Technical report on the characterization of the agro-ecological context in which Farm Animal Genetic Resources (FAnGR) are found: SSSrrriii LLLaaannnkkkaaa A report submitted to the FAnGR Asia Project - June 2004 B.V.R. Punyawardena Ph.D, M.Phil, B.Sc(Agric.) Hons. i TABLE OF CONTENTS Table of contentsi List of tablesiii List of mapsiv List of figuresv Executive summaryvi Introduction1 Location1 Geology1 Climate 2 Major soil types of Sri Lanka4 Flora and Fauna8 Forest resources 8 Present situation8 Current trends in the forestry sector11 Water resources 15 Surface water16 Ground water21 Pastoral resources 22 Land use and land degradation25 Socio-economic conditions29 Livestock industry in Sri Lanka32 Agro-ecology39 Livestock production systems and AERs42 Ruminant production systems (Siriwardena, 1999) 43 ii Mid & Up country intensive system43 Wet & Intermediate zone semi intensive system 44 Dry & Intermediate zone extensive system44 Dry zone intensive system45 Non-ruminant production systems45 Poultry 45 Pigs46 Bio-physical and agro-ecological characteristics of target sites46 Hambantota and Lunugamwehera target sites.48 Potential and limitations Reddish Brown Earths (Rhodustalf)54 Potential and limitations Low Humic Gley soils (Tropaqualf)55 Siyambalanduwa target site55 Panama and Pottuvil target sites.59 Potential and limitations of Regosols and Alluvial soils 66 Thirappane and Galenbindunuwewa target sites.66 References74 iii LIST OF TABLES Table 1 Important great soil groups of Sri Lanka with equivalent great soil groups of Soil Taxonomy (USDA, 1975)7 Table 2Taxic diversity of plants in Sri Lanka10 Table 3Forest extent by type10 Table 4Natural forest area by districts (ha) 199414 Table 5 Designated forest areas in Sri Lanka (as at 1999)15 Table 6Surface water resources of Sri Lanka19 Table 7 Present status of small tanks in the drier region of Sri Lanka20 Table 8Extent of land under pasture and estimated yield of pasture24 Table 9Land use in Sri Lanka (as shown in the land use map of 1988)27 Table 10Arable land, their uses and other land use types in Sri Lanka 28 Table 11Selected target sites and their respective administrative units & AERs46 Table 12Average climatic conditions of the DL5 agro-ecological region of SriLanka 51 Table 13Hydrological characteristics of major rivers in target sites53 Table 14Tanks found in the Hambantota DS division53 Table 15Tanks found in the Lunugamwehera DS division54 Table 16 Average climatic conditions of the DL1b agro-ecological region of Sri Lanka Angunakolapellessa58 Table 17 Average climatic conditions of the DL2 agro-ecological region ofSri Lanka 62 Table 18Tanks found in the Pottuvil DS division65 Table 19 Average climatic conditions of the DL1b agro-ecological region ofSri Lanka - Maha-Illuppallama70 Table 20Tanks found in the Thirappane DS division72 Table 21Tanks found in the Galenbindunuwewa DS division73 iv LIST OF MAPS Map 1Climatic zones of Sri Lanka3 Map 2Agro-climatic zones of Sri Lanka5 Map 3Generalized soil map of Sri Lanka6 Map 4Protected areas under the Department of Wildlife Conservation and ForestDepartment 12 Map 5River basin map of Sri Lanka17 Map 6Surface water potential of Sri Lanka18 Map 7Generalized landuse map of Sri Lanka26 Map 8Land degradation map of Sri Lanka30 Map 9Vulnerability to food insecurity in Sri Lanka33 Map 10Spatial distribution of cattle in Sri Lanka (as on 2001)34 Map 11Spatial distribution of Buffaloes Sri Lanka (as on 2001)35 Map 12Spatial distribution of Goat in Sri Lanka (as on 2001)36 Map 13Spatial distribution of Pigs in Sri Lanka (as on 2001)37 Map 14Spatial distribution of Poultry in Sri Lanka (as on 2001)38 Map 15Agro-Ecological Regions of Sri Lanka40 Map 16 Target sites of the FAnGR Project in Sri Lanka47 v LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1 Average monthly rainfall at Hambantota (1921 - 1990)49 Figure 2Average monthly rainfall at Lunugamwehera (1983 - 1999)50 Figure 3Average monthly rainfall at Siyambalanduwa (1943 - 1980)57 Figure 4 Average monthly rainfall at Panama (1950 - 1988)60 Figure 5 Average monthly rainfall at Pottuvil (1983 - 2003)61 Figure 6Average monthly rainfall at Maradankadawala (1970 - 1999)* 68 Figure 7Average monthly rainfall at Kahatagasdigiliya (1941 - 1963)* 69 vi Executive Summary AvarietyofanimalsareraisedinSriLankaincludingneatcattle,buffaloes,pigs,poultry, sheepandgoatsunderdifferentenvironmentsandmanagementsystems.Meanwhile,ithas beenevidentthatthepopulationoftheindigenouslivestockofSriLankaisgradually decreasingwhilesomebreeds/specieshavealreadybeenlostorarenearatextinction.Hence,itisimportanttoconserveandutilizethisbroadgeneticbasetoenhancethe productivityoflivestockofthecountryinasustainablemanner.Spatialdistributionof livestockspecies,inparticulartheirwildrelatives,hasadirectrelationshipwiththe environment,inotherwordtheagro-ecologyoftheisland.Therefore,thisreporthas attemptedtodescribethemainagro-ecologicalcharacteristicsoftheislandintermsofbio-physical and socio economic environment. SriLankahasbeendelineatedinto46Agro-EcologicalRegions(AER)thatspreadacross threemajorclimaticzones,namelyWet,IntermediateandDryzonesofthecountry.These AERsrepresentanuniformclimate,soilsandterrainconditionsandassucheachAER exhibitsmoreorlesssimilarcharacteristicsintermsofnaturalvegetationwhilelanduseand farming systems find their best expression within a zone. Despitebeingarelativelysmallisland,SriLanka'sforestsarestrikinglydiversedueto spatialvariationofrainfall,altitudeandsoil.Theseforestspossesaveryhighbio-diversity alongwithendemicfaunaandflora.Atthebeginningofthelastcentury,SriLankahad about70%oflandareaundernaturalforests.However,ithasnowbeendwindledtoaround 20percentofthetotallandareaduetovarioussocio-economicreasons.Outoftotalland areaofthecountry,nearly80%comesunderthesomeformofstatecontrolofwhichabouta thirdisundertheforestcoverandanotherthirdisunderagriculture.Humansettlements, homegardens,urbanandindustrialareas,transportationandavarietyofotherusesincluding undeveloped land account for the balance. Withincreasingpopulation,theland/manratiooftheislandhasdeclinedfrom2.7ha/headto 0.36ha/headwithinlast100years.Thisdecreasingtrendwillbecontinuedeveninthefuture aspopulationcontinuestoincrease.Meanwhile,theproblemofscarcityoflandforhuman vii usewillbefurtheraggravatedduetolanddegradation.Eventhoughsoilerosionisthemost importantmanifestationoflanddegradationinSriLanka,lossoflandproductivitythrough salinization/alkalization,desertification,eutrifiationandindiscriminatewastedisposalcan not be neglected. Itisclearthatmostofthenaturalresourcesrelatedtolivestockproductionarecurrently undersomeformof"stress"duetovariousphysicalandsocio-economicreasons.Thishas ledtoexposureofanimalsintoharshenvironmentalconditionsandsubsequentlythe reductionofproductivitythem.Therefore,theneedofconservingFAnGRtoenhancethe livestockproductionofthecountryisperceivedthaneverbefore.Inthelightofpossible financialassistancethroughFAnGRAsiaProject,seventargetsitescoveringfour administrativedistrictsofSriLankawereselectedtoexecuteafullprojectonFAnGR.Inthe processofselectionoftargetsites,parameterssuchasabundanceofindigenouslivestock species,agro-ecologicaldiversityandpovertylevelofthepeoplelivingintheareawere considered.Thisreportcontainscomprehensivedetailsonbio-physicalandagro-ecological characteristicsoftargetsites,namely,Hambantota,Lunugamwehera,Siyambalanduwa, Pottuvil, Panama, Thirappane, and Galenbindunuwewa. viii Technical reporton the characterization of the agro-ecological context in which FAnGR (Farm Animal Genetic Resources) are found: Sri Lanka Introduction Location SriLankaislocatedintheIndianOceanbetweenthelatitudesof50 55' N and 9051' N and the longitudesof79041'Eand81053'Ecoveringanareaof65,610km2.Itisanelongatedpear-shapedtropicalislandwithamaximumlengthof434kmfromDondraHeadonthesouthto PointPedroonthenorth,andamaximumwidthof227kmfromColomboonthewestto Kalmunai on the east.There are also a few small islands scattered along its coast. SriLankaliesincloseproximitytothesoutheasterncoastofIndiawithwhichitsharesa continentalshelf.Anarrowstripofwater(PalkStrait)has,however,separatedtwo countries sincetheMioceneepochcausingdisruptionoffaunalmigratoryroutes.This,alongwiththe subsequentbrieflandlinkageswiththesub-continentduetooscillationinsealevel,hashad a significant bearing on the flora and fauna of Sri Lanka. Geology Thegeologyoftheisland,whichhasmanyfeaturesincommonwiththatoftheIndiansub-continent,hasendowedSriLankawithconsiderablemineralresources.About90percentof thelandareconsistsofPrecambriancrystallinerocks.Onthebasisoflithology,structure andage,thePrecambrianrockshavebeensub-dividedinto3majorgroups(Cooray,1984), namely,HighlandSeries,SouthwesternGroupandVijayanComplex.TheHighlandSeriesis composedofmetasedimentsandcloselyassociatedwithcharnokitegneisses.Itoccupiesa broadbeltrunningacrossthecenteroftheislandfromsouthwesttonortheast,anditthus includesthewholeofthecentralhillcountryandpartofthenorthernplain.The southwesterngroupoccupiesthesouthwesternsectoroftheisland.TheVijayanComplex occupies the lowlands to the northwest and southeast of the Highland Series. 2 OtherrocktypesfoundinSriLankaareofmorelimiteddistributionandconsistsofMiocene limestonesedimentarydepositswhichextendnorthwardfromPuttlamandcovertheJaffna peninsulaandasasmalloutcropatMinihagalkandainthesoutheast.Twosmalloccurrences ofGondwanasediments(Jurassicdeposits)arefoundinTabbowaandAndigamawithina distanceof35kminthenorthwesternprovince.Quaternaryorrecentdepositsthatarefound inthecoastalareasconsistingofsands,sandstones,clays,gravelsandcoralreefs.Thegem bearinggravels,alsoofquaternaryoriginarerestrictedspatiallyandfoundmainlyinthe Sabaragamuwa province. ClimateThedynamicsoftheatmosphereareextremelyvariableoverSriLankaduetoitslocation neartheequatorandinfluenceofthemonsoonalcirculationoversouthAsia.Subsequently, climateofSriLanka,particularlyrainfall,variesstrikinglybothoverdifferentspaceandtime scales.Moreover,presenceofacentralmountainousregionwithapeakelevationof2,524 mhasamajoreffectontheclimateofvariousregionsandproducesmuchsharperclimatic contrast between southwestern quadrant and the rest of the island. RainfalldistributioninSriLankahastraditionallybeengeneralizedintothreeclimaticzones (Map1)intermsofWetZoneinthesouthwesternregionincludingcentralhillcountry, andDryZonecoveringpredominantly,northernandeasternpartofthecountry,being separatedbyanIntermediatezone,skirtingthecentralhillsexceptinthesouthandthe west.Indifferentiatingaforesaidthreeclimaticzones,landuse,forestry,rainfallandsoils havebeenwidelyused.TheWetzonereceivesrelativelyhighmeanannualrainfallover 2,500mmwithoutpronounceddryperiods.TheDryzonereceivesameanannualrainfallof lessthan1,750mmwithadistinctdryseasonfromMaytoSeptember.TheIntermediate zonereceivesameanannualrainfallbetween1,750to2,500mmwithashortandless prominent dry season. BeinglocatedinthelowlatitudesandsurroundedbytheIndianOcean,SriLankashowsvery typicalmaritime-tropicaltemperatureconditions.Theseconditionsarecharacterizedby greater daily than annual temperature ranges and moderate average3 4 temperaturesincomparisonwiththemorecontinentaltropics.TemperatureconditionsinSri Lankaarealsocharacterizedbyasignificanttemperaturedecreaseinthecentralhighlands accordingtotheverticallapserateoftemperature,approximatelyaround5-6Cforevery 1,000mriseinelevation.However,descendingsouthwestmonsoonwindsoverthecentral hillstowardsleesidegetwarmeradiabaticallycausingambienttemperaturebeincreased alongwithdecreasedhumidity.Hence,inthisregion,falloftemperaturewithrisingaltitude isnotverydistinctcomparedtothesameelevationsoftheothersideofthecentralhills,Wet zone. AslowtemperatureisanimportantclimaticfactoraffectingplantgrowthintheWetand IntermediatezonesofSriLanka,asub-divisionbasedonthealtitudetakesintoaccountthe temperaturelimitationsinthesetwoclimaticregions.Inthisdelineation,theLow-countryis demarcatedasthelandbelow300minelevationandtheMid-countrywithelevation between 300-900mwhiletheUp-countryisthelandabove900melevation.BothWetand IntermediatezonesspreadacrossallthreecategoriesofelevationwhiletheDryzoneis confinedtotheLow-countryresultingsevenagro-climaticzonescoveringtheentireisland (Map2).Thereisaconsiderablevariationoftemperatureacrosstheseagro-climatic zones.Forexample,averagetemperatureinthecoastalWetzoneis27 0Canditdecreasestoabout 200CintheMidcountryandfurtherdroppingto13- 16 0CinthemontaneareasoftheUp country.TheentireDryzonewhichconsistsoflowlandplains,exceptforafewisolated hills,hasameanannualtemperatureof30 0C,althoughmaximumtemperaturemayeven exceed37 0Coccasionally.Ingeneral,theseasonalvariationoftemperaturethroughoutthe islandisminor,butthereisageneraltendencyforhighertemperaturesduringtheperiodof MatchtoOctoberwhileDecemberandJanuaryarecoolerwhentemperaturesathigh altitudes may even drop to around zero at night Major soil types of Sri Lanka ThesoilsofSriLankahavebeenclassifiedatgreatgrouplevelforthewholecountry(Map 3)andserieslevelinformationareavailableforsomepartsofthecountry.Moormanand Panabokke(1961)identified14greatsoilgroupsinthecountry.These14greatsoilgroups fallunderninesoilordersoutof10soilordersoftheUSDAsoiltaxonomyof1975(Table 1). 5 6 7 Agriculturally,importantandwidelyspreadsoilordersareAlfisol,UltisolandOxisol.Further,thesoilordersEntisol,Inceptisol,VertisolandHistosolalsohavebeenusedfor agricultureundersuitablehydrologicalconditionsasdeterminedbyrainfall,irrigationand flooding. Table 1Important great soil groups of Sri Lanka with equivalent great soil groupsof Soil Taxonomy (USDA, 1975) Soil orderSub-orderGreat Soil GroupGreat Soil Groups in Sri Lanka AlfisolUstalfsRhodustalfsReddish Brown Earths HaplustalfsNon-Calcic Brown soils AqualfsTropoaqualfsLow-Humic Gley soils with low BS NatraqulfsSolodized Solonetz UltisolUdultsRhodudultsReddish Brown Latasolic soils Plinthudults Tropudults UstultsTropustultsRed Yellow Podsolic soils HumultsTropohumults AquultsTropaquultsLow-Humic Gley soils with high BS OxisolUstoxEutrustox Haplustox Red Yellow Latosols VertisolUstertsPellustertsGrumusol AridisolOrthidsSalorthridsSolonchaks EntisolAquentsTropaquents FluentsTropofluents UstentsTropustents PsammentsQuartzipsamments Alluvial soils of variable texture & drainage InceptisolAueptsTropaqueptsHalf Bog soils TropeptsUstropeptsImmature Brown Loam soils HistosolFibristsTropofibrists HemsistsTropohemsists SapristsTroposaprists Bog soils 8 WhilechemicalandphysicalpropertiesofthesesoilshavebeendiscussedbyAlwisand Panabokke(1972)adetailedaccountonpotentialandconstraintsofthesesoilsfor agriculture and other land uses can be found in Somasiri (1982). Flora and Fauna TherichanddiversefloraofSriLankaconsistsofanestimatedtotalofnearly4,000species andvarietiesoffloweringplants,classifiedinto200familiesand1,350genera.Inaddition, about1,100speciesoflowerplants(liverworts,mosses,fernsandfernallies)inabout250 generaareonrecord(NationalAtlas,1988).Grasses,legumes,orchidsandsedgesarethe largestSriLankanfamilies.Apartfromspeciesdiversity,SriLankaisblessedwithveryhigh taxicdiversity(Table2).Taxicdiversity(Taxonomicdiversity)isthediversityabovespecies level.Speciesthatareverydifferentfromeachothercontributemoretooveralldiversity thancloselyrelatedspecies(Wijesundara,2004).Meanwhile,about25%oftheflowering plantsofSriLankaareendemic.Avarietyoffactorssuchasclimate,geologyandaltitude determinethespeciescompositioninagivenareaandthusthevegetationtypesandtheir zones. Despiteitssmallsize,theislandishometo625speciesofterrestrialvertebrates,athousand varietiesoffishesinitsinlandandterritorialwaters.Amongvertebrates,there84 mammalianspecies,12%ofwhichareconsideredtobeendemic(NationalAtlas,1988). Moreover,therearewildspeciesofbuffalo,cattle,fishandfowlbutwiththenotable exception of marine fisheries (NARESA, 1991). Forest resourcesPresent situation Climate,themaindeterminantofforestdistribution,doesnotprecludethepresenceofforest inanypartofSriLankaexceptinafewlocations.Despitebeingarelativelysmallisland,Sri Lanka'sforestsarestrikinglydiverseduetospatialvariationofrainfall,altitudeandsoil.TheWetzonecontainslowlandrainforests,characterizedbyahighdensityoftalltreeswith straight,columnarbolesreachingheightsof30-40minthecanopy.Theseforestsbelieved tobetherichestinthecountryintermsofspeciesdiversityandendemicfaunaandflora,and foundinthesouthwesternquarteroftheislandrangingfromsealeveltoanaltitudeof1,000 9 mwheretheygivewaytosub-montaneforests.Thelattergradeintomontaneforeststhat occurataltitudesbetween1,500-2,500mwithalowercanopyanddenserundergrowth. Theirstemsareoftencoveredwithlichens,bryophytesandotherepiphyticplants.Wetzone forestsshowaprogressivedeclineincanopyheightandculminateintheunique"Pigmy forests" that occur at elevation above 2,000 m. TheforestsintheDryzonecomprisemainlydrymonsoonforestswitharelativelyopen canopyoftreeslessthan20minheightandthornyscrubforeststhatoccurinthesemi-arid areascoveringthenorthwesternandsoutheasternregionsoftheisland.Thelowland IntermediatezonelocatedbetweenDryandWetzones,containsmoistmonsoonforests. Otherdistinctforesttypesintheislandarefragmentedmangrovevegetationandriverine forests that occur along the banks of rivers flowing through the Dry zone (MOFE, 2000). SriLankahasanaturalforestcoverofaround2,046,599ha(Table3).Ofthis,463,842ha containopencanopysparseforestswhilethebalancecomprisesclosedcanopyforests.All categoriesofclosedcanopynaturalforestsarenotequallyabundant.Thedrymonsoon forestslocatedmainlyinthenorthernandeasternregions(Table3)arethemostwidespread andcoveranareaofabout1,094,287ha(Table3).Thenextinextentisthemoistmonsoon forestsoftheIntermediatezone.Incontrast,valuablelowlandrainforestscoveronly 141,549hawhilesub-montaneandmontaneforestsareevenscarce.Mangroveswampsin SriLankaarealsonotextensiveastheyarefragmentedandoccurinanarrowtidalbelt extendinglessthan1kmlandwardfromthemeanlowwatertidallevel.Itcoversanextent of 8,687 ha (Table 3). PlantationforestsinSriLankaconsistmostlyofeven-agedmonoculturesofTeak, EucalyptusorPine.Afewmixedplantationsofbroad-leavedtreespeciessuchasJak,and Mahogany have also been established (NARESA, 1991) 10 Table 2Taxic diversity of plants in Sri Lanka Sub-class No. of Orders in the world No. of Orders in Sri Lanka % No. of families in the world No. of families in Sri Lanka % Magnolidae88100381847.4 Hamamelidae11218.224416.7 Caryophyllidae33100141285.7 Dilleniidae131076.9783443.6 Rosidae181794.41125750.9 Asteridae111090.9473063.8 Alismatidae4410016743.8 Arecidae43755480 Commelinidae7685.716850 Zingiberidae221008562.5 Lilidae22100191052.6 Total836780.737718950.1 Source: Wijesundara, 2004 Table 3Forest extent by type TypeArea (ha) Lowland rain141,549 Moist monsoon243,877 Dry monsoon 1,094,287 Sub montane68,838 Montane3,108 Mangrove8,687 Riverine dry22,411 Sparse open463,842 Total natural forest 2,046,599 Source: Forestry sector master plan, 1995 11 Current trends in the forestry sector Atthebeginningofthelastcentury,SriLankahadabout70%oflandareaundernatural forests(Wijesingheetal,1993).By1992,however,theamountofclosedcanopynatural foresthaddwindledtoaround23.8percentofthelandarea(MOFE,2000).Table4shows thedistributionofdifferentforesttypesindifferentadministrativedistrictsasat1994and revealsthat31percentofthelandareaoftheislandiscoveredbynaturalforestofwhich7 percentconsistsofsparseforests.Thepresentextentofnaturalforestsinthecountry,and theabundanceofthedifferentforesttypesarenotduetonaturalforcesalone,buthave been greatly influenced by human actions. Ingeneral,themainreasonsfortherapidlossofforestcoverintheislandduringfastfew decadesareclearingforirrigation,agriculture,humansettlement,hydro-powergeneration, timberextractionandforestencroachmentbylocalpeople(MOFE,2000).Asthepopulation continuedtoincrease,therewasapressureforlandtomeetthedemandfromabovesectors oftheeconomywhichresulteddeforestationrateofover40,000haperyearbetween1956 and1983andhadacceleratedtoanannualrateof54,000habetween1983and1992 (Wijesingheetal,1993).RecognizingtheurgentneedforconservationofSriLanka'snatural forests,considerableeffortshavebeentakentoaddresstheissue.Currentlyabout55% of thetotalareaundernaturalforestisreservedandadministeredbyeithertheforest departmentorthedepartmentofwildlifeconservation.Thedesignatedareasunderthese twodepartmentsconstitute17%and13%ofthetotallandarea,respectively(Map4).The designatedareasundertheforestdepartmentin1995comprisedForestReserves,Proposed ForestReservesandNationalHeritageandWildernessAreas(MALF,1995).Protected areasunderthedepartmentofwildlifeandconservationareconsistingofStrictNatural Reserves,NationalParks,NatureReserves,JungleCorridorsandSanctuaries(Table5).In total,SriLanka'sProtectedareanetworkcoversanimpressive14%ofthetotallandarea (MOFE,1999).Eventhough,itisaveryfavorablesituationcomparedtoothercountriesof SouthAsia,itisstillconsideredinadequatetoconservecountry'srichbio-diversityand criticalhydrologicalfeaturesduetopoorrepresentationofWetzoneforestsinit.For example,theforestdepartmenttroughitsNationalConservationReviewstudyhasfoundthat 20to50%ofspeciesinselectedplantandanimalgroupsoccurintheforestsofjustfour districts of the Wet zone.12

13 Manyofthesespeciesarerareandlimitedindistributionandatotalof119woodyplant speciesarerestrictedtosingleforests,while41%oftheserarespeciesareendemic(MALF, 1995).ThisissuehasnowbeenpartlyaddressedbytheinclusionofWetzone'sconservation foreststhatarespeciesrichandcontainmanyoftheendemicspeciesandimportant watershed areas, within the Protected Area network (MOFE, 2000). Since1970theforestdepartmenthasestablished40biospherereserveswithinitsReserve forestsorProposedreserveforests.Theyvaryfrom10to55,000haand total of 120,000 ha. ThisprogrambeganasanactivityofIUCN'sInternationalBiologicalProgrammeandlater continuedundertheUNESCO'sManandBiosphereProgramme(NARESA,1991).Inthe naturalforestsoftheDryzone,undertheForestryMasterPlan,deforestationand exploitationfortimbersupplywillcontinueeverywhereexceptinthe"Protectedareas" underthedepartmentofwildlifeconservationandthebiospherereservesundertheforest department.Therearearound600,000hainthesereserves.However,evenwithinthese areasencroachmentandillicitfellingcontinue.IntheWetzoneregion(Lowcountry,Mid countryandmontaneregion)theforestisestimatedas278,000ha.IntheLowandMid countryandintheMahawelicatchment,theareaofforesthasbeendepletedtoabout8%of thelandarearesultingunfavorableforest/landratio.Hence,accordingtotheForestryMaster Plan,noforestalienationwouldbepermittedintheWetzone(NARESA,1991).DeforestationbeingthemajorandmostimportantenvironmentalprobleminSriLanka,in recentyearstherehasbeenapositivechangeinforestpolicyconferringagreaterroleonthe forestdepartmentforforestconservationasopposedtoitsprimeobjectiveofmanaging forestsproductionthepast.Theforestpolicy1995andForestrySectorMasterPlan1995 andseveralmanagementplansdevelopedbythedepartmentclearlyreflectthismandate. Despitetheseinitiatives,forestoffencescontinuetoreportincourtsandotherjudicial institutes.Meanwhile,theforestdepartmentandthedepartmentofwildlifeconservation havenowacknowledgedthatremedyingthisproblemneedsgreaterparticipationoflocal people in forest and wildlife management and conservation (MOFE, 2000). 