spring 2006qualitative research--simpson1 what is qualitative research? a holistic approach to...
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Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 1
What is Qualitative Research? A holistic approach to questions--a
recognition that human realities are complex. Broad questions.
The focus is on human experience The research strategies used generally
feature sustained contact with people in settings where those people normally spend their time. Contexts of Human Behavior.
Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 2
Qualitative Research cont. There is typically a high level of
researcher involvement with subjects; strategies of participant observation and in-depth, unstructured interviews are often used.
The data produced provide a description, usually narrative, of people living through events in situations.
Cited from Boyd, pp. 67-68 in Munhall, 2001
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Types of Qualitative Data
1. Interviews
2. Observations
3. Documents
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Types of Qualitative Data1. Interviews
Open-ended questions and probes yield in-depth responses about people’s experiences, opinions, perceptions, feelings and knowledge.
Data consist of verbatim quotations with sufficient context to be interpretable.
Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 5
Types of Qualitative Data cont.
2. Observations Fieldwork descriptions of activities, behaviors,
actions, conversations, interpersonal interactions, organizational or community processes, or any other aspect of observable human experience.
Data consist of field notes: rich detailed descriptions, including the context within which the observations were made.
Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 6
Types of Qualitative Data cont. 3. Documents
Written materials and other documents, programs records; memoranda and correspondence; official publications and reports; personal diaries, letters, artistic works, photographs, and memorabilia; and written responses to open-ended surveys.
Data consists of excerpts from documents captured in a way that records and preserves context.
Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 7
Qualitative Traditions of Inquiry
1. Biography--Life history, oral
history2. Phenomenology--The lived
experience3. Grounded theory4. Ethnography5. Case Study
Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 8
Biographical Study
The study of an individual and her or his experiences as told to the researcher or found in documents and archival material.
Life history--The study of an individual’s life and how it reflects cultural themes of the society.
Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 9
Biographical Study cont.
Oral history--The researcher gathers personal recollections of events, their causes, and their effects from and individual or several individuals.
The researcher needs to collect extensive information about the subject of the biography
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Biographical Study cont.
The writer, using an interpretive approach, needs to be able to bring himself or herself into the narrative and acknowledge his or her standpoint.
Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 11
Phenomenology
Describes the meaning of the lived experience about a concept or a phenomenon for several individuals.
It has roots in the philosophical perspectives of Husserl, Heidegger, Sartre, Merleau-Ponty, etc.
--Max Van Manen, Munhall (Nursing)
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Phenomenology
Moustakas, 1994, p. 13: “to determine what an experience means for the persons who have had the experience and are able to provide a comprehensive description of it. From the individual descriptions, general or universal meanings are derived, in other words, the essences of structures of the experience.”
Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 13
Grounded Theory
Based on Symbolic Interactionism which posits that humans act and interact on the basis of symbols, which have meaning and value for the actors.
Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 14
Grounded Theory cont.
The intent of grounded theory is to generate or discover a theory that relates to a particular situation. If little is known about a topic, grounded theory is especially useful
Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 15
Grounded Theory cont.
Usually have a question, don’t do a literature review in the
beginning.
Usually do 20-30 interviews (maybe more than one time for
each person)
Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 16
Grounded Theory cont.
Data collection and analysis occur simultaneously, until “saturation” is reached.
Data reviewed and coded for categories and themes.
Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 17
Grounded Theory cont. Data analysis generates a visual picture, a
narrative statement or a series of hypotheses with a central phenomenon, causal conditions, context and consequences.
The researcher needs to set aside theoretical ideas or notions so that analytical or substantive theories can emerge from the data.
Systematic approach
Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 18
Ethnography A description and interpretation of a
cultural or social group or system. The researcher examines the group’s observable and learned patterns of behavior, customs, and ways of life.
Involves prolonged observation of the group, typically through participant observation.
Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 19
Ethnography
Field Work Key Informants Thick description Emic (insider group perspective) and
Etic (researcher’s interpretation of social life).
Context important, need holistic view. Need grounding in anthropology.
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Ethnography cont.
Need extensive time to collect data
Many ethnographies may be written in a narrative or story telling approach which may be difficult for the audience accustomed to usual social science writing.
Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 21
Ethnography cont.
May incorporate quantitative data and archival documents.
Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 22
Case Study
A case study is an exploration of a “bounded system” or a case (or multiple cases) over time through detailed, in-depth data collection involving multiple sources of information rich in context.
