief that nature is animated

with spirits is called with spirits is called animism.animism.

QuestionQuestion Which of the following is an example of Which of the following is an example of

animism?animism?A.A. a lucky baseball bata lucky baseball batB.B. the goddess Athena in Greek mythologythe goddess Athena in Greek mythologyC.C. the god Zeusthe god ZeusD.D. an ancestral spiritan ancestral spiritE.E. the malevolent spirit inside your baseball who the malevolent spirit inside your baseball who

jumps erratically through the air just as you think jumps erratically through the air just as you think you're about to hit a home runyou're about to hit a home run

Answer: EAnswer: E The malevolent spirit inside your The malevolent spirit inside your

baseball who jumps erratically baseball who jumps erratically through the air just as you think through the air just as you think you're about to hit a home runyou're about to hit a home run is an is an example of animism.example of animism.