14 Table 4Natural forest area by districts (ha) - 1994 DistrictMontaneSub-montane Lowland rain Moist monsoon Dry monsoon Riverine dry MangroveSparseGrand total Ampara45190692651016029241760166667 Anuradhapura180083116693296776 Badulla93388815771751733532784354271 Batticaloa133022177014211632552818 Colombo1832361868 Galle18903187169920789 Gampaha2731412220429 Hambantota2207391916937105395507779454 Jaffna8222602981380 Kalutara2024070126621576 Kandy9358504142583545598033222 Kegalle36551179149215938 Kilinochchi32374312604238728 Kurunegala182781531476624746 Mannar11138979512611176225207 Matale895314128314133715237920784015 Matara5191668621745166207621977 Monaragala6576863558113627454452569235171 Mulaitivu15376946317987172219 Nuwara Eliya19433107839772649327342920 Polonnaruwa472666809352322949138831 Puttalam7945281422641710499634 Ratnapura48158163819447553545449166849 Trincomalee41104911826149117629131441 Vaunia10318216503119685 Total31086883914154924387710942872241186874638422046599 %oftotal land area 0.051.042.143.6816.540.340.137.0130.93 Lowland rain forest - > 2,500 mm rainfall, < 1,000 m elevationMoist monsoon forest - 1,800 - 2,500 mm rainfall, < 1,000 m elevation Dry monsoon forest - < 1,800 mm rainfallSub-montane forest - > 1,800 mm rainfall, > 1,000 m Elevation, Source: Administration report - Department of forest conservation15 Table 5 Designated forest areas in Sri Lanka (as at 1999) CategoryNumberArea (ha)Percentage Forest department Forest Reserves177518,1997.8 Proposed Forest Reserves217621,1479.4 National Heritage111,1870.2 Sub-total395 1,150,53317.4 Wild life conservation department Strict Natural Reserves3 31,5730.5 National Parks13 524,66010.0 Sanctuaries52 256,9023.8 Nature Reserves3 38,7200.6 Jungle Corridors1 10,3640.2 Sub-total72 862,21913.0 Source: Forest and Wild life departments Water resourcesWaterresourcesofacountrycanbedividedintotwocategories,namely,surfacewater andgroundwater.Surfacewateroccursinrivers,streams,lakes,marshes,reservoirsand ponds.RainfallisthemainsourceofwaterforbothsurfaceandgroundwaterinSri Lankasupplementedbymist,foganddewincertainmontaneareas.Theprincipal geographicaldeterminantofwaterresourcesoftheislandisthehighlandmassifinthe south-centralregionlocatedacrossthepassageoftwoopposingmonsoonalwinds.The moistureladenmonsoonalwindsareinterceptedbythehillsinthecentralregionleading touniquerainfallpattern.ThemeanannualrainfallofSriLankaisaround2,000mm whichdistributedoverthesurfaceareaof65,619km2givesanaveragevolumeof 131,230millionm3offreshwaterannually(Arulananthan,1985).Thisvolumeofwater supportsthevegetationofthecountry,rechargesthegroundwater,fillsthestorageof 16 variousreservoirsandlakesandsuppliesthedailyneedshumanandlivestock.What doesnotuserunoffsthesurfaceorpercolatesintothesoiltoreachtheseaasriverflow. Averageannualriverflowis31%oftherainfallandequals40,680millionm3(Bocks, 1959)whilethebalance,90,550millionm3isusedforabovepurposesandevaporationin to the atmosphere. Theradialdrainagepatternthatcarriessurfacewaterdownfromthehighwatersheds includes103distinctnaturalriverbasinsthatcover90%oftheisland(Map5).The remaining94smallcoastalbasinscontributelittletowaterresourcesofthecountry (Arumugam,1969).Riverbasinsoriginatingfromthewetterpartsoftheupcountryare perennial while many of those in the Dry zone are only seasonal. Surface water Waterthatremainsfromrainfallafterevapotranspirationandinfiltrationlossesmay generallybeconsideredasavailablesurfacewater.Amountsaremeasuredintermsof waterdischargedbytherivers(m3/year)orasunitsofwaterdepthdistributedoverthe landsurfaceashectare-meters(HM).Annualsurfacerun-offofSriLankaisestimatedas 5HM(Table6).Muchofthiswaternowservestheirrigationandhydro-powerprojects andonlylessthan3.3HMescapestothesea.About79%oftherun-offwaterfromthe WetzoneisescapedtotheseawhilecorrespondingvaluefromtheDryzoneremain around50%(Table6).Despiteitsfavoredlocationinthehumidtropicsandlyingonthe pathoftwoopposingmonsoons,thedistributionrainfallofSriLankaovertheyearand overthecountryisnotverymuchconduciveineveryaspectsoftheeconomy.The greaterpartoftheislandespeciallytheDryzoneandIntermediatezoneisliabletodry spellslastingseveralmonths.Areasofwatersurplus,however,arenotuncommonalong thecoastalbeltoffloodplain,villusandmangroveswamps.NARESA(1991)hasshown thesurfacewaterpotentialofthedifferentdistrictsofthecountry(Map6).Itrevealsthat about75%ofthecountryhaspotentialoflessthan1mofsurfacewaterperannum.It alsoshowsthatabout50%oftheareaofcountryhassurfacewaterpotentialofless than 0.5mperannum.Thisiswellbelowtheevapotranspirationrequirementofthe vegetation of the area.17 18 19 ElementsofSriLanka'ssurfacewaterbalancearesubjecttosubstantialannualvariability duetodynamicnatureofrainfallgoverningmechanismsofSriLankasothat considerationofaveragescanbemisleading.Variationsareabout10%annuallyinthe Wetzone,15%intheDryzoneandupto20%ontheeastcoast(NARESA,1991).Hence,attemptshavebeenmadetostorethesurfacerun-offforvarioususessince ancienttimes.Therefore,SriLankahasuniquedistinctioninthehistoryofmankindof havingdeveloped"Hydrauliccivilization"evenbeforetheChristianera.Thehydraulic structuresthathavesurvivedtothisday,suchaslongcanalswithimperceptiblegradients, Bisokotuwas,Ralapanawas,andcascadesofvillagetanksystems,bearanample testimonytothehighachievementsinsurfacewatermanagementandtechnology (MaddumaBandara,1998).ItisevidentthatintheDryzonemainlytheattemptshad beentostorerun-offwaterforuseduringdryperiods.IntheWetzone,diversion structureshavebeenbuiltacrossperennialriversandstreamflowtoprovidethewaterto placeswhereitisnotsufficientoravailable.Thereareover15,000smallreservoirs knownas"smalltanks"foundinSriLanka.Table7showspresentstatuesofthesmall tanksinthedrierregionoftheisland.Itcanbeseenthatthehighestnumberaswellas highestdensityofsmalltanksareintheNorthWesternprovince(NWP)andNorth Centralprovince(NCP).Meanwhile,thehighestproportionofabandonedtanksisinthe Southernprovince(SP),LowerUva,Easternprovince(EP)followedbytheNorthern province(NP)andtheNCP.Ingeneral,theaveragetankdensityisonetankper2.6km2 f orNP,NCPandSP.FortheNWPthedensityisaroundonetankper1.2km2.This conformstoboththenatureoftheoverallrainfallregimeaswellthenatureof geomorphology of the region.Table 6Surface water resources of Sri Lanka Wet zoneDry zoneIsland total Mean annual rainfall (mm)2,4241,4501,937 Mean annual run-off (HM)2.58106 2.551065.13106 Run-off/Rainfall ratio (%)65.135.840.5 Escape to the sea (HM)2.041061.31063.33106 Escape as a % of total run-off75.8351.1164.91 Source: Ranatunga, 1985 20 Table 7 Present status of small tanks in the drier region of Sri Lanka Province and area (km2Number of small tanks OperatingAbandonedTotal Northern3,709608 8161,424 North Central10,365 2,0951,9224,017 North Western7,760 4,2002,2736,473 Southern2,849653 7571,410 Lower Uva2,901* 16 543 553 Eastern (south of Mahaweli)3,885* -1,0171,017 Eastern (north of Mahaweli)* 48 425 473 Total7,6207,75315,373 *Includes only the Dry zone part of the province Source: Panbokke et al, 2002 Apartfromthesesmalltanks,SriLankahasrelativelylargenumberofmajorreservoirs.Irrigationdepartment(1965)haspublishedtheregisteroftheirrigationprojectsinSri Lanka.Thisdocumenthaslisted64majorirrigationprojects,162mediumscaleprojects, 3,279minorprojects,1,763anicutprojects,46floodprotection,drainageandsaltwater exclusionprojectsand25liftirrigationprojects.Thisregisterhasnotbeenupdatedsince 1975eventhoughsomemajorirrigationandhydropowerprojectssuchasMahaweli, SamanalaWewa,KirindiOyaandKukuleGangaetc.havebeencommissioned thereafter. InSriLankaroleofwetlandsinmaintainingthesurfacewaterbalancecannotbeunder estimated.Wetlandscomprisingofswamps,marshes,fensandbogsarenaturalwater-storagefeaturesonthelandscape.Wetlandsplayacrucialroleinpreventingfloodingat theotherendofriverswhileprovidingthehabitatforvarietyoffloraandfauna,someof whichareendemictoSriLanka.Intheheadwatersandwatershed,theystorewater duringheavyrains,slowingrunoffintostreamsandreducingfloodpeaks.Someofthe 21 trappedwaterreturnsdirectlytotheatmospherethroughevaporationorplant transpiration,andwhileafewwetlandsrechargegroundwater,theyslowlyreleasethe watertheyholdtotheiroutletstream.Ingeneral,wetlandstypicallyhavealargeinletand asmalloutlet.Thereare41wetlandsitesinSriLanka.(Scott,1989).However,the importanceofwetlandecosystemswasnotunderstoodduringthepost-colonialeraofthe country.InColomboanditssuburbs,aconsiderableareaofnaturalwetlandshasbeen losttoconstructionofinfrastructure,thuscreatingseveralenvironmentalproblems, whichincludefloodingandpoordrainage.However,thevalueofwetlandsandflood plainshavereceivedincreasingattentionandSriLankaisnowapartytotheinternational treatyandconventionontheprotectionofwetlandsofinternationalimportance.Several proposalshavebeenconsideredtomitigatesomeofthehazardsassociatedwiththe destructionofnaturalwetlands.Agrowingbodyofnationallawsandinstitutionsand scientificmanagementinformationisbeingsuccessfullyattemptedforthesustainable development of wetlands in the country. Ground water Fromancienttimes,groundwaterextractedtroughdugwellshasbeenthemainsourceof naturallyclean,potablewatersupplythatserveddomesticpurposesandstillremainsthe principalsourceofdomesticwatersupplyintheruralsector.InSriLanka,rainfallisthe onlysourceofsupplyoffreshwaterthatseepsthroughthesurfaceforcirculationand storageasgroundwater.Asnearly90%ofthetotallandareaoftheislandisoccupiedby metamorphiccrystallinerocks,called"hardrocks"ofwhichbothporespaceand permeabilityisrelativelylow,groundwaterisnotpresentequallyeverywhereinthe country.IntheDryzonewheregroundwaterismostvaluableforirrigationaswellas domesticuse,severaldistinctcategoriesofgroundwatersourceshavebeenidentified.Theyare:shallowKrasticaquifers(Miocenelimestone)inJaffnapeninsula,shallow unconfinedaquifersonthesandyRegosolformationaroundthecoastofmainlandand islandssuchasKalpitiya,deepconfinedsedimentarylimestoneformationsof VanathavilluandMulankavilandgroundwateroccurringintheweatheredandfractured zonesofthehardmetamorphicrockcomplex,alluvialplainsofmajorrivers/drainage systemsandmajorirrigationareasoftheDryzone.Useofgroundwaterforfarmingin SriLankahasbeenconfinedtraditionallytothenorthernandeasternprovinces,whichare 22 deprivedofperennialwaterresources.Systematicexploitationofshallowanddeep aquifersofthenorthstartedinearly1960s.Since1970s,farmersintheNorth-central provincealsohavestartedtousegroundwaterofthehardrockaquifersforcultivation throughshallow,largediameterdug-wells,popularlyknownastheagro-wells.Although, groundwaterisanexcellentsourceofwater,itsavailability,extractability,rateof depletionandqualityetc.dependonanumberfactors.Thesefactorsdependonthe characteristicsofthewaterbearingsubstrata(thegeologicalformationthatholdwater underground)andexternalfactorssuchasrechargingarea,generalhydrology,rainfall, infiltration,run-off,soilstorageandevapotranspirationoftherechargingarea.However, beingenvironmentallyverysensitivesourceofwater,indiscriminateextractionofground watermayleadtocatastrophicconsequencesandtherefore,regionallybasedextraction guidelines for safe limits and well-density should be worked out. Pastoral resourcesAsinmanycountriesintheregion,inSriLankathecheapestsourceofanimalfeedare pastureandfodderoutofwhichpastureconstitutesthemajorsourceofnutrientsof animalsgrazingonnaturalpastures.InSriLanka,withatotallandareaof6.56million ha,theopennaturalgrasslandsindifferentclimaticzonesmakeupanextentofabout0.4 millionhectares(Sivalingam,1977).Thereareabout20,000hagrasslands,mainlyinthe governmentfarm,underimprovedgrasseswithatleastdoublethefodderyieldof indigenousgrasses(NARESA,1991).Theimportantspeciesofgrassandfodderthat supportthelivestockindustryinSriLankaare,GuineagrassintheMidcountry,Dry zoneandpartsoftheIntermediatezone;Brachariaspp.andnaturalpasturevarietiesin thecoconuttriangleandpartsoftheDryzone;andacombinationofGuineagrassand largenumbernaturalpasturespeciesintherestoftheisland(Siriwardena,1999).The naturalgrasslandsconsistoffourmaintypes,namely,Damana,Villu,Dry&Wet Patanas. DamanatypenaturalgrasslandsareSavannahtypevegetationfoundinthelowlandDry zoneespeciallyinitseasternregion.However,itisdifferentfromthetypicalSavannah forestontheeasternslopesofthecentralhighlandbetween300to900maltitudesin termsofcompositionofthetreespecies.Savannahforestintheeasternslopesisanopen 23 plantcommunityofscatteredtreesamidstaseaofgrasswheremaintreesareoccupied withTerminaliachebula(Aralu),T.belerica(Bulu),Emblicaofficinalis(Nelli),Careva arborea(Kahata),Diospyrosmelanoxylon(Kadumberiya)withtwomainspeciesof grasses,Imperatacylindrica(Iluk)andCymbopogonconfortiflorous(Mana). Nevertheless,theprincipaltreespeciesintheDamanagrasslandsorSavannahforestin thelowlandDryzoneoftheeasternregionconstitutesLimoniaacidissima(Divul), Manikarahexandra(Palu)Acacialeucophloea(Keeriya)amidstImperataandother grasses(NationalAtlas,1988).Thereareover80,000hasofDamanagrasslandsinthe Dry zone (Sivalingam, 1977). VilluisnaturalgrasslandassociatedwithmoistconditionsintheDryzonearound abandonedirrigationtanks,backswampsofmajorriversandstreams,andwaterholes.BothVilluandDamanaprovideahomeforthewildanimalsandalsopermitthedomestic ungulatestofendwithintheirmeans.DuringgreaterpartoftheMajorrainyseason (OctobertoFebruary),Mahaseason,about25,000haofVillugrasslandremaininundated withMahaweliwaters(Sivalingam,1977).DryPatanagrasslandsoccurmainlyintheUp countryIntermediatezone,especiallyintheUvabasinandwesternslopesofthe Knucklesrange.PrincipalgrassesareCymbopogonconfortiflorous(Mana)and Themedatremula.OccasionaltreesCareaarborea(Kahata)arepresent.WetPatana grasslandsoccursintheUpcountryWetzoneatelevationabove1,400mwherethereis nomoisturedeficitperiods.ItischaracterizedbyChrysopogon-Pollinia-Arundinella grasseswithRhododendron(Maharatmal)trees.Thelargestexpanseofthisgrasslandis HortonPlains.TheyarealsofoundinMoonPlains,SitaEliya,ElkPlains,Ambewela, Pattipola,andKandapolaareas(NationalAtlas,1988).BoththeseDryandWetPatanas intheMontaneregionextentoveranareaofabout65,000ha(Sivalingam,1977).Even though,theselandonlymarginallysuitableforarablefarming,theyareecologically importantincontrollingsoilerosionandforthesustenanceofwildlife.Inadditionto theselarge-scalenaturalgrasslands,animalsarebeingfedwithpasturesavailableunder someotherformoflanduses.Piyasinghe(1984)categorized10majorformsoflands with pasture along with their respective annual dry matter production (Table 8). 24 Table 8Extent of land under pasture and estimated yield of pasture Extent (ha)Total Dry Matter production(MT/year) Un-irrigated highlands in the Dry zone325,000 325,000 Villus in the Dry zone50,000 200,000 30% of the land area under coconut140,000 560,000 5% of the hill country tea estate land4,500 31,500 Patana lands in Montane regions55,000 55,000 Herbage from paddy lands ) 2 months of grazing between seasons) 120,000 120,000 Road sides etc.5,00010,000 Grazing land in the Wet zone20,00040,000 Fallow paddy land150,000300,000 Improved pasture in farms13,000130,000 Total882,500 1,771,500

TheTable8revealsthatpastureproductionpotentialofun-irrigatedhighlandsintheDry zoneis1MT/yearwhilegrassesinlandundercoconutproduces4MTperyear.In contrast,improvedpasturesinlarge-scalefarmshavethepotentialofyielding10Mtper annum.Hence,atpresentitisestimatedthatwith882,500haofpasturelandsinthe countryproduce1,771,500MTtotalDMofgrassandfodderinayear.However,this resourcebasecannotsupportthefeedrequirementofthelivestockofthecountry.The deficitoffodderrequirementinrelationtofodderproductionhasbeenestimatedtobe2.8 millionMT(Siriwardena,1999).Hence,itisclearthatsomeothermeansoffeedsupply shouldbeworkedoutinordertobridgethedeficit.Inthelightofnoextralandstobring underpasture,utilizationofcropresidues,agro-industrialby-productsandothernon-conventionalfeedresourceswouldbeanappropriatestrategytoovercomethecontinuing problemoflivestockfeedscarcityintheisland.Suchstrategieswouldbeofparticular importancefortheareashavingdistinctdryseasonbetweentworainyseasons.Inthese 25 regions,thepastureproductionduringthedryperiodiswellbelowthepasture requirement.Therefore,areassuchasIntermediateandDryzoneswheretheannual rainfallrhythmdepictsadistinctbi-modalpatterndemandeitherpastureconservation duringwetperiodoruseofalternativefeedresourcesduringthedryperiodorboth.Apart fromthequantityofpasture,thequalityofavailablepastureduringdryperiodsdecline rapidlyaspastureandfoddermaturerapidlyduringdryspells.ApartfromtheDryand Intermediatezones,thisisacommonproblemintheareasofMidandUpcountryduring MidJanuarytoMidMarchwherelongdryspellsarefrequentresultingbothqualityand quantity of forage resources to decline sharply. Land use and land degradation SriLankahasatotallandareaof6.56m.haoutofwhichnearly80%comesundersome formofstatecontrol.Ingeneral,nearlyone-thirdofthetotallandareaisunderforest coverandanotherone-thirdisunderagriculture.Humansettlements,homegardens, urbanandindustrialareas,transportationandavarietyofotherusesincluding undevelopedlandaccountforthebalance.Althoughthetotalextentofthelandsetapart forforestryandwildlifeexceedsthetotalareaofagriculturallands,muchoftheformer areinecologicallymarginaldryareassuchasYalaandWilpattuNationalParks(National Atlas, 1988). ThemostrecentscientificlandusemappingexercisewasundertakenbytheSurvey DepartmentofSriLankaduring1983-1988periodandidentified7majorcategoriesof landusesuchasArablelands,Builtupandresidentiallands,Forests,Rangelands, Wetlands,BarrenlandsandWaterbodies(Table9&Map7).Thearablelandsinclude croplands(allcultivated)andsparselyusedlands.Thecroplandsarethelandscultivated continuously.Theselandsincludetea,rubber,coconut,rice,vegetable,export-agriculturalcropsandnon-traditionalplantationcropssuchassugarcaneandcashewetc. Thesparselyusedcroplandsinclude"Chena"lands(slash&burnagriculture)and abandonedplantations,whicharecultivatednowandthen.Thecategoryofurbanand residentiallandsincludesbuiltuplands,associatenonagriculturallands(archeological reservations) and homesteads. 26 27 Theforestlandsincludesnaturalforestandforestplantations.Therangelandconsistof scrublandsandgrasslands.Grasslandscompriseofbothnatural(Patana&Villus)and cultivatedgrasslands.Themarshylandsandmangrovesaregroupedaswetlands.Rocky landsanderosionalremnantsaregroupedasaregroupedasbarrenlands.Allnatural water bodies and reservoirs in the inland are included in the category of water bodies. Table 9Land use in Sri Lanka (as shown in the land use map of 1988) TypeExtent (ha)% Arable land Cultivated1,641,100 Sparsely used1,288,500 Total2,929,60044.92 Built up and Residential Built up & associated non- agriculturallands 29,200 Homestead 781,300 Total 810,50012.42 Forest lands Natural & plantations1,759,80026.98 Range lands 593,5009.09 Wetlands 61,8000.95 Barren lands 77,5001.18 Water bodies 290,5004.45 ArecentstudyonlandusetypesinSriLankashowsthatrice,thestaplefoodoftheisland occupiesinabout41.8%ofthetotalarablelandwhiletea,rubber,andcoconutoccupyin 11.0,9.2and25.2percentfromthearableland,respectively(Table10).Eightpercentof thearablelandisoccupiedwithsubsidiarycropsalongwithanother3.8%undertheother export crops. 28 Table 10Arable land, their uses and other land use types in Sri LankaProportion %Area(ha) Agricultural land25.01,640,250 Paddy41.8685,625 Subsidiary crops8.0 131,220 Coconut25.2413,343 Rubber9.2150,903 Tea11.0180,428 Other export crops3.862,330 Sugar0.69,842 Tobacco0.46,561 Forest & woodlands27.11,778,031 Homesteads11.9 780,759 Scrubland 7.7 505,197 Sparsely used croplands19.61,285,956 Others (including inland water) 8.7 570,807 Total Land area 100.06,561,000 Source: National Environmental Action Plan (1988 - 2001), Ministry of Forestry & Environment Ithasalsobeenestimatedthatnearly80%oflandholdingsarelessthan1.2haandover 40%ofthemarelessthan0.4haofthetotallandarea.Withincreasingpopulation,the land/manratiooftheislandhasdeclinedfrom2.7ha/headto0.36ha/headwithinlast100 years(Gamage,1997).Thisdecreasingtrendwillbecontinuedeveninthefutureas populationcontinuestoincrease.Meanwhile,theproblemofscarcityoflandforhuman usewillbefurtheraggravatedduetolanddegradation,aprocessthatdiminishorimpair landproductivity.AccordingtotheFAOestimatesof1989,thetotalextentofdegraded landduetosoilerosioninSriLankaisabout700,000whichisabout10%ofthetotal arablelandsofthecountry.Deforestationhasbeenthemajorcauseofland degradation/soilerosioninSriLanka.SriLankahadaforestcoverofnearly80%in 1880.Significantlanddegradationbeganduringthepast150years,particularlyafterthe adventofcommercialplantationagricultureduringcolonialperiod.In1900,witha 29 populationofonly3.5million,SriLankahadapproximateforestcoverof70percent.By1953,whenpopulationreached8.1million,naturalforestcoverhaddiminishedto approximately44%andwhenpopulationdoubledbythemid1980s,theforestwascut by nearly half, to less than 25 per cent (NARESA, 1991). Thehighdegreeofsoilerosionreducesthelong-termproductivityofthelandsincethe fertiletop-soiliseroded.Somestudieshaveshownthatcropyieldshavedeclined3to 7.5%after1mmofsoillossduetonaturalerosionand10to25%lossafter8mmofsoil iseroded(Marsh,1971).Landdegradationduetosoilerosioncouldoccurinallagro-ecologicalregionsoftheisland,althoughitsintensitycouldvaryaccordingtotherainfall regime/intensity,soiltype,slope,groundcoverandmanagementpractices.Theworst affectedareaistheMidcountrywhereintensityofrainfallishigh,slopesaremoderateto highanderodibilityofsoilsisalsorelativelyhigh.Athigherelevation,althoughslopes aresteep,rainfallintensitiesarerelativelylower.IntheLowcountry,whererainfall intensitiescouldbehigh,slopesarelesssteepandsoilpossessesaconsiderableresistance to the erosion. EventhoughsoilerosionisthemostimportantmanifestationoflanddegradationinSri Lanka,lossoflandproductivitythroughsalinization/alkalization,dystrification(lowering ofsoilacidity),eutrifiation(increaseofcertainnutrientsimpairingtheplantgrowth)and indiscriminate waste disposal can not be neglected (Map 8). Socio-economic conditions SriLankahasapopulationover19millionsasat2002witharangeof1.3-1.5percent annualpopulationgrowth.Populationisprojectedtoreach22.3millionby2021andto stabilizeatabout25millionby2046.SriLankaisoneoftheworldsmostdensely populatedcountries.Populationdensitywasestimatedas287personspersquare kilometerin1994andhasincreasedto295personsin2000.Theestimatedmidyear population densityinyear2003was307persquarekilometer.PopulationinSriLankais unevenlydistributedacrossthecountryandisconcentratedmainlyintheWetzone, whichincludebothmaritimeprovinceswithhigherlevelofdevelopmentandhillcountry districts having large scale plantations. 30 31 Inthenineteen-fiftiesandsixties,theSriLankaeconomydependedprimarilyonexport orientedcommercialplantationsoftea,rubberandcoconut.Nosignificant manufacturingexistedpriorto1950.By1973,SriLankawasstillessentiallya plantation-basedeconomy.Overathirdofthefoodrequirementswereimported. Cultivationofpaddyandotherfoodcropsisveryvulnerabletothevagariesofthe weather,asmodernmethodsofirrigationandwatercontrolhasnotyetbeenwidely adopted.Themodernindustrialsector,establishedmainlytowardstheendofthe nineteen-sixtieswasheavilydependentonimportsandstillproducingwellbelowthefull capacity.Untilthemid-seventies,thegovernmentcontrolledmosteconomicactivities andmostindustriesweregovernmentoperatedmonopolies.In1977,withtheadoptionof openeconomicpoliciesandindustrializationledtoagrowthintheeconomy.An economicliberalizationprogrammestartedin1989increasedthemarketorientationof theeconomy,emphasizingexportledgrowthanddevelopmentoftheprivatesector.Despiteseverecivilstrife,theseeconomicreformsresultedinrelativelyhighgrowthrates of5.6percentonannualaverageduring1990-94.Inyear2003,SriLankarecordeda broadbased5.9%realeconomicgrowth(CentralBank,2003),acontinuingrecovering afterhereconomicset-backinyear2001.SectoralcompositionofGDPin2003show thatservicesectorcomprises55%oftheGDPwhileindustryandagricultureaccountfor 26and19percent,respectively.ThepercapitaGDPofSriLankaatmarketpricesis947 US $ (Central Bank, 2003) Despiteallthese,povertyhaspersistedinSriLankaoverthedecadesexceptwithaslight dropin1970s.Theruralandestatesectorshavehighlevelsofpovertycomparedtothe urbansector.Asaresultofwithdrawalofseveralsubsidyschemesduringrecentpastand increasinginflationrate,thepovertyhasbecomeanintegralaspectofthesocietyandthe economyofSriLanka.Apartfromotherconsequences,thepovertywilldeprivepeople, atalltimes,havephysicalandeconomicaccesstosufficient,safeandnutriousfoodto meettheirdietaryneedsandfoodpreferencesforactiveandhealthylife,inotherwords theyarevulnerabletofoodinsecurity.ArecentstudyconductedbytheWorldFood ProgrammeoftheUNhascategorizedcountry's323DSdivisionsinto3groupsinterms ofthefoodsecurity,namely,Mostvulnerable,LessvulnerableandLeast/notvulnerable (Map9).Thismapisacompositeproductof22biophysicalandsocio-economic 32 parametersdevelopedinaGISenvironment.Adetaileddescriptiononparametersand methodologycanbefoundinSatharasinghe(2003).Thisstudyshowsthatout323DS divisions,148areeither"Leastvulnerable"or"Notvulnerable"tofoodinsecurity.Most ofthemarelocatedintheWetzoneoradjoiningIntermediatezone.Thereare82DS divisions,whichare"Lessvulnerable"tofoodinsecurity,locatedmostlyinthe Intermediatezone,andadjoiningWetandIntermediatezones.Thereare93DSdivisions inthecountrythatare"Mostvulnerable"tofoodinsecurityofwhichmajorityfoundin the Dry zone of Sri Lanka, particularly in the North-east province. Livestock industry in Sri Lanka Thecurrentpopulationestimatesindicatethattherearearound1.51millioncattle,0.64 millionbuffaloes,0.45milliongoats,0.07millionpigsand10.6millionpoultry(Dept.of Census&Statistics,2002).Livestockarespreadthroughoutallregionsofthecountry withconcentrationofcertainfarmingsystemsinparticularareasbecauseofagro-climatic, market and cultural reasons (Map 10 - 14). Avarietyofanimalsareraisedinthecountryincludingneatcattle,buffaloes,pigs, poultry,sheepandgoats.Cattleandbuffaloesareraisedfordairy,draughtandfor slaughter.Pigsandsheepareraisedexclusivelyforslaughterwhilegoatsareraisedboth forslaughterandsupplyofmilk.Thedairyandpoultryindustriesofthecountry represent more prominent and organized sectors of the country's livestock industry. Cattleandbuffalokeepingisgenerallydistributedthroughoutallregionsofthecountry.Intheupandmid-country,cattlekeepingisprimarilyformilk.Inthelowcountrywet zoneandinthecoconutgrowingareabuffaloformanintegralpartofagriculture providingdraftpower,weedcontrolandmanureaswellasbeingusedformilk production.Inthedryzonethesespeciesareregardedasasourceofinsurancebythe small-holdersastheyprovideastoreofwealthandaccesstocashbymeansofanimal sales,andmilk.InirrigatedareasofMahawelisettlementschemeinDryZone,cattleand buffaloarekeptmainlytoproducemilkanddraftpower.Intotalnearlyhalfofthecattle in the country are found in the dry zone (Map 10). 33

Map 9 : Vulnerability to food insecurity of Sri Lanka 34 35 36 37 38 39 GoatsarelargelyfoundintheDryzone(Map12).Thetotalnumberofanimals slaughteredatregisteredabattoirsisaround97,000animalswithanextractionrateof 18.8%1300MTofmuttonareproduced.Morerecentlytherearingofgoatsformilk purpose is becoming popular in the urban areas of the country. PigfarmingisconcentratedintheWesterncoastalpigbelt(Map13)areundertakenas intensivesystems(10-15fatterners)andextensivesystems(1to2pigskeptbysmall farmersinapredominantlysubsistencesystem).Approximately26,300pigsare slaughteredeveryyearproducing5,500MTofpork.Swillandricebranarethemost common feeds used for pigs. PoultryproductionisconcentratedinWesternandnorthwesternpartofthecountryasa commercialventure(Map14).Mostoftheoperationsfoundintheseareasaremedium largescalehaving1,00010,000birds.Annualpoultrymeatandeggproductioninthe country stands at 88 million kg and 954 million, respectively. Agro-ecology Anagro-ecologicalregionrepresentsaparticularcombinationofthenatural characteristicsofclimate,soilandrelief(Panabokke,1996).Whenanagro-climaticmap, whichcanbeconsideredasareaswheretheintegratedeffectofclimateisuniform throughouttheareaforcropproduction,issuperimposedonsoilandterraintheresulting mapidentifiesagro-ecologicalregions.Thus,eachagro-ecologicalregionrepresentsan uniformagro-climate,soilsandterrainconditionsandassuchwouldsupportaparticular farmingsystemwherecertainrangeofcropsandfarmingpracticesfindtheirbest expression. Thedemarcationoftheislandinto46agro-ecologicalsub-regionsisshownintheMap 15 (Punyawardenaetal,2003).Themaindistinguishingcharacteristicsofeachagro-ecologicalregionisdenotedbya4-charactercodeconsistingoflettersandanumber. Threemajorclimaticzonesareindicatedbythefirstuppercaseletterofthecode(W,I andD).Theseconduppercaseletterofthecode(L,MandU)denotesthreecategoriesof elevation.The numerical character in the third place of the code represents a more 40 41 detailedmoistureregime(rainfallandevaporationcombined)withadegreeofwetnesson thescaleof1to5where1beingthemostfavorable.Thelowercaseletterinthefourth placeindicatesasub-regionasdeterminedbyrainfalldistributionandotherphysical environmental factors where degree of wetness decreases a f. IntheWetzone,thereare15agro-ecologicalsub-regions.Foursub-regionsfoundinthe Up-countrywetzoneshowadistinctvariationinthedistributionoftheSouthWest Monsoon(SWM)rains.BeinginthemosteffectiveareaoftheSWMrains,WM1a, WL1aandWU1asub-regionsreceivethehighestamountofrainfallinthecountry.Apart fromtheamountanddistributionofSWMrains,relativeeffectivenessofNorthEast Monsoon(NEM)rainshasalsoplayedavitalroleindistinguishing6sub-regionsinthe mid-countrywetzone.ThefourmonthsperiodfromDecembertoMarchisrelatively "dry"inWM3aagro-ecologicalsub-regionwhiletherearetwodistinctdryperiodsinthe WM3bduetoreducedeffectivenessofSWMrainsoverthissub-region.IntheLow-countryWetzone,amountanddistributionofSWMaswellasFirstInterMonsoon(FIM) rainswereimportantinidentifyingthe5agro-ecologicalsub-regions.Meanwhile,the monthsJuly,AugustandDecemberinWL3agro-ecologicalregiondoesnotreceive adequateamountofrainfallandhencecannotbeconsideredaswetmonths.Assuch,4 months period extending from December to March is relatively "dry" in this region. TheIntermediatezoneconsistsof20agro-ecologicalsub-regionsoutofwhich15sub-regionsareinthecentralhills.Varyingdegreeofeffectivenessofdifferentrainfall governingmechanismsacrossthecentralhillshascausedvarietyofgrowing environmentsinthisregion.Thereare7agro-ecologicalsub-regionsintheUpcountry IntermediatezoneoutofwhichIU1isreportedtoreceivethehighestannualrainfall amongallsub-regionsoftheentireIntermediatezone.BeingintheKnucklesrange,this regionreceivesampleamountofrainsfromNEMwhilethecontributionfromSWM rainsisalsosubstantial.ComplexgeographicalsettingsoftheIU3agro-ecologicalregion whichencompassesalmostwholeoftheso-called"Uvabasin"haveresulted5agro-ecologicalsub-regionsduetohighspatialvariabilityofintermonsoonalandNEMrainsin thisregion.Meanwhile,beinglocatedintherainshadowareaoftheSWM,thisregion 42 doesnotreceiveadequaterainsduringJunetoSeptemberresultingindryandwindy environment.TheMidcountryIntermediatezonehas7agro-ecologicalsub-regions. Mostofthesesub-regionsalsodonotreceiveadequaterainsfromSWMand,hence,4 monthsperiodfromJunetoSeptemberisrelativelydry.LowcountryIntermediatezone consistsof5agro-ecologicalsub-regions.OtherthanIL2,allotheragro-ecologicalsub-regionsintheLowcountryIntermediatezoneresembleabi-modalrainfalldistribution.SinceSecondInterMonsoon(SIM)andNEMrainsaretheonlyeffectiverainyseasonsin