The context of the case involves situating the case within its setting. which may be physical, social, historical and/or economic.
Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 23
Case Study cont.
Data collection strategies include direct observation, interviews, documents, archival records, participant observation, physical artifacts and audiovisual materials.
Analysis of themes, or issues and an interpretation of the case by the researcher.
Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 24
Designing a Qualitative Study
Problem Statement or Statement of Need for the Study
No hypothesis; Research questions which you want to answer instead.
Opinions differ about the extent of literature needed before a study begins.
Need to identify the gaps in knowledge about the topic.
Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 25
Qualitative Study Design cont.
Research questions that are too broad: Does Buddhism account for the
patience that seems to dominate the Thai world view?
How do leaders make their decisions?
Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 26
Qualitative Study Design cont.
Research questions better answered by quicker means:
What television programs do Brazilians watch most?
Where can you buy postage stamps in Italy?
Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 27
Qualitative Study Design cont.
Examples of Qualitative Questions What do people in this setting have to know in
order to do what they are doing?
What is the story that can be told from these experiences?
What are the underlying themes and contexts that account for the experience?
Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 28
Qualitative Sampling Strategies
No probability sampling
Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 29
Sampling Strategies cont.Decisions about sampling and
sampling strategies depend on the unit of analysis which has been determined. individual people program, group organization or
community genders, ethnic groups, older and
younger
Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 30
Sampling Strategies cont. Purposeful or Judgment Sampling
“In judgment sampling, you decide the purpose you want informants (or communities) to serve, and you go out to find some” Bernard, 2000:176
“Key Informants” are people who are particularly knowledgeable about the inquiry setting and articulate about their knowledge.
Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 31
Sampling Strategies cont.
Purposeful Sampling Strategies Maximum variation Homogeneous Critical case Theory based Confirming and disconfirming cases
Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 32
Sampling Strategies cont.
Snowball or chain Extreme or deviant case Typical case Intensity Politically important cases Random purposeful
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Sampling Strategies cont.
Stratified purposeful Criterion Opportunistic Combination or mixed Convenience
Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 34
Qualitative Data Collection
Rather than developing an instrument to use, the qualitative researcher is the instrument.
Recording data: Field notes, tape recorders, video and photographic data
Interviews must be transcribed.
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Fieldwork Strategies and Observations
“In the fields of observation, chance favors the prepared mind.” Louis Pasteur
“People only see what they are prepared to see.” Ralph Waldo Emerson
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Fieldwork Observations
Learn to pay attention, see what there is to see, and hear what there is to hear.
Practice writing descriptively Acquiring discipline in recording field
notes Knowing how to separate detail from trivia
to achieve the former without being overwhelmed by the latter.
Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 37
Fieldwork Observations cont.
Use rigorous methods to validate and triangulate observations.
Reporting strengths and limitations of one’s own perspective, which requires both self-knowledge and self-disclosure.
Participant observer or onlooker or both
Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 38
Qualitative Interviewing
1. Informal conversational interview
2. Interview guide approach
3. Standardized open-ended interview
4. Closed, fixed-response interview
Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 39
Qualitative Interviewing cont. Sequencing questions Use words that make sense to the people
being interviewed. Ask truly open-ended questions Avoid questions which can be answered
with a yes or no. One idea per question. Be careful with Why questions.
Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 40
Qualitative Data AnalysisWhen does analysis begin? During
data collection.Thick description is the foundation
for qualitative analysis and reporting.Organize the data. Read all the data
and get a sense of the whole.Coding for recurring themes and
categories
Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 41
Qualitative Data AnalysisComputer-assisted qualitative data
management and analysis Ethnograph NUD*IST (Non-numerical Unstructured
Data With Indexing, Searching and Theorizing) QSR N6 and QSR NVivo
ATLAS.ti
Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 42
Qualitative Data AnalysisCoding dataFinding PatternsLabeling ThemesDeveloping Category SystemsLooking for emergent patterns in the
data
Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 43
ReferencesBernard, H.R. (2000). Social Research Methods:
Qualitative and Quantitative approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
Creswell, J.W. (1998). Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design: Choosing Among Five Traditions. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
Munhall, P.L. (2001). Nursing Research: A Qualitative Perspective, 3rd Edition. Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett
Patton, M.Q. (2002). Qualitative Research & Evaluation Methods, 3rd Edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage