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“SPIRU HARET” UNIVERSITY BUCHAREST
FACULTY OF JUDIDICIAL SCIENCES AND ECONOMIC SCIENCES
CONSTANTA
FIELD OF STUDY: MANAGEMENT
STUDY PROGRAMME:
ENTREPRENEURSHIP AND ORGANIZATIONAL MANAGEMENT
STUDY CYCLE: MASTER
NAME OF THE DISCIPLINE:
INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION IN BUSINESS - ENGLISH
FIRST YEAR OF STUDY
SEMESTER I
Lecturer Boarcăș Camelia PHD
Duration of the course/No. of credits – Semester I, 28 hours per semester/3 credits
Minimal bibliography
Walker, Carolyn, English for Business Studies in Higher Education Studies, Garnet Publishing,
Reading, 2008
Boarcăş Camelia, World of Business, Europolis Press, Constanţa, 2006
Deac, Livia, Niculescu, Adrian, British Life and Civilization, Didactică şi Pedagogică Press,
Bucharest, 1983
Stevenson, D.K., American Life and Instittions, Ernst Klett Verlag, Stuttgard, 1987
Paidos, Constantin, English Grammar, All Educational Press, Bucharest, 1999
Ionescu-Cruţan, Nicolae, Dicţionar economic englez-român, român-englez, Teora Press, Bucharest,
2007
Optional bibliography
Godeanu, Oana, A Brief Introduction to British Civilization, Fundaţiei România de Mâine Press,
Bucharest, 2001
Thompson A. J., Martinet, Av., A Practical English Grammar, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1995
Ivanciu, Nina (coord.), Dicţionar trilingv de comunicare în afaceri roman-englez-francez, ASE Press,
Bucharest, 2009
Costache, I., Ghid de conversaţie şi civilizaţie român-englez, Aramis Press, Bucharest, 2005
Main objectives of the course
The activity of the master students will aim at acquiring the following main objectives:
- the ability to produce and interpret meaningful utterances which are formed in
accordance with the rules of the English language;
- improvement of oral and written communication skills aimed at their professional and
scientific activity;
- strengthening the capacity for analysis and synthesis of information contained in an
advanced level of speech;
- development of the most important language skills: reading comprehension, writing
(essays, reviews, letters, etc.), speaking, and listening comprehension in order to understand
and produce specific messages, characteristic for both every day and business use;
- actuatization of linguistic and cultural knowledge, adapting it to specific and different
contexts;
- gradual acquisition of vocabulary specific to business English in oder to be able to use
it in their professional and scientific activity;
- improvement of tranfer and translation competences into English of various texts
belonging to business English;
- acquisition and study of basic grammar structures
- understanding and provision of information coming from English language.
Specific competences
Professional competences
Knowledge and use of the communicative functions of the language:
Reception of messages transmitted orally or in writing in different situations of
communication
Production of oral or written messages appropriate in certain contexts
Performing interactions in oral and/or written communication
Transfer and mediation of oral and/or written messages in various situations of
communication
Transversal competences
Acquisition of attitudinal skills
Awareness of the English language contribution to the spreading of contemporary
culture
Critical reporting to British and American civilization, acceptance of differences and
development of tolerance
Awareness of the cultural stereotypes and fight against them
Development of independent, critical and reflective thinking by receiving a variety of
texts in English
Manifestation of flexibility in the exchange of ideas in different communication
situations
Identification of roles and responsibilities in a multi-specialised team and application
of techniques for relationships and efficient work within the team
Contents of the course
The course is structured on three major coordinates: business vocabulary, grammar and
language in use. Another important content is based on practicing reading and understanding
of different texts and also of presenting various information regarding the English culture and
civilization. The course is structured into 14 units as it follows:
Unit 1 Education in Great Britain and the United States
Higher education system
British and American universities
Unit 2 British and American Economy
North vs. South
Economy in the United States
Unit 3 Intercultural communication in business
Definition of the concept
Economic objectives of intercultural communication in business
Business communication on the internet
Unit 4 Communication Skills
Model for the communication process
Factors affecting communication
Levels of communication in an organization
Unit 5 History and basic theories of management
Early classical theories of management
The behavioural approach to management
Management science
The situational or contingency approach
Theory Z
Unit 6 Management and the managerial role
Modern theories in management
The functions of management
Management skills
Unit 7 Executive skills
Time management
European CV- American resume and cover letter
Interview (frequent questions)
Unit 8 The organization of work
How organizations are structured
Leadership and teams
Unit 9 Marketing Management
Marketing and distribution
Market research
People and markets
Unit 10 Advertising
Advertising and other techniques
Unit 11 Negotiations in Business
Negotiation techniques
Unit 12 Commercial Correspondence
Types of business letters
Inquires and offers
Orders and confirmation of orders
Complaints and adjustments
Unit 13 Business Communication
Model for the communication process
Factors affecting communication
Levels of communication in an organization
Unit 14 Sport, Entertainment and Leisure in British and American Life
Sport and entertainment in the UK
Leisure – hobbies
Sports, recreation and leisure in the USA
Minimal bibliography
Walker, Carolyn, English for Business Studies in Higher Education Studies, Garnet Publishing,
Reading, 2008
Boarcăş Camelia, World of Business, Europolis Press, Constanţa, 2006
Deac, Livia, Niculescu, Adrian, British Life and Civilization, Didactică şi Pedagogică Press,
Bucharest, 1983
Stevenson, D.K., American Life and Instittions, Ernst Klett Verlag, Stuttgard, 1987
Paidos, Constantin, English Grammar, All Educational Press, Bucharest, 1999
Ionescu-Cruţan, Nicolae, Dicţionar economic englez-român, român-englez, Teora Press, Bucharest,
2007
Optional bibliography
Godeanu, Oana, A Brief Introduction to British Civilization, Fundaţiei România de Mâine Press,
Bucharest, 2001
Thompson A. J., Martinet, Av., A Practical English Grammar, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1995
Ivanciu, Nina (coord.), Dicţionar trilingv de comunicare în afaceri român-englez-francez, ASE Press,
Bucharest, 2009
Costache, I., Ghid de conversaţie şi civilizaţie român-englez, Aramis Press, Bucharest, 2005
Presentation of the course
Unit 1 Education in Great Britain and the United States
Higher education system
British and American universities
Education in Great Britain and the United States
Universities in Great Britain
For many people, both among visitors to England and among the English themselves,
the term “university” still tends to evoke before anything else the names of the most famous
higher education centres in England, i.e. Oxford and Cambridge. With these names is evoked
a picture composed of such elements as ancient grey stone college buildings, green lawns,
absent-minded professors, undergraduates on bicycles; lots of bookshops, a river, chapels and
churches, spires, and towers. It is not surprising that this should be so, since for several
centuries Oxford and Cambridge were the only universities in England, and even today their
prestige remains a great thing. But the twentieth century has seen an unprecedented increase
in the number of universities – an increase which has continued at the beginning of the
twenty-first century. At present there are over 130 universities in the UK, including the Open
University, compared with 17 in 1947.
The UK is home to some of the world’s oldest and most highly regarded universities.
With over 100 universities in the UK, 3 in the top 10 in the world, the study options are rich
and diverse, and in turn the UK boasts the second largest international student population in
the world. For the academic year 2009-2010 the UK had an international student population
of over 400,000.
Types of universities in the UK
As already stated, the UK is home to some of the oldest universities in the world and
they usually find themselves grouped into a distinct classification. UK Universities are
mostly classified as one of the following:
Ancient Universities - medieval universities founded between the 12th and 16th
centuries. These include Oxford, Cambridge and St. Andrews, amongst 4 others.
Redbrick Universities - 6 universities created in industrial cities around the UK
initially established as engineering colleges. These include the University of Birmingham and
the University of Manchester.
Post 1992 Universities - following the Further and Higher Education Act 1992
colleges of higher education and polytechnics where awarded university status. These include
University of Portsmouth, Cranfield University and the University of Derby and make up a
large percentage of the universities in the UK.
Most of the British universities are very different in many ways from Oxford and
Cambridge. There is a variety in British university life as in so much else: variety of
administrative structure, of origin, of special features, of buildings and campus, of everyday
life and work.
The universities fall into several distinct categories. First, Oxford and Cambridge,
both were founded about 1200. Then, there is the vast collection of organizations which
together form London University. London University was founded in 1836; the University of
Durham was founded in 1832, though attempts to provide Durham men with a university
education go back as far as the late thirteenth century. Important sections of Durham
University have for a long time been situated in the city of Newcastle, and these have become
the separate Newcastle University. Manchester University came next in time after London: it
was founded in 1851. The twentieth century has seen the rise of universities at Birmingham,
Liverpool, Leeds, Sheffield, Bristol, Reading, Nottingham, Southampton, Hull, Exeter,
Leicester, Keele, and Sussex. Next come York, Bradford, East Anglia, Essex, Warwick,
Kent, Aston in Birmingham, Brunel, City (in London), Salford and Loughborough. The
federated University of Wales comprises seven constituent institutions. In Northern Ireland
we can mention the Queen’s University of Belfast and the New University of Ulster in
Colerain.
Scotland has four universities of ancient origin and distinctive quality: St Andrews
(1411), Glasgow (1450), Aberdeen (1494) and Edinburgh (1582). The Scottish universities
have always attracted the most talented boys and girls from all classes of society, and have
understood the difficult art of remaining truly democratic while retaining both a high tradition
of scholarship and a high prestige.
There are great differences in the organization of the different universities. Oxford
and Cambridge are the most complicated to understand. They are both collections of very
largely independent residential colleges, which were founded at many different dates, and
these colleges still retain an astonishing amount of individual power, even within the general
state system of education. Oxford has over thirty colleges for men and five for women.
There are about one hundred professors at Oxford, appointed by the University as a
whole. These hold “chairs” in very varied subjects like: Celtic, Chemistry, Chinese and Civil
Law, or Psychology, Poetry, Political Economy and Physiology.
Cambridge has about twenty colleges for men, also mainly mediaeval I origin: among
them Churchill College, founded in 1960, has science and technology as its special province.
There are two famous colleges for women, Griton (founded in 1869) and Newnham (founded
in 1871). Cambridge, like Oxford, has a list of about one hundred University Professors of all
kinds; they range from Aeronautical Engineering at one end of the alphabet to Zoology at the
other. Cambridge has always had a particularly high reputation in the fields of science and
mathematics, Oxford in classical studies and “the humanities” generally.
London University grew up in a different manner, and is quite differently put
together. There are two large non-residential colleges for both men and women – University
College in Bloomsbury, and King’s College in the Strand. There are many other institutions
of different kinds, scattered in widely different parts of London. Among them are Bedford,
Royal Holloway, and Westfield, which are normal arts-and-science colleges; these all rank as
“Schools of the University”, but so do other institutions as diverse as the prestigious London
School of Economics and The Imperial College of Science and Technology. The Courtauld
Institute of Art and The School of Slavonic and East European Studies are reckoned among
the “University Institutes”; the famous Slade School of Art is in University College. Over
thirty hospitals in London, each in itself a group of organizations, are Teaching Hospitals for
the University.
The English provincial universities are to a large extent non-residential and not
divided into colleges. Hotels or halls of residence are, however, built for the students
whenever it is possible, and clubs and unions provide places to meet outside the lecture room
or laboratory. As it often is the case with English institutions, exceptions to the rule are
almost too numerous to be mentioned. Durham, for instance, is divided into colleges. Durham
has long been famous for its theological scholarship. Reading University is noted for
agriculture, Manchester for science, Birmingham for law, and other modern universities for
some other specific field. The new universities are sometimes referred to as “Redbrick”, and
Oxford and Cambridge contrasted with them under the name “Oxbridge”. This seems a great
pity, as it tends to emphasize a gulf which should preferably be minimized. Anyway, one
term such as “Redbrick” cannot possibly describe the great variety of the provincial
universities nowadays. Even a further division into “Old Redbrick” and “New Redbrick” is
highly inadequate. Each university has its special personality.
Some of the newest universities are already establishing themselves as strongly
individual. Keele in North Staffordshire is a case in point. It is entirely residential, and all
undergraduates spend their first year doing a very thorough general course which has been
affectionately nicknamed “From Plato to NATO”. The result of this Foundation Year is that
50 per cent of the students change their minds about the subjects that they want to do for their
Honours degree – a fact which must give all the other universities something to think about.
In addition, all students take an Honour degree which includes in some form a combination of
arts or “humanities” and science: a development which should prove of great value in the
modern world.
A generation or so ago it might have been said that in general the men who went to
“Redbrick”, apart from a chosen few, were those who could not get into Oxford or
Cambridge. Now it is by no means unusual to hear of young people who do not wish to go to
the ultra-traditional oxford or Cambridge even if they should have the chance – they prefer
the fresh, challenging atmosphere of, say, Keele or Sussex.
Amid all the variety of university institutions, it is clear that such a person as a typical
British undergraduate does not exist. The elite of the huge number of undergraduates that
exist at present will be very able people indeed, and will have a definite goal and reach it. The
others, often without any very strong convictions as to subject, will by hard work have got
themselves into what one is tempted to call “the degree machine”, their main purpose being
to emerge three years later (or possibly four) with the necessary degree to get them a well-
paid job in the professions or industry or business.
Degrees at British Universities
The range of degrees obtainable at the British universities gives another vivid instance of
rules which are full of exceptions. It is in many cases impossible to know what a degree
really represents without additional information. A scientist or a civil engineer, for instance,
may emerge with an Arts degree; a man with the degree of M.A. may be in reality at B.A.
level. However, the general outlines are fairly clear. There are three main levels of degree,
Bachelor, Master, and Doctor, and these are signified by letters, which the possessor of the
degree is entitled to use after his name; most of them, however, are only used on formal
occasion. Here are some of the principal degrees, with their abbreviations.
B.A. – Bachelor of Arts. The most usual degree. Covers all the “liberal” arts and a
good many of the science.
B.Sc. – Bachelor of Science.
M.A. – Master of Arts. Might be expected to indicate higher qualifications than a
bachelor’s degree, but does not always do so. In the Scotland universities it is
awarded as the equivalent of a B.A. Oxford and Cambridge B.A.s can obtain an M.A.
by payment, without any extra work at all. Other universities require a thesis, which
may mean two years’ extra work.
M.Sc. – Master of Science.
Ph.D. or D.Phil. – Doctor of Philosophy.
D.Litt. – Doctor of Literature.
D.Sc. – Doctor of Science.
D.M. or M.D. – Doctor of Medicine.
D.Mus. or Mus. Doc. – Doctor of Music.
D.C.L. or L.L.D. – Doctor of Civil Law.
Out of the host of anomalies in the English university system, there are two which are far-
reaching in their influence, and should be mentioned here. The first is that it is possible to be
a B.A. of London University without ever having been in London, or indeed in England. Ever
since 1858 the university has been granting “external” degrees, and these are taken by
candidates both in England and overseas. On the other hand, it is possible to have a taste of
university life without doing any of the customary university work. Some of the colleges at
oxford and Cambridge are regularly used in the summer vacation for Summer Schools or
some similar course, either for English people or for students from abroad. (So are colleges in
other parts of the country, and also some boarding schools.) Established in the room of an
absent graduate, looking at his books and trophies, visiting other colleges, walking through
ancient quadrangles and historic streets, many people absorb a first hand knowledge of the
traditions of university life which they will never forget.
Conclusions
University training, like the other aspects of British education, is under criticism
nowadays from many sides. The pressure for admission is so great, the demand for more and
more graduates so widespread, that there is a real danger that academic standards will be
affected and that narrow specialization will attempt to usurp the place of true scholarship. It is
of course realized by any university that a true university education should provide much
more than merely letters after one’s name. Oxford and Cambridge, with their long experience
and unusual degree of independent life, are in an exceptionally favoured position to remain
strongholds of the highest tradition of scholarship; but they are not alone. In all the British
universities clear sighted men and women, scholars of note themselves, while fully aware that
the reasonable demands of the modern world must be met, are determined that their
university shall continue to produce not only good specialists, but also good scholars in the
best sense of the word.
The scholastic world and the educational level of the country obviously depend on
many institutions besides schools and universities. It seems obvious that there is no need to
remind ourselves and underline once again how important is the part that higher education
plays in the life of the British nation.
Higher education in the United States
The cultural influences on American education are difficult to define. Basically,
Americans have always aimed for equal opportunity in education, regardless of social class,
national origin, or racial or ethnic group. A high general level of education has always been
seen as a necessity in this democratic society. Education in America has also traditionally
served the goal of bringing people together, that is of “Americanization”. Schools in the
U.S.A. have served to bring together the hundreds of various cultural and linguistic groups,
religions, and social and political backgrounds represented by the millions and millions of
immigrants.
The American ideal of mass education for all is matched by the awareness that
America also needs highly trained specialists. In higher education, therefore, and especially at
the graduate schools (those following the first four years of college), the U.S. has an
extremely competitive and highly selective system. This advanced university system has
become widely imitated internationally, and it is also the most sought after by foreign
students.
While the American education system might put off selecting students until much
later than do other systems, it does nonetheless select. And it becomes increasingly selective
the higher the level. Moreover, because each university generally sets its own admission
standards, the best universities are also the most difficult to get into.
American universities
Some universities are very selective even at the undergraduate or beginning levels. In
1994, for example, some 15,600 individuals sought admission to Stanford University, a
private university in southern California. Because these individuals must pay a fee to even
apply for admission, these were “serious” applications. Of that number, only 2,500 (about 16
percent ) were admitted for the first year of study. It is interesting to note that 70 percent of
those who were accepted had attended public – not private – schools. Many state-supported
universities also have fairly rigid admission requirements. The University of California at
Berkeley, for example, admitted about 65 percent of all “qualified” applicants in 1994. For
Harvard, the figure is 17 percent for the same year. Admission to law or medical schools and
other graduate programmes has always been highly selective.
Those children who have attended better schools, or who come from families with
better educated parents, often have an advantage over those who do not. This remains a
problem in the U.S., where equality of opportunity is a central cultural goal. Not surprisingly,
the members of racial minorities are the most deprived in this respect.
In 1995, for instance, 19.4 percent of all Americans 25 years and older had completed
four years of college or more. However, the figure for blacks was 11.1 percent and for
Hispanics 8.5 percent. Yet, the educational level is still relatively lower for some groups,
including women. The number of students who fail to complete high school, too, is much
larger among minority groups. The national average of all 18 to 24 year-olds who did not
graduate from high school was 22.1 percent in 1995. Many different programmes aimed at
improving educational opportunities among minority groups exist at all levels – local, state,
and federal. They have met with some, even if moderate, success.
Unit 2 British and American Economy
North vs. South
Economy in the United States
North vs. South in Great Britain
Most discussions on the subject of regional differences begin by broadly contrasting
North and South. Although the customary stereotypes are often overdrawn, none the less they
have a certain solid substance of truth to them. In more respects than we normally realize the
British way of life does indeed alter as one gradually progresses up or down the length of the
country.
The most important fact is that, compared with the South, the North is far more
preponderantly working class, both in actual numbers and in outlook. Not only are there,
relatively speaking, many more manual workers, but the professional and managerial groups
are much more thinly represented. The North contains, in fact, only 30 percent of Britain’s
professional population against 43 percent of her semi-skilled and unskilled, the proportions
in the South being reversed. The middle classes feel more exposed, more self-conscious
about their status, seeing the consequence of economic failure in starker terms. The working
classes, without the challenges to their solidarity that occur in the socially much more
heterogeneous South, adhere more confidently to their traditional behavior and values. The
narrower variety of jobs serves only to increase the uniformity of tastes and interests on either
side. The predominance of industry, with its abrupt division between workers and
management, tends to encourage the different classes to live apart. The general lack of
experiment and initiative that results is both cause and effect of the smaller range of that great
assortment of societies and organizations and interest-groups technically termed as
“infrastructure”. The thinner the infrastructure, it seems to be the case, the lower the
dynamism in the society, the less the creativity. Where the social boundaries are tightly
drawn, as in the North, it is harder for people not only to strike out new directions but to
persuade others to follow.
The Southerner, it must be admitted, has a gentler way of life because his life is in
many minor respects more luxurious. Less likely to have to clock in at work, he leaves his
bed later and so has more chance there for early cups of tea. The Northerner, going to bed
earlier, has to bring his whole evening forward, having his main meal and starting to watch
television a good hour or two before the South. Because office jobs are traditionally more
secure, the Southerner also feels more secure in making plans ahead. Moreover he has better
facilities in general. There are more general practitioners per head in the South and
proportionately more dentists. There are more new schools, more ‘A’- level passes, more
state scholarships to universities. And there are, only too plainly, far fewer slums.
The North’s more rigid texture, the prime cause of its conservatism, also brings about
a pattern in consumption that appears at first sight paradoxical. Because of its greater
resistance to more deep-rooted types of innovation, those types which demand adjustments of
emotion or complicated shifts in custom, it is mainly the ‘froth’, the inessentials of varying
degrees of triviality, which percolates most easily through the ordinary social filters and
constitutes the most obviously visible movement northwards.
The more sober innovations, by contrast, make slow headway. Even a compelling
rationale can scarcely help; for the rate of progress northwards is just arduous for products
like the medical profession’s fashionable new drugs, if there is something acceptably valid
already in use that has to be displaced. The North is highly skeptical of change just for
change’s sake. Indeed, by studying what it rejects or the relative speed at which it accepts, we
may provide ourselves with remarkably faithful instruments for gauging the ups and downs
of its prejudices at any particular period.
Economy in the United States
The American economy had to be built, as they say, from the ground up. Those
immigrants who were not willing to work hard seldom did well in the New World. In the
beginning, of course, there were simply no farms or houses or factories. Whatever was
needed had to be made by the settlers themselves. Or it had to be imported at great expense.
The tremendous ingenuity and inventiveness of Americans has been traced to this pioneer
time and spirit. “Do-it-yourself” is hardly a recent trend or a middle-class hobby in America.
There were few skilled craftsmen available and no established class of agricultural workers,
or peasantry.
Despite its fears that it is no longer at the top in almost every area, America remains
the world leader in a great many. Among these are, for instance, biochemical and genetic
engineering, aerospace research and development, communications, computer and
information services, and similar high-technology fields. American’s private industries are
doing quite well, too.
While its industrial and technological skills are well-known, what many people,
including Americans, do not know is that the United States is also the world’s leading
agricultural nation. America is by far the biggest supplier of grains, growing about 20 percent
of all the world’s wheat, corn (maize), oats and sorghum.
Many reasons have been able to go from a small, struggling economy to the leading
industrial and agricultural notion in such a short time. One reason, obviously, is its size and
natural resources, but these alone do not account for its progress. America’s vitality, its so-
called spirit of enterprise and initiative, has certainly played an important role. The American
system of government, too, has encouraged citizens to vigorously pursue their economic
interest.
American business and industry has also greatly benefited from the major universities,
their basic research, and their willingness to support talent. Significant, too, has been “the
spirit of enterprise,” in other words, taking a chance on both people and ideas, and letting
those who are willing to work try to make something work. Unlike the tough old industrial
barons of the 19th
century, American entrepreneurs today are likely to be young, adventurous,
and well-educated. Above all, they are willing to take risks to achieve success. They are
helped in this by that strange mixture of teamwork and competition, that appreciation of
experience and expertise, which make American business. Despite their emphasis on the
individual, Americans often work well together in small groups. They respect the person with
practical experience, as well as the expert with the Ph.D. after his name.
Many Americans prefer to be their own bosses, and they are willing to trade security
for the chance of “making it.” Yet, despite its own claims, America is far from being a “free
enterprise” market. Anyone starting to make a business is faced with many regulations,
restrictions, and laws from all levels of government, federal, state, and local. The federal
government sets laws concerning working conditions, transportation, minimum wages, and
working hours. Environmental protection and equal employment laws in the United States are
among the strictest in the world. Such laws and regulations, standards and requirements
represent the greatest contrast of the present business climate with that of the past.
Recently, a new trend has emerged which attempts to put employees and employers
on much the same level. In some firms all employees own a part of the company and do all
kinds of jobs. But all share in the profits and losses as well. This arrangement seems to give
incentive to employees.
Few Americans like “big business”. Starting with Theodore Roosevelt’s
administration (1901-1909), governments have broken up large corporations and monopolies.
The first to be affected by “deregulation”, that is, the removal of legal and administrative
restrictions, were the big steel firms and the railroads. This process has continued to the
present with the deregulation of banks and communications. Americans believe that “fat-cat”
companies and business tend to get lazy and pay less attention to their customers. They are
convinced that a choice of goods and services makes for better and cheaper ones.
Unit 3 Intercultural communication in business
Definition of the concept
Economic objectives of intercultural communication in business
Business communication on the internet
Definition of the concept
According to Collins English Dictionary, the verb to communicate means: “1. to impart
(knowledge) or exchange (thoughts, feelings, or ideas) by speech, writing, gestures, etc. 2. to allow (a
feeling, emotion, etc.) to be sensed (by) willingly or unwillingly; transmit (to) 3. to have a
sympathetic mutual understanding […] (Collins English Dictionary, Harper Collins Publishers,
Glasgow, 2010, 348)
Another definition, a less general one this time, states that business communication is:
“The ability to convey information to another effectively and efficiently. Business managers with
good verbal, non verbal and written communication skills help facilitate the sharing of information
between people within a company for its commercial benefit.”
Ober (2001), Angell (2004), and Roebuck (2001) have authored college undergraduate
business communication skills text books and have determined that business communication skills fall
in to three basic categories: "organizational communication skills," "leadership communication
skills," and "interpersonal communication skills." Organizational communication skills are those
skills an organization uses to effectively communicate with all internal and external stakeholders,
permitting coordination among people and organized behaviour. Leadership communication skills are
those skills that allow business leadership to effectively communicate with employees and key
external constituents employing communication methods including stories, informality, metaphors,
openness, and strategic dialogue to create trusting and supportive relationships among colleagues and
staff. Interpersonal communication skills are those skills that allow business organization members to
effectively communicate to internal and external constituents on a personal, intimate, and one-on-one
basis, exchanging thoughts in face-to-face verbal and non verbal contexts by sharing information,
providing feedback, or simply maintaining a social relationship.
Economic objectives of intercultural communication in business
To become a truly successful professional, one needs to master business
communication skills. The element of communication plays a vital part in an organizational
set-up. People working in an organization know how crucial a role business communication
skills play in a business enterprise.
Effective leadership thrives on developing excellent communication skills. People at
senior positions in the organizational hierarchy need to share knowledge and ideas to transmit
a sense of urgency and enthusiasm to the staffs. A message cannot be conveyed effectively
without possessing communication skills.
Employees need to communicate with each other in an efficient manner and that can
only be achieved with the help of business communication skills. Talking about the elements
of business communication, it is usually of two types; internal and external. As the name
suggests, internal business communication takes place between two or more entities in the
company whereas external communication is all about transfer of information and knowledge
between the company employees and outside entities. A business enterprise needs to have a
fine combination of both types of communication if it intends to run the operations smoothly.
Business communication skills and corporate training have several constituents including
public speaking, negotiation skills, telephone skills, email and report writing skills, follow up
skills and not to forget absolutely critical element of body language.
We all know the importance of public speaking. It is an art that plays a major role in
one’s professional life. Mastering the skills of public speaking is very essential for people
who wish to climb up the corporate ladder. Most of the top level executives are required to
present the information in a structured manner in front of several people and that definitely
demands practice and confidence. It is one of the most important constituent of business
communication.
Negotiation skills need to be in the repertoire of a professional working in the
marketing and communication process of the company. Negotiation techniques are an
important part of a company’s strategy and people having these skills are highly respected.
Moving further, telephone communication is must-have skill for those working in the
customer service centres. Professionals possessing this skill are able to convey their message
clearly and effectively.
Emails have become the most common form of communication in almost all the
organizations. Employees are expected to possess email and report writing skills. Follow up
skills is all about making sure that the receiver has got the message in the same way as
intended by the sender. This makes the communication cycle complete.
Last but not the least; appropriate body language is a very critical part of business
communication. Right body language depicts confidence and clarity, so very necessary in a
professional environment. Other important aspects of business communication skills are
language tone and listening skills.
Business communication on the internet
There is no doubt that the appearance and transmission of the internet has
revolutionized the business field of activity. The use of the internet is changing high-tech
marketing overnight while different industries have been trying to use it as part if their
marketing strategy. This worldwide network has not only refigured the way various firms do
business and the way the consumers buy goods and services, but it also become instrumental
in transforming the value chain from manufacturers to retailers to consumers, creating a new
retail distribution channel. On the other hand, website development has become a powerful
tool used by different business organizations around the world. This complex evolution can
be defined as the process of achieving business objectives utilizing electronic communication
technology.
It is an obvious fact that businesses can communicate effectively and inexpensively
on the internet. Businesses require timely communications with their employees, suppliers,
customers and investors. With the global reach of the internet, business firms are able to
achieve their communication objectives faster and cheaper than ever before. With over two-
thirds of the U.S. already connected, and more of the world gradually catching up, business
companies re constantly reconfiguring their operations and communication strategies to be
internet-ready.
Employees
Business organizations often use intranets, which are local networks with restricted
access, to communicate with their employees on company developments such as new product
launches, human resource matters such as reorganizations and layoffs, and to solicit
feedback. These intranets, which support standard communication tools like email and social
media, also allow employees to communicate with each other.
Suppliers
Businesses communicate with their suppliers for just-in-time procurement, new
product set-ups, or to get feedback on existing products. The internet tools include email,
interactive websites, and more complex enterprise relationship management tools such as:
Supplier Relationship Management and Supply Chain Management applications.
Customers
Business companies communicate with their customers on products, marketing and
sales. They need to be able to process on-line payments at their e-stores, and receive feedback
and requests for technical support in their products. They use email, social media and
customer relationship management applications to achieve their communication objectives.
Investors
For a publicly listed company, communicating with the investment community is part
of doing business. Using email, social media, webcasts, podcasts and interactive websites, a
company can communicate financial information to stockholders, provide disclosure
documents to regulatory authorities like the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC), and
help the investment research professionals analyze their stock.
The role of the internet in business communication is varied and has come to be of
great importance. It can be used to increase effective communication both internally and
externally. Use of the internet can make it easier to connect with others quickly and more
often, in addition to exchanging a wide array of media types. The internet can be used to
communicate purchase information to vendors and by customers to ask questions. We must
also have in mind a major concern, namely the fact that the factors which make the role of the
internet in business communication important can also cause conflict, depending on the way
the medium is used.
Without a doubt, e-mail is one of the most popular uses of the internet in business
communication. It is widely used for both internal and external communications. Email
enables users to communicate with each other at any hour and from several locations. It can
also be an effective way to keep track of requests, conversations, and other important data as
it provides a record of what was communicated.
One of the most significant internal uses of the internet in business communication is
the intranet site. This is a website that is only available to the members of a particular
organization. It typically serves as both a sort of community bulletin board and a place to
access forms, information, and other resources that are necessary or helpful for employees.
Most intranet sites are password protected and some even have sections which are only
available to certain groups of employees.
Unit 4 Communication Skills
Model for the communication process
Factors affecting communication
Levels of communication in an organization
Model for the communication process
Communication is the process that makes it possible for managers to carry out their
responsibilities. Information must be communicated to managers, and managers must
communicate with both their superiors and their subordinates. An understanding of the
communication process, of the factors that affect effective communication, and of the way in
which communication functions in an organization is absolutely essential for every manger.
Without highly developed communication skills, a manger cannot be effective.
Although the essential parts of the communication process are a sender, a message,
and a receiver, the process itself is much more complex. It involves the way the sender
expresses the content of the message, the way the message is transmitted, the way the
message is interpreted and understood by the receiver, and any background factors that may
affect the process.
Sender is the person who is asking for information or wishes to pass information on to
others.
Message covers the information (content) that the sender wishes to transmit to another
person. The content may be expressed through any of several mediums.
Encoding represents the process by which the sender transmits the content. After deciding
what is to be communicated, the manager must decide how to communicate it. The medium,
or channel, selected must be appropriate to the content.
Channel or medium is the way the message is transmitted. It is sometimes impossible to
separate the content from its medium. A message may be written, spoken (oral), visual (a sign
or symbol), tactile, or even olfactory (the smell of baking bread to encourage bread sales). A
manger must choose a medium appropriate to the content and to the people receiving the
message.
Receiver is defined as the person or persons to whom the message is sent or addressed.
Without a receiver, there is no communication.
Decoding (Interpreting) refers to the process by which the receiver interprets the message
and translates it into personally meaningful information. Interpretation is affected by past
experience, personal bias, and expectations.
Feedback is when a reaction to the sender’s message is expressed. The reverse of the original
communication process, feedback has the same steps, and allows managers to know that their
message has been understood.
Factors affecting communication
Effective communication is affected by many factors, some interpersonal, some a
function of the message itself, and some related to the organizational structure. These are the
most important factors that affect communication:
Number of messages: Too many messages conveyed at one time compete with one another
and are generally not well understood or effective. Managers should send messages in order
of importance or priority and avoid too much (as much as too little) communication.
Complexity: A complex message with several interrelated parts is difficult to understand and
act on. Managers should simplify messages and break complex messages into several
separate, simple messages, each indicating its relationship to other parts of the overall
message.
Filtering: The process by which a message’s content is modified in some way by the
character or personality of the sender or receiver. Personal prejudice, bias, and other
psychological factors play important roles in message filtering.
Noise: Anything that interferes with, confuses, or distorts the communication process. The
term is usually used for outside factors and includes such factors as loud music interfering
with conversation or an unclear printed page.
Personal barriers: problems in communication often arise from personal characteristics of
the sender and/or receiver. Examples: Inattention, or tuning out, by the receiver, a lack of
common vocabulary between the sender and receiver; jumping to conclusions on the part of
the receiver; evaluating the sender and not the message itself; non-verbal signals that are
inconsistent with the verbal message; rationalization to justify behavior; and denial, refusing
to acknowledge the meaning of a message for personal reasons.
Guidelines for effective communication:
Messages should be simple and concise and expressed in a vocabulary common to
both sender and receiver.
The manager should show sensitivity to the receiver’s framework and be aware of
nonverbal as well as verbal clues.
Two-way, face-to-face, communication is often most effective.
Levels of communication in an organization
Communication occurs throughout all levels of an organization, both in formal ways,
- vertically, horizontally, and diagonally through the organizational chain of command – and
in informal ways.
Downward communication
High-level managers provide information about an organization’s goals and advise, instruct,
and evaluate lower level managers. The managers must be sure that an adequate amount of
information is passed along, that it is not filtered or modified as it is passed along down the
chain of command, and that a vocabulary common to all levels is used.
Upward communication
Subordinates or lower-level managers pass information (as in progress reports and
explanations), offer suggestions, and raise questions to higher-level managers. Middle-level
mangers should be sure that all information that may be essential, even if it is unfavourable,
is passed on to higher management.
Lateral and diagonal communication
Within an organization, such communication spreads very quickly, links groups that
otherwise might not communicate easily, and facilitates the use of special experience or
expertise throughout an organization. It can, however, be disruptive since it does not follow
the chain of command.
Lateral communication occurs between individuals in a work group, between groups
in a department, between departments, and between line managers and advisers
(staff).
Diagonal communication occurs between one department at one level in the
organization’s hierarchy and another department at a different level.
Informal communication – grapevine
In every organization, there exists informal, unstructured communication – a grapevine, and
managers must recognize its existence and the role it sometimes plays in organizational
functioning.
Unit 5 History and basic theories of management
Early classical theories of management
The behavioural approach to management
Management science
The situational or contingency approach
Theory Z
Early classical theories of management
There have been effective supervisors and mangers directing major projects
throughout history. However, it was the Industrial Revolution and the development of light
manufacturing and then heavy manufacturing that led to the development of formulated
theories of management.
The first attempts to develop a scientific approach to management focused on
improving worker efficiency. Some focused on the nature of the work and how it could be
planned, controlled, and managed to improve efficiency. Others focused on the
administration of the organization.
Frederick W. Taylor
While observing pig-iron and steel shop floors over many years, Taylor studied the nature of
specific jobs, breaking a task into basic work units. Then, through time and motion studies,
he determined the one right way to do the job. His ideas, described in Principles of Scientific
Management (1911), were gradually accepted by managers.
Frank (1868 -1924) and Lillian Gilbreth (1878 – 1972)
The Gilbreths furthered ideas of Scientific Management through detailed motion studies that
classified actions and body movements of workers doing a specific job, calling the specific
actions therbligs. To increase worker efficiency, they analyzed the motions and reduced the
number of actions required.
Henry L. Gantt (1861 – 1919)
Gantt pointed out the need for mangers to use realistic work standards based on study and
measurement. His pioneering work schedules, now known as Gantt charts, were widely
adopted by industry. Gantt also focused on motivation and advocated production bonuses
for workers who exceeded expected quotas.
Mary Parker Follet (1868 – 1933)
Focusing on how mangers deal with conflict, she advocated a collaborative approach to
problem solving, rather than over-management, or “bossism.” She believed that workers
could understand the “law of situation,” or logic in a management request, and that through
compromise, conflicts could be resolved.
Henri Fayol (1841 – 1925)
A French engineer, Fayol focused on the organization rather than the worker and defined the
overall functions of management (planning, organizing, commanding, coordinating, and
controlling). He formulated basic principles of management in General and Industrial
Management (1929).
The behavioural approach to management
The behavioural approach to management focused on the worker, not on the work
itself, and had a major impact on the development of management theory.
Elton Mayo
Through a series of experiments known as the Hawthorne Studies (1927- 32), Mayo and his
colleagues found that worker productivity is related to social and psychological factors as
well as the work itself and the physical environment. They found, for example, that when
workers knew that they were observed as part of an experiment, their productivity increased –
a phenomenon now known as the Hawthorne Effect. Calling on managers to consider
human relations factors, mayo focused on people-management skills and is now considered
the founder of the Human Relations Movement.
Chester Barnard
Focusing on the need for cooperation within an organization, Barnard pointed out that
workers accept a managerial directive only if it is acceptable in terms of their personal
interests. This acceptance theory of authority stressed the need for effective managerial
communication and motivation skills and emphasized that managers real power come not
from their position but from the acceptance of the workers.
Douglas M. McGregor
Summarizing the work-focused views of such classical schools as Theory X and the worker-
focused views of the early behaviourists as Theory Y, McGregor crystallized the basic
philosophical differences between the two approaches. Advocating the optimistic and
humanistic approaches of Theory Y, McGregor urged increased concentration on workers,
summarized in The Human Side of Enterprise (1960).
Douglas McGregor postulated management ideas as contained in “Theory X” and
“Theory Y”. Using human behaviour research, he noted that the way an organization runs
depends on the beliefs of its managers.
“Theory X” gives a negative view of human behaviour and management that he considered to
have dominated management theory from Fayol onwards – especially Taylorism. It also
assumes that most people are basically immature, need direction and control, and are
incapable of taking responsibility. They are viewed as lazy, dislike work and need a mixture
of financial inducements and threat of loss of their job to make them work (’carrot and stick’
mentality).
“Theory Y”, the opposite of “Theory X”, argues that people want to fulfil themselves
by seeking self-respect, self-development, and self-fulfilment at work as in life in general.
The six assumptions for “Theory Y” are: work is as natural as play or rest – the average
human being does not inherently dislikes work, whether work is a source of pleasure or a
punishment (to be avoided) depends on the nature of the work and its management. Second,
effort at work need not depend on threat of punishment – if committed to objectives then self-
direction and self-control rather than external controls. Third, commitment to objectives is a
function of the rewards associated with their achievement. Satisfaction of ego and self-
actualization needs can be directed towards the objectives of the organization. Fourth, the
average human being learns, under proper conditions, not only to accept but to seek
responsibility. Fifth, high degrees of imagination, ingenuity and creativity are not restricted to
a narrow group but are widely distributed in the population. Lastly, under the conditions of
modern industrial life, the intellectual potentials of the average human being are being only
partly utilized.
Management science or operations research
The need to manage increasingly complex organizations and operations led to the use
of scientific methodology and mathematical models to research the operations of an
organization and determine solutions to specific problems. With this approach an
organization is viewed as a complex system composed of interrelated subsystems.
Early operations research
Spurred by the need to manage the vast World War II military and industrial structure and
later the complex post-war industrial technology, operations research groups applied
scientific methods – observe, construct a mathematical model, make deductions under
different assumed conditions, and experiment – to determine solutions to complex problems.
Operations research gradually evolved into the Management Science approach to
management.
Herbert Simon
Information is essential to effective Management Science. Carnegie-melon management
scientist Herbert Simon (1978 – Nobel laureate in Economics) and his colleagues pointed out
that mangers need complete and perfect information to make decisions that can achieve
maximal results.
Systems approach
Management Science views an organization as a unified but complex system
composed of interrelated subsystems. Systems theory states that the activity of any subsystem
of an organization affects all other subsystems of the organization.
The Systems theory has had a significant effect on management science and
understanding organizations. A system is a collection of part unified to accomplish an overall
goal. If one part of the system is removed, the nature of the system is changed as well. A
system can be looked at as having inputs (resources such as raw materials, money,
technology, people), processes (planning, organizing, motivating, and controlling), outputs
(products or services) and outcomes (enhanced quality of life or productivity for
customers/clients, productivity). Systems share feedback among each of these four aspects of
the system.
The Systems theory may seem quite basic. Yes, decades of management training and
practices in the workplace have not followed this theory. Only recently, with tremendous
changes facing organizations and how they operate, have educators and managers come to
face this new way of looking at things. The effect of systems theory in management is that it
helps managers to look at the organization more broadly. It has also enabled managers to
interpret patterns and events in the workplace, by enabling mangers to recognize the various
parts of the organization, and, in particular, the interrelations of the parts. The situational or
contingency theory asserts that when managers make a decision, they must take into account
all aspects of the current situation and act on those aspects that are keys to the situation at
hand. Basically, it is the approach that “it depends”. For example, if one if leading troops in a
war zone, an autocratic style is probably the best. If one is leading a hospital or university, a
more participative and facilitative style is probably best.
The situational or contingency approach
The contingency approach is an eclectic approach to management, borrowing
techniques of other approaches if and when those techniques contribute to the attainment of
management goals in a particular situation at a particular time.
Problem-solving methodology
To determine a solution to a specific problem, the contingency approach follows a step-by-
step methodology:
1. Situational analysis, studying the strengths and weaknesses of the organization itself and analyzing
the potential threats to or opportunities for the organization
2. Statement of the problem
3. Statement of measurable objectives and standards for solving the problem
4. Development and evaluation of several possible solutions to the problem
5. Choice of a solution
6. Putting the solution in operation, first on a pilot basis and then, after necessary refinements, into the
organizational framework
7. Evaluation of the solution
Factors to be considered
The contingency approach considers:
Factors limiting an organization in environmental, technological, and human relations areas
Impact of a plan or solution not only on the specific problem but on the organization as a
whole
Need for flexible mangers with a wide-ranging knowledge of many management techniques
Availability of workers, their skills, abilities, and flexibility
Theory Z
Theory Z, based largely on the Japanese approach to management, stresses long-term
commitment, worker-management cooperation and discussion, and decision making that
takes group consensus into account. The theories of Mayo and McGregor, focusing on the
nature of the worker and the human dimension of work, and the work of Herzberg on
motivation contributed to the development of theory Z.
Group consensus
Theory Z believes in group decision making, based on the assumptions that a group has
access to more information and experience than an individual and that group dynamics will
filter out the extreme opinions and result in a decision that all members of the group can
accept and support.
Lifetime employment
In an effort to guarantee a committed and experienced long-term work force, Japanese
mangers view their workers as lifetime employees. Employees are periodically evaluated on
their performance and accomplishments.
Quality of worklife (QWL) approach
This approach is characterized by frequent worker-management communication, worker
control over some parts of the workplace, and worker participation in facets of decision
making.
Quality Circle (QC)
A small group of workers and managers that meets on a regular basis to discuss ways to
improve quality and decrease costs and to formulate suggestions that are often forwarded to
higher management levels. This is a specific technique in the QWL approach.
Factors affecting the QWL approach
Factors influencing the overall effectiveness and success of a QWL approach include:
The cost of worker time
The need for workers and management alike to be able to communicate effectively
The attitude and support of top-level management.
Unit 6 Management and the managerial role
Modern theories in management
The functions of management
Management skills
Modern theories in management
Recent developments in management theory
Under this category are the Systems approach, Situational or Contingency theory,
Chaos theory, and Team Building theory.
The Chaos theory is advocated by Tom Peters (1942). As chaotic and random as
global events seem today, they are equally chaotic in organizations. Yet for many decades,
managers have acted in the basis that organizational events can always be controlled. Thus, a
new theory, known as chaos theory, has emerged to recognize that events are rarely
controlled. Chaos theorists suggest that systems naturally go to more complexity, and as they
do so, they become more volatile and must, therefore, expend more energy to maintain that
complexity. As they expend more energy, they seek more structure to maintain stability. This
trend continues until the system splits, combines with another complex system or falls apart
entirely.
The latest management theory is the Team Building approach or theory. This theory
emphasizes quality circles, best practices, and continuous improvement. It is a theory that
mainly hinges on reliance on teamwork. It also emphasizes flattening of management
pyramid, and reducing the levels of hierarchy. In the end, it is all about consensus
management, involving more people at all levels in decision-making.
Other management theories
The works of Edward W. Deming and Douglas McGregor can be included in this
category. Edward W. Deming is the founder of modern quality management and is regarded
by the Japanese as the key influence in their post-war economic miracle. He postulated
several assumptions: create constancy of purpose for continual improvement of products and
service; adopt the new philosophy created in Japan; cease dependence on mass inspection;
build quality along with price; improve constantly and forever every process planning,
production, and service; institute modern methods of training on-the-job for including
management; adopt and institute leadership aimed at helping people to do a better job; drive
out fear, encourage effective two-way communication; breakdown barriers between
departments and staff areas; eliminate exhortations for the workforce – they only create
adversarial relationships; eliminate quotas and numerical targets; remove barriers to pride of
workmanship, including annual appraisals and Management by Objectives; encourage
education and self-improvement for everyone; and define top management’s permanent
commitment to ever-improving quality and productivity and their obligation to implement all
these principles.
There is, however, one theory or approach of management, namely the quantitative
approach, which is hardly used and known by managers. It emerges from operations research
and management science. It is a mathematical and statistical solution to problems using
optimization models, and computer simulations. It is most effective management decision-
making rather than managerial behaviour.
Management and the managerial role
Effective management depends on understanding the role and functions of a manger,
the management process, and delegation – the key to getting accountability and results.
The definition of management has evolved over the years. A currently accepted
definition is that of the American Management Association: management is working with and
through other people to accomplish the objectives of both the organization and its members.
Management activities involve getting results through others by the process of delegation.
The management process, no matter what the technical or vocational field, includes
the following steps:
1. Set objectives.
2. Assign responsibility and delegate authority.
3. Allocate resources.
4. Design controls and ways to monitor progress.
5. Solve problems as they occur.
6. Evaluate performance and outcome.
Results and accountability
A manager gets results through others by the process of delegation. Although a manager
cannot delegate ultimate responsibility, he/she can delegate authority. By sharing
responsibility through assignment and delegating authority, a manger can hold people at
other levels in the organization accountable for getting things done. Responsibility is an
obligation to perform certain duties. Accountability is the obligation to account for results.
The functions of management
The management process comprises five basic functions or activities: planning,
organizing, staffing, leading, and controlling. Each of these functions relates to every other
activity, and in a coordinating way, they progress in a cyclical and ongoing pattern – always
with the goal of obtaining results.
The managerial process is cyclical in nature. The basic functions, especially planning
and controlling, of one cycle are evaluated and used in planning for the next cycle, usually a
budget period.
Planning
Planning is the process of determining organizational goals and how to achieve them.
Strategic planning involves setting long-term goals and establishing general broad
guidelines for obtaining these aims.
Operational planning, or day-to-day planning, involves setting specific measurable
objectives for a specific time period (usually a budget period) and establishing
schedules and timetables for obtaining these objectives within the overall
organizational framework.
Organizing
The process of using resources and personnel is an orderly way to achieve the objectives and
long-term goals of the organization. Departmentalization, sharing responsibility through
assignment, and delegation of authority are parts of the organizing function.
Staffing
Recruiting and placing qualified personnel needed for the organization to achieve its
objectives and goals. Selection, compensation, and labor relations are all part of the staffing
function.
Leading
Leading is related to working with people to get them to perform in ways that will help the
organization achieve its goals. Communication and motivation are important leadership
skills.
Controlling
It means making sure that the objectives and goals of the organization are met on a day-to-
day basis. Controlling involves setting performance standards for individuals, measuring
performance against these standards, and taking action to correct any weaknesses and address
any problems. The function of control involves both management control (ensuring the
efficient and effective use of human resources) and operational control (ensuring that specific
tasks are carried out). The latter is accomplished primarily through scheduling and
establishing procedures.
System for managing results
A management system that attains the desired results has four important links: 1. defining
objectives, 2. assigning responsibilities, 3. developing standards of performance, and 4.
appraising performance.
Management skills
Certain skills are essential if a manager is to succeed in having the organization
accomplish its goals. Among these skills are: communication, decision making, motivation,
knowing how to deal with groups and with conflict situations, and, perhaps the most
important, time management.
Communication skills
Communication is essential for organizational success. Without it, a manager cannot bridge
the gap between higher management and subordinates and cannot plan, explain, motivate, or
lead subordinates.
Motivation
Since the art of management is working with and through people to accomplish goals, a
manager must be able to motivate people. Motivation is the process of stimulating an
individual or group to work to accomplish the desired goals.
Decision-making
All managers must make decisions. To help them in decision-making, they must be aware of
different ways of thinking and approaching decisions and how varying conditions can alter
decision-making.
Time management
As managers move up the organizational hierarchy, they should spend more time in
managerial tasks, delegating responsibility, and less time in operating or vocational tasks.
Dealing with conflict
An effective manger must be able to resolve conflict – whether the conflict is between
individuals or groups or between two or more points of view – in such a way that the
outcome leads to the achievement of the organization’s objectives.
Dealing with groups
Groups have their own special dynamics – be they large formal groups or committees or
small informal groups. An effective manager must appreciate the characteristics of the group
and deal with them effectively.
Unit 7 Executive skills
Time management
Preparing an European CV or American resume
A successful interview (frequent questions)
Executive skills
One of the most important skills that mangers – in any type of organization or at any
level of management – must develop is skills in managing time. Managers must also pursue their
own career plan, and to do this, skill in preparing a CV or resume and cover letter and in being
interviewed is essential.
Time management
Time is a unique and precious resource, one that must be planned and managed. A knowledge of
what type of time a manager most benefits from and of ways to obtain more of it are key
elements in managerial success.
Characteristics of time
Time has five unique features – it is inelastic (the supply never increases); irreplaceable;
perishable; always in short supply; and cannot be rented or bought.
Time-consuming tasks of a manager
Time is taken up by three basic types of tasks. Boss-imposed tasks impose on a
manager’s employee time; the manager is doing things personally, acting as an employee.
Organization-imposed tasks take up supervisory time: the manager is assigning tasks to others.
Self-imposed tasks take up executive and discretionary time: the manger is delegating authority
and responsibility to others. A manger’s objective should be to spend as much time as possible
in the executive time category, generating more self-imposed tasks. This will not happen if the
manger allows subordinates to infringe or discretionary time.
Apportioning managerial time
Moving up the organization’s hierarchical chain, a manger should spend more time in managing
through delegating and less in operating through doing. To state it another way, as management
activities and demands increase, involvement in the technical or vocational activities of the
organization should decrease.
Using time better
Better time utilization involves becoming aware of how time is really spent (keeping a time log
helps) and then consolidating and managing the time. Some hints for using time better:
Make a plan for the day.
Set deadlines.
Set aside time for thinking and creating.
Concentrate on doing one thing at a time – chunk time. (Most important tasks require a fairly
large period of time; to spend less than the minimum required is a waste of time.)
Strike a balance between important jobs and necessary jobs.
Take a short break every two hours.
Approaches on time management
Time management should occur in all three main areas of managerial concern: production,
administration, and delegation.
Production
Separate the essential from the nonessential; be persistent;, learn to work anywhere and use
spare time; and do not waste time on trifles: decide trifles quickly.
Administration
Schedule time; prioritize tasks and start with the member one item and complete it (doing it the
correct way) before moving on to the second item.
Delegation
Know which tasks can be safely delegated; figure out who can help more effectively; and let
them help.
Preparing a CV or resume and a cover letter
In pursuing a career life plan, a manager must assess personal strengths and weaknesses, likes
and dislikes, interests and goals before exploring the possibilities. At some point, development
of a CV and cover letter and preparation for an effective interview are called for.
Curriculum vitae or resume
It is a written summary of personal education and experience intended to demonstrate
qualifications for a particular position. An effective CV is designed with a particular type of job
in mind and a clearly articulated objective substantiated by reasons an applicant is qualified for
that particular type of work. A selling tool or advertisement of skills and accomplishments, it is
intended to stimulate interest on the part of the potential employer in order to gain an interview
and further consideration for the position.
Guidelines for CV writing
Be honest. False information can be grounds for dismissal.
Keep the CV focused. Different CVs should be prepared, each focused on the particular type of
job sought.
Do not include personal data, such as age, marital status, or height and weight.
Be sure the CV is well-organized and brief – no more than one or two pages.
Use light coloured paper – white, sand, buff, light grey.
Avoid gimmicks (e.g. fancy binders)
Be sure the CV is well typed and duplicated.
Be sure the CV is free of grammar, spelling or punctuation errors.
Formats for CVs
Chronological: the most used format, it lists experience (previous jobs) chronologically, stating with the
most recent, and gives job title and a description of accomplishments for each job. This format is best
used when there are few or no gaps in employment history.
Functional: if there are gaps in employment history or numerous job changes in a given period, a
functional CV may be preferable. This categorizes experience into several job functions (e.g. planning,
communication, leadership), emphasizing job capabilities and deemphasizing dates, names, and places.
Combination: If experience has been largely with one company, a combination CV is best. It uses a
functional format and includes job titles, company names, and dates. It emphasizes skills and abilities.
Cover letter
A cover letter is a short letter (three or four paragraphs) written to a potential employer with a
CV attached. Guidelines for writing a cover letter:
Use printed, personal letterhead stationary, if possible.
If responding to a newspaper ad, use some language from the ad in the cover letter.
Include the name and title of the individual with whom you are seeking an interview, if this is
possible.
Emphasize any particular skills that meet the company’s needs.
Suggest a specific interview time.
A successful interview
A job interview is a face-to-face meeting between two people to explore mutual interest
as it relates to a specific job. It is a structured conversation that allows the interviewer to assess
the applicant’s potential and the applicant to assess whether the job is attractive. An interview is
an important part of the hiring process for any managerial position, and knowing how to have a
winning interview is an important skill for any manager.
Personal preparation
Dress appropriately, as you would if you were hired for that particular job in that particular
company. Be on time and be prepared for possible emergencies (e.g. parking problems). Be
ready to describe personal accomplishments briefly – things you want the interviewer to
remember and reinforce your suitability for the position. Become familiar with the company –
what it does, its major product line, its reputation, its needs.
The interview
During the interview itself, follow these guidelines:
Be aware of the image that you are projecting (e.g. what you read while waiting, how you sit,
mannerisms).
Greet the interviewer with a firm handshake and make eye contact.
Do not smoke.
Be a good listener. Hear what the interviewer is saying about the person they want to hire.
Parts of an interview
An interview generally consists of four parts: the greeting, typical questions asked by the
interviewer, questions the applicants asks, and the close.
Greeting
During the greeting stage, establish rapport, maintain eye contact, and be aware of the image that
you are projecting.
Typical interview questions
When answering questions, omit superfluous details and emphasize the benefits that you can
bring to the company. Watch for nonverbal feedback and shorten your response if you notice
that the interviewer’s attention is wandering. If you do not know the answer to a technical
question, admit it and do not panic. Try to mention your strongest point near the end of the
interview. Some typical questions (and hints to consider when answering):
Tell me about yourself. (Take the initiative. Mention your strengths and how they relate to the
company.)
What are your strengths? (Sell yourself; emphasize specific skills and knowledge of the
industry.)
Why should I hire you? (Again, sell yourself, stressing motivation, familiarity with the industry,
previous successes.)
What are your weaknesses? (Be self-confident, and mention non-job-related weaknesses, or
better yet, present a strength as a weakness.)
What are your long-range goals? (Be sure that your response shows career planning, foresight,
self-knowledge, and realistic expectations.)
What is important to you in a job? (Stress that you want to do a good job and contribute to the
goals of the company.)
Questions that the applicant may ask
It is appropriate for an applicant also to ask questions. It is generally a good idea not to discuss
salary or benefits until you have been offered the job, but the following questions are
appropriate:
May I see a copy of the job description?
To whom would I be responsible?
With whom would I be working?
What are the advancement opportunities?
How much travel is involved with the position?
What are the major markets? Biggest competitors?
The close – and after
The interviewer may offer the next step – going about the hiring procedure, coming back for
another meeting, or expressing no interest. Be courteous, and thank the interviewer. (You may
ask for an evaluation for the interview if you wish.) Within four days of the interview, send a
short thank-you note (on personal stationery, if possible). Briefly review the major points
covered in the interview, express your continuing interest, and suggest a definite timetable for
additional meeting or conversation.
Unit 8 The organization of work
How organizations are structured
Leadership
Types of organizational structures
The framework for organizing the relationship of responsibility, authority, and
accountability is known as the organizational structure. There are several widely used
organizational structure plans as well as other contingent plans, dependent on environmental
and technological conditions relating to the organization.
Structures
There are three major, widely used, organizational frameworks:
Line organization, the simplest organizational structure, has direct vertical links between
groups in a scalar chain, resulting in clear lines of authority and ease of decision making. All
units in this type of organization are doers, actively involved in producing or marketing the
organization’s product or service.
Line and staff organization uses specialists to advise, service, or support the line in some way.
Staff specialists contribute to the efficiency of an organization, but their authority is usually
limited to making recommendations to the line organization, and this can occasionally create
conflict. Human resources, research and development, and auditing are typical staff function.
Committee organization has a group of people appointed to consider certain specific matters.
Committees may be permanent, or standing, often serving in an advisory capacity, or they
may be temporary, or ad hoc, established to consider a specific situation. Certain committees,
known as plural committees, have the authority in order (not just advise, as most committees
do).
Contingency approach: Several studies showing a relationship between organizational
structure and environment and between organizational structure and technology have led to
the development of a contingency approach in organization. This approach is dynamic,
stressing the situation, pace of change, size of an organization, managerial style, and
environmental and technological conditions.
Leadership
Leadership is the process by which mangers motivate, influence, direct, and
communicate with subordinates to get them to perform in ways that will help the organization
achieve its goals. It is one of the five major functions of management. The ability to influence
others in an organization has several sources and levels and can be exercised in a variety of
ways. This has led to development of various schools and techniques of leadership.
Power in an organization
To exercise the leadership function of management, a manger must have power or the ability to
influence others, specifically subordinates, in the organizational framework. Power is derived
from several sources, and a manager’s understanding of these sources makes the manager’s use
of power – and authority – more effective.
Sources of power
In any organization, power derives from several sources:
Legitimate power is derived from hierarchical structure of the organization and occurs when
subordinates recognize the rightful authority of the manger to influence and lead them.
Legitimate power is a function of a particular position and stays with the position, not the
individual.
Reward power is based on a manager’s ability to reward a subordinate for a particular
performance – for example, by granting a raise or recommending a promotion.
Coercive power is based on a manager’s ability to punish a subordinate. Example: by denying a
promotion or raise.
Expert power is based on an individual’s knowledge, special skills, abilities, or previous
experience valuable to the organization.
Referent power is based on an individual’s ability to influence others through personal
characteristics or charismatic personality.
Association can also result in referent power.
Information power comes from the possession of information important to the organization and
its functioning, and may be held by anyone in the organization (e.g. a secretary) who has access
to vital information.
Formal vs. informal leaders
In any organization there are formal leaders, who lead by virtue of their position, and
informal leaders, who have no official leadership position but lead by virtue of their personal
characteristics, knowledge, or experience.
Power and authority
Although the terms are sometimes used inter-changeably, “authority” usually refers to the
official power of a manger over subordinates. It can also refer to actions of a subordinate
over a manger in a specific situation.
Techniques of leadership
Different theories on the nature of leadership and the use of power in an organization
have led to the development of several theories and techniques of leadership.
Trait theory
This theory holds the possession of certain personal traits is a hallmark of a leader. In other
words, leaders are born, not made. Many research studies have failed to identify specific
traits that distinguish leaders from non-leaders and further have indicated that leadership
traits can be learnt.
Behavioural approach
Focusing on what the leader does, not on the traits that he or she possesses., the behavioural
approach holds that leadership has at least two aspects – one related to task performance, the
other to employee functioning; that leadership styles can be learnt and must be flexible; and
that no single style is appropriate for all situations.
Contingency approaches
Contingency, or situational, approaches to leadership stress the needs and dynamics of the
particular situation and the need to adapt leadership styles to the situation. Four factors play
a role in the situational approach to leadership:
The personal characteristics of the manager
The nature of the job itself
The nature of the organization
The characteristics of subordinates
Unit 9 Marketing Management
Marketing and distribution
Market and product
Marketing and distribution
Marketing can be defined as a management function which organizes and directs all
business activities involved in assessing and converting customer purchasing power into
effective demand for a specific product or service to the final consumer so as to achieve
profit, target or other objectives set by the organization. In other words it is presentation and
distribution of goods and services in the manner best designed to benefit the producer, the
distributor and the public.
Marketing refers to an overall approach to doing business and it involves analyzing
and understanding customer needs in order to enable the company to provide the most
appropriate products and services.
The main elements of a marketing program – the marketing mix – often called the
four Ps, are: Product, Price, Promotion and Place. Product refers to decisions concerning the
quality of the product, branding, and packing, to expanding or simplifying the product range,
identifying new products and developing them. The price policy includes discount and credit
terms, the establishing of the type of price: either the cash and carry price or the price of the
product to which a number of additional services are added.
Sales promotion includes immediate or delayed incentives to purchase. Immediate
incentives, meaning those offered simultaneously with the purchase, are best illustrated by
price-cuts.
Delayed incentives could be illustrated by offering to purchasers the chance of taking
part in a competition. Sales promotions are also such means as coupon, customer
sweepstakes, cash rebates.
Channels of distribution
Goods may be sold direct from producers or manufacturers to consumers. But in
general the services of a middleman – or wholesaler as he is called – are required. He has
storage and warehousing facilities which an ordinary retailer cannot afford. He sells a wide
range of goods and can grant credit terms to his customers.
Selling to the general public may be done through door-to-door salesmen or
canvassers or by mail order. But most people usually do their shopping in retail outlets such
as department stores, hyper-markets, supermarkets, multiples (or chain stores) or at the shop
round the corner. Retail chains are also owned and operated by cooperative societies.
In a supermarket or self-service store, the shoppers help themselves from the shelves
and counters and carry their purchases in a trolley. They pay at a check-out counter which
has replaced the traditional cash-desk.
The tendency among independent retailers today is to get together into purchasing
groups, or voluntary chains, to fight the competition from large-surface stores.
Having too few shops or outlets may indeed prove more harmful to the consumer’s
interest than having what appears at first sight to be too many. Where there seem to be too
many shops, closer inspection will show that there is a good reason for their existence. If
there isn’t, some of them will be forced to close down. The village shop, the corner shop, the
local market, the supermarket, all have a usefulness, much of which cannot be measured in
terms of “operating costs” alone. They are human units doing their specialized jobs as part of
our community.
The function of distribution is to move goods from the producer to the final consumer
or user, and it applies to both industrial and consumer goods or services. There are a number
of channels open to the producer for this purpose. He can deal directly with the consumer or
with middlemen such as retailers, wholesalers or agents.
The choice of distribution channel, or combination of channels, is linked to financial,
technical, and market considerations. For example, in the case of a product which is
technically complex, it should be more efficient for the manufacturer to deal directly with the
user, but a cigarette manufacturer, say, with a product that must be made available to a large
number of potential customers, should find that dealing with a wide range of wholesalers is
the best answer.
From the manufacturer’s point of view, it is the total cost of distribution which is
significant and not the cost of individual actions such as warehousing, order processing, or
transport.
CHANNEL OF DISTRIBUTION
Producer
. Agent Wholesaler Retailer Consumer / User
Market and product
Central in the marketing mix is the product itself. Clearly, as well as understanding its
targets markets, a company must be fully aware of the qualities of its products. Thus, an
important part of what a company must do before it can draw up a marketing strategy is to
assess the potential success of its merchandise. Three of the many ways in which a product
can be analyzed are the following:
One way to define a product is to look at it on three different levels. To begin with,
there is the product which you can touch, see, hear, and so on. However, the tangible product
includes intangible benefits which are an important part of what you buy. The beneficial uses
of a product are known as the ‘core product’. Finally, a product often comes with ‘extras’ that
may have to be paid for. Like the core product, the extras are also intangible and include
things such as warranties, customer support services and finance services. These extras are
known as the ‘augmented product’.
Having defined the product, the company will also need to be aware of its probable
life cycle. For example, some goods, such as computer software, may have a very short life-
span, whereas other products, such as Coca Cola, can carry on selling well for years.
Understanding the likely life cycle helps a company to plan its finance and manage its cash
flow – when it may need to invest funds, for example, and when income may grow or fall.
A business also needs to identify where a product is in its life cycle, once it has been
introduced. At what point, for instance, will the market stabilize? If sales start to fall, does
this indicate a decline phase? If so, the company may have to take action to try to extend the
life-span of the product. There are many ‘extension strategies’ which can be used, including
developing new versions of the product, finding new markets, adding to the brand range,
rebranding and repackaging.
Finally, a company needs to carry out an analysis of its product portfolio. A well-
known method of doing this is the ‘Boston Matrix’, which evaluates products in terms of
their market share and the rate of growth of the market in which they are positioned. There
are four categories. A ‘cash cow’ has a large market share of a market that is mature, or not
growing. This means that profits are good and investment can be minimal. A ‘star’ product is
obviously a desirable position but it may continue to need investment in promotion, and
rivals will need to be defeated. A ‘problem child’ product has a low market share of a
growing market. It may well be profitable in the future, but will need heavy promotion to
ensure a larger market share. Finally there is the ‘dog’. This has a low share of a market that
is not growing – not an advantageous situation to be in. The best thing to do with dogs is to
sell them!
Unit 10 Advertising
Advertising and other techniques
Advertising
Advertising is communicating the company’s message and promoting its products,
services and ideas to existing or potential customers.
Advertising, an element of the marketing function, aims at increasing the sales, by
making the product known to a wide segment of consumers. In order to reach the public, an
advertising message needs a carrier of it, which is called a medium. It can be the company’s
own medium, as for instance a catalogue, a brochure, a folder, a prospectus, or it may be a
point-of-sale sign, poster or display. On the other hand it can be a newspaper, a magazine, a
directory, a radio system, a TV channel. A quite modern medium is skywriting.
When deciding on the use of a certain medium one has to take into account the target
audience, the amount of funds available for advertising. The target audience will be
indicating what sort of publication to use, general purpose newspapers or publications for
youth, women etc. An advertiser who decides on a reach strategy wants to include in his
audience as many prospective customers as possible. This strategy is advisable when there is
a strong brand loyalty. A frequency strategy involves that the potential customers are exposed
to the message as many times as possible. In this case a greater number of insertions in the
same publication will be preferred instead of a wider coverage by using several publications.
Advertising campaigns are a much used method. In such campaigns usually
competitive advertising is preferred, especially in the U.S.A. where advertising is more
aggressive than in the U.K., in campaigns that are now history. Pepsi Cola used blind taste
tests, and sometimes it resorted to endorsement such as the participation in the campaign of
Shakira. In commercials, for instance, sometimes slogans are used, that is phrases that stick in
the minds of the consumers.
Advertising and other techniques
The four elements of the communication mix are: advertising, sales promotion,
publicity and, personal selling.
An advertising company is an organization concerned with marketing. It considers the
goods and services that clients wish to offer to the public and advises them on the best method of
advertising them in order to maximize profit or goodwill. Central to an advertising agency is the
account group. The account executives act on all matters as a liaison between the agency and
customers. In order to ensure that advertising plans are executed, the account group works in
close collaboration with the creative department whose copywriters and artists design
advertisements and posters, the media department which plans and buys the space and air time
best suited for the advertising campaign, and the production department which produces the
material designed by the creative department for the use in press and outdoor campaigns.
Television production is usually performed by outside film production companies.
Objectives of advertising
Advertising objectives are expressed in terms of the degree to which the message
communicated may succeed in reinforcing or changing the attitudes of the target audience. Such
objectives can certainly be measured. There are research techniques which allow public opinion
to be investigated, thus the problem is simple and consists in comparing the levels of an
audience’s opinion before and after the advertising campaign and in identifying changes in
particular attitudes.
Advertising is profitable to business: it is cost saving distribution procedure as it reduces
the number of middlemen and helps increase the turnover. Advertising is also said to be
advantageous to the consumer, because, theoretically, an advertised article cannot but maintain
reputation, which cannot fail to have a beneficial influence on quality.
Message strategy
Given that marketing communication aims at persuading the public (its audience)
reinforcing its attitudes or changing them, the message design will consist in:
Penetrating, reminding and creating favourable associations
Choosing the message
Creating the atmosphere of presentation
Effective advertising should be based on the concentration on one message, one medium, one
market and on repetition, the idea that you should not abandon a successful formula when you
have got it. On the other hand, effective advertising uses the right message expressed through
the right medium. The media selection poses a problem each media planner is confronted with:
either achieving maximum frequency or achieving maximum reach or coverage. Frequency
means the number of appearances for an advertisement, while reach means the number of
members of the target audience to be covered. The target audience, in other words, the
objective, means the people the media planner wishes to reach in terms of social class, sex, age,
region, special interests, etc.
Unit 11 Negotiations in Business
Business negotiations
Negotiation techniques
Business negotiations
Negotiating is the process of trying to reach an agreement, or to decide something
through discussion. People negotiate in a variety of situations, from shopping in a market to
taking part in United Nations peace talks. The world of business provides many opportunities
for negotiating:
An employee and employer may negotiate working conditions, e.g. a pay rise, a company car, a
travel allowance.
Sales staff and customers negotiate the price of a sale, the terms of payment, delivery dates,
discounts and product specifications.
A company will negotiate a contract with a distributor.
Two groups will try to reach agreement over the sale of a business.
Unions have talks with management over members’ pay and working conditions.
The aim of a negotiation is to reach agreement or resolve differences. The skills
that you need and the language that you use will be similar in any type of negotiation.
There has been a great deal of research into the art of negotiation and, in particular,
into what makes a ‘good’ negotiator.
Most researchers seem to agree that good negotiators try to create a harmonious
atmosphere at the start of a negotiation. They make an effort to establish a good rapport with
their opposite number, so that there will be a willingness – on both sides – to make
concessions, if this should prove necessary.
Good negotiators generally wish to reach an agreement which meets the interests of
both sides. They therefore tend to take a long-term view, ensuring that the agreement will
improve, or at least not harm, their relationship with the other party.
Skilful negotiators are flexible. They do not “lock themselves” into a position so that
they will lose face if they have to compromise. They have a range of objectives, thus
allowing themselves to make concessions.
Successful negotiators do not want a negotiation to break down. If problems arise,
they suggest ways of resolving them. The best negotiators are persuasive, articulate people,
who select a few key arguments and repeat them. This suggests that tenacity is an important
quality.
Finally, it is essential to be a good listener and to check frequently that everything has
been understood by both parties.
Some hints on negotiating
Preparation
Planning Make sure you prepare properly. The less you prepare, the more you will be at a
disadvantage and the less likely you will be to achieve a satisfactory outcome.
Research Try to find out as much as you can about your opposite number and his or her
business. Use the resources of a business library and/or talk to your business contacts.
Objectives Try to take a long-term view and decide on a range of objectives so that you can
be more flexible and offer more alternatives during the negotiation itself. Remember you are
looking for a win-win situation of benefit to both parties, thus paving the way for further deals
in the future.
Limits Decide what your sticking point(s) must be and why. Knowing your negotiating
limits and their reasons will help you negotiate more confidently and comfortably.
Strategy Plan your negotiating strategy carefully, taking into consideration the personality
and position of your opposite number, as well as your strengths and weaknesses.
Negotiation techniques
Rapport Try to establish a good rapport with your opposite number from the moment you
first meet, whether or not you already know each other. Some general ‘social talk’ is a good
ice-breaker and bridge-builder in this respect.
Parameters Confirm the subject/purpose of your negotiation early on and try to establish
areas of common ground and areas of likely conflict before you move on to the
bargaining/trading stage.
Listen! Listening attentively at every stage of your negotiation will help to avoid
misunderstanding and create a spirit of cooperation.
Attitude Be constructive not destructive – treat your opposite number with respect,
sensitivity and tact, and try to avoid an atmosphere of conflict. This will create a feeling of
harmony and goodwill, which should encourage willingness to compromise and ultimately
lead to a productive negotiation.
Approach Keep your objectives in mind – and try to keep a clear head. This will help you to
concentrate on your key points. Try to resist the temptation to introduce new arguments all
the time. Use the minimum number of reasons to persuade your opposite number, coming
back to them as often as necessary.
Flexibility Be prepared to consider a range of alternatives and try to make creative
suggestions for resolving your problems. Be prepared to make concessions and to
compromise, if necessary, but don’t be pushed beyond your sticking point.
Review Summarize and review your progress at regular intervals during the negotiation.
This will give both parties a chance to check understanding – and, if necessary, clarify/rectify
any misunderstandings.
Agreement When you have reached agreement, close the deal firmly and clearly. Confirm
exactly what you have agreed – and any aspects/matters that need further action.
Confirmation Write a follow-up letter to confirm in writing the points agreed during your
negotiation and clarify any outstanding matters.
Language
Simplicity Keep your language simple and clear. Take your time and use short words and
sentences that you are comfortable with – there is no point complicating a difficult task with
difficult language.
Clarity Don’t be afraid to ask questions if there is anything you don’t understand. It is vital
to avoid any misunderstanding that might jeopardize the success of your negotiation.
Emphasizing In a negotiation you need to argue firmly to achieve what you want, and to do
this effectively you need to emphasize important points, and support your arguments with
additional information.
Unit 12 Commercial Correspondence
Types of business letters
Inquires and offers
Orders and confirmation of orders
Complaints and adjustments
Types of business letters
Planning a business letter
As you write your letters, remember to ask yourself these five important questions: !.
What are you to say? 2. Are you being logical? 3. What about your paragraphs?
5. Have you identified the subject? 6. Have you shown the way ahead?
Learn to produce letters that are neatly set out and well-presented, free from errors
and jargon. In this way you create a favourable image for your firm. A poor letter, no matter
how important its content is, only irritates and does nothing to help a firm’s business.
Therefore, cherish this as a golden rule: Never let a letter go without being satisfied with it.
Style
In all types of business correspondence you should be clear, concise and polite. When
you use a formal tone, avoid short forms and contractions, such as I’ve, doesn’t, aren’t,
shouldn’t, can’t, as well as colloquial expressions, which are generally considered to be
informal.
Punctuation should be kept to a minimum – no full stops in abbreviations and no commas
in addresses, e.g.
Mr Paul Wexford
4 Elm Ave
London
SW8 5NJ
UK
Examples of business letters
Study the following letter. It follows the guidelines mentioned above for it is accurate and
clear; it is simple and brief; it is positive and courteous. Therefore it gives a good image of
the person who has written it and of his firm.
PLASTICHROME & CO LTD
Directors:
H Morton Tel: 0902-3468/9
J A Blakey Highfiels Works
T Y Thomson Wolverhampton WV6 8DW
Your Ref SD 181 1 September 20 ..
Our Ref JW/EB
The Chief Buyer
Stone & Goldie Ltd
21 Bridge Street
Manchester
Dear Sir
We have pleasure in enclosing our receipt for your cheque of $40.
You were right to deduct the discount of ten per cent, according to the special
arrangements we made with you when the order was placed.
Thank you for your order received today.
The goods will be sent in about ten days’ time.
Yours faithfully
(signature)
John H Wright
(Sales Manager)
Lay-out of a business letter
Letter head
First of all the letter head comes. This is a sheet of letter paper with a printed heading
carrying the firm’s name, address, telephone number(s), fax number, name of manager,
directors, etc.
Remember that when addressing a letter, street names are generally typed in full. If for some
reason the street name has to be abbreviated, the following shorted forms should be used:
Avenue - Ave; Court - Ct; Crescent – Cres; Gardens – Gdns; Grove – Gro; Park – Pk; Place –
Pl; Road – Rd; Street – St; Terrace – Ter. Omit full stops after these contractions.
Lay-out
This covers the following:
1. Date 4. Salutation 7. Complimentary ending
2. Reference(s) 5. Subject-heading 8. Signature and conclusion
3. Inside address 6. Body of letter 9. Enclosure(s)
1. Date
This should be written in full, normally in the order of day, month, year, as in :
I5 November 2006
Commas should be omitted. The day of the week is not generally included.
2. Reference(s)
References are a way of identifying a letter. They vary from the very simple to the complex.
In basic form they are the initials of the person who dictated the letter and the typist, e.g. Our
ref: WFM/OP/67 (file number)
There are two points to remember when using references:
a) be sure that your own references give the necessary information for locating the letter at a
later date;
b) in reply, always quote the other party’s letter reference.
3. Inside address
This is the name and address of the person to whom the letter is being sent. Prefer the block
form, as in
The Manager:
Fax Merchandising
68 Campbell Street
YABA – LAGOS
4. Salutation
This is the opening words of greeting in a letter. The normal form in business correspondence
is: Dear Sir(s) or Dear Madam (Mesdames).
Two further forms of salutation should be considered:
a) Sir, Gentlemen, Madam, Mesdames. These are used in more formal correspondence,
namely, official reports and government correspondence, etc.
b) Dear Mr (Mrs/Miss/Ms), Dear (first name of the recipient). This form of salutation
permits the only use of ‘Yours sincerely’ in business letters and is used only when the
person addressed is known by the writer.
5. Subject heading
In business letters this is used to give prominence to the subject matter, as in this example:
Dear Sir
Mr H J Stewart
This young man has applied to us for a post in our Advertising Department.
The subject heading should be underlined.
6. Body of the letter
This is obviously the most important section of the business letter. The basic guidelines are:
use clear and concise English; uncomplicated words; accurate spelling; considered
punctuation; sensible paragraphing. Beware of too many short paragraphs since they tend to
spoil the appearance of a letter. Note also that a letter, unless very short, should never be
written in one paragraph.
Most firms use the fully blocked, open punctuation form of letter. There are two reasons for
this: first, many consider it improves the appearance of a letter; second – and more
importantly – it saves much of typewriting time.
Fully blocked describes the shape of paragraphs which are blocked from the left-hand
margin rather than intended in the first line. When a paragraph ends we move down two line
spaces and begin again at the left-hand margin.
Open punctuation means the complete omission of all punctuation for the date, inside
address, salutation, complimentary close, etc. without risking ambiguity. Naturally,
punctuation is retained for the body of the letter.
7. Complimentary ending
The point to remember here is that your ending must conform to your salutation. Here are
some examples:
Dear Sir/Madam Yours faithfully
Dear Mr Plank
Dear Mrs Wilson Yours sincerely
Dear Oscar
Note the more formal endings:
Sir/Gentlemen Your obedient servant
Madam/Mesdames Yours respectfully
These are rarely used.
Note How you close your letter depends on the salutation or greeting you have used. There
are some differences between British and American English in this area, and these are shown
below:
British English
Opening Closing
Dear Sir/Madam Yours faithfully
Dear Mr. Gates Yours sincerely
Dear Ms. Hughes
American English
Dear Sir/Madam Sincerely yours
Truly yours
Respectfully yours
Dear Mr. Gates Yours sincerely
Dear Ms. Hughes Sincerely yours
Yours truly
Truly yours
British and American English
Dear Maggie (informal) Best wishes
Best regards
Kind regards
8. Signature and conclusion
The name of the firm or position held is normally typed immediately below the
complimentary ending, allowing sufficient space for signature. Many signatures to business
letters are illegible; when this is so, a sensible practice is to type the name under the
signature.
Here are some examples of formal signatures:
Sole trader Michael Black
Partnership May Banks & Co
Limited company For King, Miles & Co Ltd.,
Peter Long
Director
Local authority Newcastle Urban District Council
Roger West
Clerk to the Council
In the case of a limited company the official who signs may be the Director, Accountant,
Secretary, Sales Manager, or other official concerned with the matter in question.
Per pro or pp is an abbreviation for the Latin per procurationem, indicating that the signatory
has signed for and on behalf of the company with full authority. Persons who are authorized
to conduct correspondence for their firm, but who have not been given power of procuration,
sign as follows:
R Braid
pp May Banks & Co
9. Enclosure(s)
These are shown by the abbreviation Enc or Encs (if more than one), entered at the bottom
left-hand margin.
These, the, are the component parts of a business letter. There may be some variations to the
above framework, but they will be only slight. As your letter has to be both a messenger and
an ambassador, excellence in letter-writing becomes an essential.
Different types of business letters
There are, in general, three classifications of business letters:
a) the formal letter b) the semi-formal letter c) the personal note
We are concerned with the formal business letter only. This type of letter is still used for the
bulk of correspondence between firms, organizations, companies, nationalized industries.
1. Quotations
The first step in a business transaction is usually an inquiry about prices, range of products,
availability of goods, etc. in order to discover new sources of supply or to obtain detail of
quality and price the buyer sends inquiries to several firms.
When submitting a quotation, the following points should be noted;
a) A clear description of the goods offered should be given. Where possible, samples should
be sent.
b) Prices and terms should be given. Discounts, if any, should be shown.
c) Delivery terms should be stated.
d) If there is a limited period, then this should be indicated, e.g. subject to acceptance within
14 days
2. Order letters
As a guide to the paragraphing of an order letter you should include:
a) reference to a source of information
b) lists of goods to be ordered
c) quantity, quality, price, and catalogue number (if any)
d) details of delivery and payment
e) an order number
3. Acknowledgements
Often, orders will be placed by telephone or fax. Acknowledgements should include thanks
for the order; confirmation of details; delivery date; courtesy ending.
4. Letters of complaint
It is sometimes necessary to complain about the quality of goods received or about damage
which has occurred before the goods reach the buyer’s premises. Late or incomplete delivery
might also cause dissatisfaction. Whatever the reason for complaint, annoyance must never
be allowed to take precedence over courtesy. Therefore, a letter of complaint should be
tactfully and carefully worded; it should neither rebuke nor threaten.
The following points should be embodied in such a letter:
a) delivery of goods should be acknowledged
b) cause for complaint should be stated
c) request for action should be made
d) if necessary, replacement of goods should be asked for
5. Replies to complaints
In replying to a complaint about damaged goods, delay in delivery, etc., the seller should first
of all express his regret that the need of complaint has arisen. He should state which
investigations have been made, and where the blame appears to be. If the buyer is
responsible, then it is wise to admit this frankly. Finally, the seller must suggest a remedy for
the complaint – delayed goods must be forwarded, damaged goods must be repaired, etc.
6. Requests for payment
A first letter requesting payment of an account is generally very short. With it is enclosed the
statement of he account, and reference should be made to any terms of discount.
When the second request for payment does not bring settlement, it is possible that the
customer is purposely withholding it. The tone of the next letter should be curt and pointed,
but still courteous.
7. Status inquiries
A letter asking for information is called a status inquiry. Information is generally requested
on the following points:
a) the period of the firm’s connection with the buyers
b) the frequency of orders received from them
c) the payment of accounts, discount allowed
d) the amount of credit to be allowed points
Note: a) and b) are sometimes omitted but c) and d) are necessary.
8. Letters of reference
They are another form of status inquiry where information on a specific point is sought. It is
interesting to note that increasingly references are being checked on by telephone. This has
the advantage of providing more detailed discussion about the applicant or the firm.
9. Letters of introduction
This is a letter to introduce the representative of a firm to business houses in towns or
districts to be visited. In such a letter the representative’s name, his connection with the firm
and his reason for travelling or visiting are stated. The letter also carries a request on behalf
of the representative for the advice and help of the firm addressed. There may also be
mention of the firm’s willingness to reciprocate should the opportunity arise. A letter of
introduction is not sealed, unless, of course, it is sent through the post.
10. Circular letters
The purpose of a circular letter is to give information, e.g. change of address, extension of
premises, introduction of new lines, announcement of a particular event to be held –
conference, exhibitions –opening of a new branch, etc. It must therefore be accurate and
clear. It should also be brief. If it is long, it will probable not be read.
The following points should be included in a letter announcing the opening of a new branch:
a) where, when and why the branch will be opened
b) a description, attractively worded, of the stock offered
c) an invitation to visit the new premises
11. Letters of application
It is essential to remember that a letter of application is normally your first introduction to a
prospective employer. Your letter should therefore be clear, concise and courteous. A letter
badly written creates a poor impression; a neat and coherent letter with well-ordered facts is
certain to make a favourable impression. Therefore, keep your letter free from errors and
punctuate and paragraph it sensibly. It should be handwritten unless a typewritten reply to the
advertisement has been specially asked for.
Remember the importance of first impressions: plan and arrange your letter carefully. You
must include certain essential facts:
a) a formal application
b) reference to the advertisement
c) your age and education
d) details of relevant training, with a note of examinations passed
e) any previous employment or experience
f) your willingness to attend for interview
There are, however, other points to remember about a letter of application. It is normal
practice to name a referee, giving position and address where necessary. You must, of course,
obtain permission before quoting a referee. Should testimonials be asked for, send typed
copies, not originals.
It may be advisable to state the reason for leaving your present post. Do not hesitate to give
the reason, but state it clearly and simply. Finally, and this is very important, take careful note
of the information required by the advertisement. In your reply, overlook nothing that has
been asked for.
Unit 13 Business Communication
Model for the communication process
Factors affecting communication
Levels of communication in an organization
Business Communication
According to Collins English Dictionary, the verb to communicate means: “1. to
impart (knowledge) or exchange (thoughts, feelings, or ideas) by speech, writing, gestures,
etc. 2. to allow (a feeling, emotion, etc.) to be sensed (by) willingly or unwillingly; transmit
(to) 3. to have a sympathetic mutual understanding […] (Collins English Dictionary, Harper
Collins Publishers, Glasgow, 2010, 348)
In the same dictionary, the definition of the internet states: “the single worldwide
computer network that interconnects other computer networks, on which end-user services,
such as the World Wide Web sites or data archives, are located, enabling data and other
information to be exchanged. Also known as: the Net (idem, 857)
Another definition, a less general one this time, states that business communication is:
“The ability to convey information to another effectively and
efficiently. Business managers with good verbal, non verbal and written communication
skills help facilitate the sharing of information between people within a company for
its commercial benefit.”
Ober (2001), Angell (2004), and Roebuck (2001) have authored college
undergraduate business communication skills text books and have determined that business
communication skills fall in to three basic categories: "organizational communication skills,"
"leadership communication skills," and "interpersonal communication skills." Organizational
communication skills are those skills an organization uses to effectively communicate with
all internal and external stakeholders, permitting coordination among people and organized
behaviour.
Leadership communication skills are those skills that allow business leadership to
effectively communicate with employees and key external constituents employing
communication methods including stories, informality, metaphors, openness, and strategic
dialogue to create trusting and supportive relationships among colleagues and staff.
Interpersonal communication skills are those skills that allow business organization members
to effectively communicate to internal and external constituents on a personal, intimate, and
one-on-one basis, exchanging thoughts in face-to-face verbal and non verbal contexts by
sharing information, providing feedback, or simply maintaining a social relationship.
To become a truly successful professional, one needs to master business
communication skills. The element of communication plays a vital part in an organizational
set-up. People working in an organization know how crucial a role business communication
skills play in a business enterprise.
Effective leadership thrives on developing excellent communication skills. People at
senior positions in the organizational hierarchy need to share knowledge and ideas to transmit
a sense of urgency and enthusiasm to the staffs. A message cannot be conveyed effectively
without possessing communication skills.
Employees need to communicate with each other in an efficient manner and that can
only be achieved with the help of business communication skills. Talking about the elements
of business communication, it is usually of two types; internal and external. As the name
suggests, internal business communication takes place between two or more entities in the
company whereas external communication is all about transfer of information and knowledge
between the company employees and outside entities. A business enterprise needs to have a
fine combination of both types of communication if it intends to run the operations smoothly.
Business communication skills and corporate training have several constituents
including public speaking, negotiation skills, telephone skills, email and report writing skills,
follow up skills and not to forget absolutely critical element of body language.
We all know the importance of public speaking. It is an art that plays a major role in one’s
professional life. Mastering the skills of public speaking is very essential for people who wish
to climb up the corporate ladder. Most of the top level executives are required to present the
information in a structured manner in front of several people and that definitely demands
practice and confidence. It is one of the most important constituent of business
communication.
Negotiation skills need to be in the repertoire of a professional working in the
marketing and communication process of the company. Negotiation techniques are an
important part of a company’s strategy and people having these skills are highly respected.
Moving further, telephone communication is must-have skill for those working in the
customer service centres. Professionals possessing this skill are able to convey their message
clearly and effectively.
Emails have become the most common form of communication in almost all the
organizations. Employees are expected to possess email and report writing skills. Follow up
skills is all about making sure that the receiver has got the message in the same way as
intended by the sender. This makes the communication cycle complete.
Last but not the least; appropriate body language is a very critical part of business
communication. Right body language depicts confidence and clarity, so very necessary in a
professional environment. Other important aspects of business communication skills are
language tone and listening skills.
Model for the communication process
Communication is the process that makes it possible for managers to carry out their
responsibilities. Information must be communicated to managers, and managers must
communicate with both their superiors and their subordinates. An understanding of the
communication process, of the factors that affect effective communication, and of the way in
which communication functions in an organization is absolutely essential for every manger.
Without highly developed communication skills, a manger cannot be effective.
Although the essential parts of the communication process are a sender, a message,
and a receiver, the process itself is much more complex. It involves the way the sender
expresses the content of the message, the way the message is transmitted, the way the
message is interpreted and understood by the receiver, and any background factors that may
affect the process.
Sender is the person who is asking for information or wishes to pass information on to
others.
Message covers the information (content) that the sender wishes to transmit to another
person. The content may be expressed through any of several mediums.
Encoding represents the process by which the sender transmits the content. After deciding
what is to be communicated, the manager must decide how to communicate it. The medium,
or channel, selected must be appropriate to the content.
Channel or medium is the way the message is transmitted. It is sometimes impossible to
separate the content from its medium. A message may be written, spoken (oral), visual (a sign
or symbol), tactile, or even olfactory (the smell of baking bread to encourage bread sales). A
manger must choose a medium appropriate to the content and to the people receiving the
message.
Receiver is defined as the person or persons to whom the message is sent or addressed.
Without a receiver, there is no communication.
Decoding (Interpreting) refers to the process by which the receiver interprets the message
and translates it into personally meaningful information. Interpretation is affected by past
experience, personal bias, and expectations.
Feedback is when a reaction to the sender’s message is expressed. The reverse of the original
communication process, feedback has the same steps, and allows managers to know that their
message has been understood.
Factors affecting communication
Effective communication is affected by many factors, some interpersonal, some a
function of the message itself, and some related to the organizational structure. These are the
most important factors that affect communication:
Number of messages: Too many messages conveyed at one time compete with one another
and are generally not well understood or effective. Managers should send messages in order
of importance or priority and avoid too much (as much as too little) communication.
Complexity: A complex message with several interrelated parts is difficult to understand and
act on. Managers should simplify messages and break complex messages into several
separate, simple messages, each indicating its relationship to other parts of the overall
message.
Filtering: The process by which a message’s content is modified in some way by the
character or personality of the sender or receiver. Personal prejudice, bias, and other
psychological factors play important roles in message filtering.
Noise: Anything that interferes with, confuses, or distorts the communication process. The
term is usually used for outside factors and includes such factors as loud music interfering
with conversation or an unclear printed page.
Personal barriers: problems in communication often arise from personal characteristics of
the sender and/or receiver. Examples: Inattention, or tuning out, by the receiver, a lack of
common vocabulary between the sender and receiver; jumping to conclusions on the part of
the receiver; evaluating the sender and not the message itself; non-verbal signals that are
inconsistent with the verbal message; rationalization to justify behaviour; and denial, refusing
to acknowledge the meaning of a message for personal reasons.
Guidelines for effective communication:
Messages should be simple and concise and expressed in a vocabulary common to both
sender and receiver.
The manager should show sensitivity to the receiver’s framework and be aware of nonverbal
as well as verbal clues.
Two-way, face-to-face, communication is often most effective.
Levels of communication in an organization
Communication occurs throughout all levels of an organization, both in formal ways,
- vertically, horizontally, and diagonally through the organizational chain of command – and
in informal ways.
Downward communication
High-level managers provide information about an organization’s goals and advise, instruct,
and evaluate lower level managers. The managers must be sure that an adequate amount of
information is passed along, that it is not filtered or modified as it is passed along down the
chain of command, and that a vocabulary common to all levels is used.
Upward communication
Subordinates or lower-level managers pass information (as in progress reports and
explanations), offer suggestions, and raise questions to higher-level managers. Middle-level
mangers should be sure that all information that may be essential, even if it is unfavorable, is
passed on to higher management.
Lateral and diagonal communication
Within an organization, such communication spreads very quickly, links groups that
otherwise might not communicate easily, and facilitates the use of special experience or
expertise throughout an organization. It can, however, be disruptive since it does not follow
the chain of command.
Lateral communication occurs between individuals in a work group, between groups in a
department, between departments, and between line managers and advisers (staff).
Diagonal communication occurs between one department at one level in the organization’s
hierarchy and another department at a different level.
Informal communication – grapevine
In every organization, there exists informal, unstructured communication – a grapevine, and
managers must recognize its existence and the role it sometimes plays in organizational
functioning.
Unit 14 Sport, Entertainment and Leisure in British and American Life
Sport and entertainment in the UK
Leisure – hobbies
Sports and recreation in the USA
Sport and entertainment in the UK
One of the most important effects of industrialization as far as leisure activities are
concerned is there has been a change from participating to observing. Instead of taking part in
sport or cultural activities people tend to watch others, often paid professionals. This is
particularly true in the case of one of Britain’s most popular entertainments, association
football or ‘soccer’, as it called in America.
It its original form football was widely played by amateur teams throughout the
country. In 1888 the Football League was founded and it is from this that the multi-million
pound game of today has grown.
Rugby football is a game which seems to appeal mainly to English-speaking
countries, though it is also played in France, Argentina, and elsewhere. Rugby Union is
confined to amateur clubs, while Rugby league is played by professionals belonging to clubs
concentrated in the north of England. Rugby union is popular at many boy’s schools
(particularly grammar and public schools) and also at universities.
Like rugby football, cricket is largely confined to English-speaking countries
(possibly, a cynic may say, because it is impossible to translate the rules). It is widely played
in towns and villages throughout the country, while most schools, universities and many
other institutions also have teams.
If cricket is England’s national game, Scotland can claim to golf. Since the late
nineteenth century, however, the ‘Royal and Ancient Game’ has spread south of the border
and is now played in all parts of the United Kingdom. Some of the golf courses are owned by
local authorities, but a large number are in the hands of private clubs, many of which charge
high membership fees. Tennis courts are also owned by both municipalities and private clubs,
the most famous of the latter being the All England Croquet and Lawn Tennis Club at
Wimbledon. It is at Wimbledon that the open championships are played each year, and these
usually attract leading players from all over the world.
Other sports that are popular in the United Kingdom include athletics, hockey, bowls
and various kinds of water sports. Sailing has become very popular, too, both at coastal
resorts and at inland centres, while rowing is practiced on many rivers and inland lakes.
Mountaineering and various types of hill-walking are also popular, particularly in Wales, the
north of England and Scotland.
Hunting in Britain refers to the pursuit of wild animals by a pack of dogs and people,
either mounted or on foot, the most well-known branch of the sport being fox-hunting. The
other popular ‘field sport’ is fishing and as with shooting most of the best areas are only
available to those who purchase licenses.
Horse-racing is a sport with a large following. Basically there are two kinds of horse-
racing in Britain, flat racing, from March to November, and steeplechasing, from August to
June. While horse-racing attracts large crowds – the most fashionable meeting being held at
Ascot during June, ‘Royal Ascot’ – there is probably even more interest off the courses in the
‘betting shops’ that can be found in every town in Britain.
During his leisure hours the Englishman has a large choice of amusements other than
sport. Many of these amusements or recreation activities are nowadays much the same as
those in other countries; but there are still some which have a specifically English character,
and of course the Englishman’s attitude towards them.
The English enjoy pageantry, on certain specific occasions, and have a natural talent
for taking part in it. One seldom sees anybody, even in the most splendid or startling robes,
who looks undignified or ill at ease. London is of course the great place for pageantry, and
Londoners never fail to line the streets to do justice to whatever is happening.
There is always an audience for the detective thriller, the good “musical”, the
traditional comedy, and there is still a family audience for pantomime; but the really difficult
things to get seats for at short notice are the National Theatre’s productions or the Royal
Shakespeare Company’s productions at the Aldwych. Opera and the Royal Ballet at Covent
Garden are so popular that there are constant outbursts of fury from would-be audiences who
cannot get tickets.
The English are not a specially musical race, but they are not unmusical as they tend
to think of themselves. It seems quite possible that the Englishman of tomorrow may be much
more alive to his musical heritage and musical opportunities than the Englishman of today.
The public library system is excellent and is widely used. Students of every kind are
very well catered for by inter-library systems, and those with an inborn passion for learning
will sooner or later find their way to one of the great libraries which cater for special interests
in history, science, art, or other subjects.
Leisure - hobbies
The English have hobbies. Almost every Englishman with any spare time at all has a
hobby, and it is almost impossible to guess from his profession or appearance what that
hobby is likely to be. It may be stamp-collecting or carpentry or digging up Roman pottery,
or simply digging up his/her own potatoes. Gardening is no doubt the most usual hobby of
all, and there are men and women everywhere, both in town and country, who have that
happy knack of making things grow which is summed up in the vivid phrase: “green fingers”.
A hobby may seem a trivial matter, but to an Englishman it is often of more absorbing
interest than his profession or trade. He may have had his job in life forced upon him; his
hobby he has chosen for himself, and it sometimes reveals a good deal about his character.
How highly the English rate their hobbies you can see from the fact that they are listed as a
matter of course by practically all the eminent men and women whose biographies appear in
Who’s Who.
Sports and recreation in the USA
Baseball and football have the reputation of being “typically American” team sports.
This is ironic because the two most popular participant sports in the world today are indeed
American in origin – basketball and volleyball. The first basketball game was played in
Springfield, Massachusetts, in 1891. It was invented at a YMCA there as a game that will fill
the empty period between the football season (autumn) and the baseball season (spring and
summer). Volleyball was also first played in Massachusetts, and also at a YMCA, in 1891.
During the First and Second World Wars, American soldiers took volleyball with them
overseas and helped to make it popular. Today both basketball and volleyball are played
everywhere by men and women of all ages. They are especially popular as school sports.
Hockey, baseball, football, and basketball are the “four major sports”. Besides these
four very popular games, there are other sports and sports activities in America that attract
millions of active participants. Among them are golf, swimming, tennis, marathons, bowling,
skiing, archery, skating, squash and badminton, rowing and sailing, weight-lifting, boxing,
and wrestling. Recent statistics revealed that swimming, bicycling, fishing, jogging,
gymnastics, and bowling are Americans’ favourite participatory sports.
Leisure
The attention given to organized sports should not overshadow the many sporting
activities which are a part of daily American life. Most Americans who grow up in the North,
for example, also grow up with outdoor winter sports and activities. Skating, certainly, is one
widespread activity, with most cities, large and small, flooding areas for use as skating rinks.
Sledding and tobogganing are equally popular.
Fishing and hunting are extremely popular in all parts of the country and have been
since the days when they were necessary activities among the early settlers. As a
consequence, they have never been thought of as upper-class sports in the U.S.
All water sports and activities are very popular, including swimming, skin diving,
sailing, white water canoeing, water skiing, and power boat and “off-shore” racing. Many
Americans, of course, just like to go to the beach on a hot summer day. Except for a few
areas, such as around New York City, the beaches are not crowded, so long walks along the
beaches are quite relaxing.
National Parks
America’s greatest natural attractions are the National and State Parks, the Wildlife
Sanctuaries, and wilderness regions. The first National Park was established in 1872, when
President Grant signed a law creating Yellowstone National Park, and area of more than 2
million acres (800,000 hectares), mostly in Wyoming. This was the first of many similar laws
which meant that many of the great wilderness areas which still existed throughout the U.S.
would be protected and preserved.
Besides protecting natural wonders and preserving wildlife, these National and State
Parks give Americans unmatched opportunities “to get away fro it all,” to escape from the
worries and hectic life of the modern, urban world. Camping and hiking have become
extremely popular throughout the nation as a result. The thousand of camping sites and areas
have well-earned international reputation for being inexpensive, uncrowded, and clean.
Because Americans have lived so close to the wilderness for so long, it is often said
that they have a special love for, an need to temporarily return to, the “great
outdoors.”Whether this is true or not, the fact remains that for many Americans going to
where other people are not is still a very important part of their leisure. Especially in the
western parts of the nation, the ability to go a few miles out of town, to leave the city, the
farm, and even the modern highway, is something people value very deeply.