theregion,theIL2agro-ecologicalregionexhibitsadistinctlyuni-modalrainfall distribution along with a long and pronounced dry period from April to September. IntheDryzone,thereare11agro-ecologicalsub-regionswithdifferentrainfall distributionandedaphicfeatures.TheDL3,DL4andDL5agro-ecologicalregionsofthe Dryzonereceivethelowestannualrainfallofthecountryincombinationwithsomesoil limitationsthatarefoundintheseregions.Outof11agro-ecologicalsub-regions,only DL1aandDL1barecharacterizedbytwodiscerniblepeaksintherainfalldistributionand thus,supportcropsinbothMahaandYalagrowingseasons.Thoseagro-ecologicalsub-regionsfoundintheeasternsectoroftheDryzone,i.e.,DL1c,DL1d,DL1eandDL2a andDL2b,exhibitadistinctuni-modalrainfallpattern,andsupportonlythecropsin Mahaseason.Therestoftheagro-ecologicalsub-regionsoftheDryzonealsosupport onlytheMahacropsinceYalarainsinthosesub-regionsarenotadequatetomeetthe evapotranspiration requirements. Livestock production systems and AERs Comparedtomanycountriesintheregion,SriLankahasnoexceptionthatmajorsources offeedsforruminantsarepastureandfodder,whichincludestreefodder.Therefore, spatialpopulationdistributionofruminantsinSriLankahasadirectrelationshipwiththe environment,inotherwordtheagro-ecologyoftheisland.However,spatialdistribution ofpoultryandPigswhichdonotdependdirectlyonpasturearelessrelatedtotheagro-ecologywhilesomeotherfactorssuchassocio-economicandreligiousaspectsmayplay a major role in deciding the spatial distribution of these two animals. 43 Basedonthefeedingpracticesofmajorlivestock,theruminantproductionsystemsare consistingof5majorgroups(Siriwardena,1999)whilenon-ruminantshaving2major production systems. Ruminant production systems (Siriwardena, 1999) UP countryMid countryWet & intermediateIntermediateDry zone Intensiveintensivezone& dry zoneintensive System systemsemi-intensiveextensivesystem System system Zero grazingZero grazingCombination of free grazingZero grazing With highwith moderatetethered and/orin crop/stock Levels oflevels offree grazingintegrated Concentrateconcentratewith limitedsystem Feedingfeeding feeding of concentrates Mid & Up country intensive system Themaincropgrownhereistea.Rainfallisfairlywelldistributedthroughouttheyear whilethetemperatureisconducivefortemperatebreedsoflivestock.Theestateworkers keepdairycattlemainlyofimprovedEuropeanbreedsunderstall-fedcondition.They havenoownlands.Forforagerequirement,theyhavetodependonnaturalgrasses growninthecanalbunds,wasteanduncultivatedlandsarecutandfedtothecattle together with concentrate feeds. Inthevillage-basedsystem,farmerownsapieceoflandandtheirfarmingismainly crop-livestockintegration.Theyareengagedincommercialorientedintensivevegetable cultivation.Dairycattlearekeptmainlytogetmanureandthemilkisoftenasecondary 44 income.ThemaingrassesfoundherearePanicummaximum(wildtype)andPanicumrepense. Wet & Intermediate zone semi intensive systemThissystemexistsmainlyinthecoconutgrowingareaofthelow-country.Crossbreeds ofJersey,AMZSahiwalarepopularanimalsinthissystem.Theyhavemedium productionpotentialsofabout4-5litersofmilk/day.Innormalpracticeanimalsaretied tothecoconutpalmsandrotatethelocationduringthedaytimeorletlooseinlarge plantationsorinfallowpaddylands.LivefenceserectedwithGlyricidiatypetrees provideadditionalsourceoffeedstotheanimals.Insomeinstances,leguminouscover cropslikePuerariaandCentrosemaaregrownunderthecoconutplantations.Theyalso serveasasourceofanimalfeed.Itisfoundthatconsiderableproportionofcoconutlands isinter-croppedwithBanana,Pineapple,CoffeeandPepperlikecropstoincreasethe landuseefficiency.Inpepperintercultivation,usuallyGlyricidiasticksareusedto supportthepeppervines.TheexcessivegrowthofGlyricidiaisloppedandsuchwould alsoprovideafairamountofbiomassforlivestockproduction.Coconutmeal,theby productofcoconutoilextractionprocesswithricebranformsthemostpopular combinationofconcentratefeedsupplementinthissystem.Atpresent,inter-croppingof improved grasses under coconut plantations is also catching up gradually. Dry & Intermediate zone extensive system Thiszoneistypifiedbyuseofindigenousbreeds.Theygrazeformostoftheyearon bunds,tankbeds,villusandscrubjungle.Duringgoodcroppingseasons,theanimals maybemovedsomedistancetoscrubjungle.Thereisalmostnouseofconcentratesand littleuseofcropresiduesalthoughbuffaloesarefedricestraw.Theherdsizeis comparativelylargeandvariedfrom30to200headsofcattlemainlyofindigenousand someIndiancrosses.UseofnaturaltreefoddersuchasAccacialeucophloea (Katuandara).Azadirachtaindica(Kohomba),Drypetessepiaria(Weera),Grewia microcos(Keliya,Kohukirilla),Grewiapolygama(Borudamaniya)Grewiatiliaefolia (Damaniya,damina)iscommonintheseareas.Theseherdsutilizefeedresourceof wildlife. 45 Inthissystem,animalsarekeptasalivesavingandtheyaresoldatanymomentwhen thereisaneedofmoney.Slaughterofcattleforhomeconsumptionisrarelypracticed. However,milkissoldmainlytothelocalmarket.Thebuffaloesareusedfordraught purposesinthenortherndryzonewhiledairybuffaloesarecommoninthesoutherndry zone and part of the north-central province for curd production. Dry zone intensive system ThedryzoneintensivesystemoperatesinMahawelisettlementareaunderirrigation facilities.Sincethemajorcropgrowninthisregionispaddy,asubstantialamountof paddystrawandricebranisavailableforlivestockfeeding.Inaddition,thecropresidues ofmaizeandlegumesarealsoavailableduringtheharvestingperiodofrespectivecrops. Someofthesugarcanefactoriesandtheircontractgrowersystemsarealsolocatedinthis production.Thus,molassesfeedingalongwithroughagesasamultinutrientblockhas becomeapopularfeedingpracticeinthisarea.But,farmersdoverylimitedfeedingof sugarcanetopsandbagassestotheiranimals.Treefodderandimprovedforages growinginopenareas,andbundsarealsobecomingpopular.Theherdsizeinthis systemisfairlysmallandthekeepingbuffaloesarelesscommon.LocalZebucrosses areusedforlandpreparationpurposes.Thelandsinthisareaarefullyoccupiedinmost of the time of the year. Non-ruminant production systems PoultryThepoultryindustryisconsistofmultitudeofsmallproducersandafewlargeproducers. TheintensivepoultryproductionsystemsareconcentratedinWesternandNorthWestern partofthecountryasacommercialventurewhereeasyaccesstomarketfacilitiesand inputareavailablewithimprovedinfrastructurefacilities.Mostoftheoperationsfoundin theseregionsaremediumtolargescalehaving1,00010,000birds.Theextensive production systems are scattered throughout the island as a backyard system. 46 Pigs PigfarmingisconcentratedintheWesterncoastalpigbeltasintensivesystems(10-15 fatterners)andextensivesystems.Undertheextensivepigfarming,smallfarmerskeep1 to2pigsasascavengingsystem.Itisunderstoodthatlocalizationofthepigindustryin SriLankaismainlyduetotheculturalandsocialreasonsthanthatofitsenvironmental adaptability. Bio-physical and agro-ecological characteristics of target sites Ithasbeenevidentthatthepopulationoftheindigenouslivestockisgraduallydecreasing whilesomebreeds/specieshavealreadybeenlostorarenearatextinction.Hence,itis importanttoconserveandutilizethisbroadgeneticbasetoenhancetheproductivityof livestockofthecountryinasustainablemanner.Therefore,inthelightofpossible financialassistancethroughFAnGRAsiaProject,seventargetsitescoveringfour administrativedistrictsofSriLankawereselectedtoexecuteafullprojectonFAnGR (Table11andMap16).Intheprocessofselectionoftargetsites,parameterssuchas abundanceofindigenouslivestockspecies(Map10-14),agro-ecologicaldiversity(Map 15) and poverty level of the people living in the area (Map 9) were considered. Table 11Selected target sites and their respective administrative units & AERs Target site/DS division Administrative District Province Agro-ecological regionHambantotaDL5 Lunugamwehera Hambantota SouthernDL5 SiyambalanduwaMonaragalaUvaDL1b PottuvilDL2a Panama Ampara North-easternDL1b ThirappaneDL1b Galenbindunuwewa Anuradhapura North-centralDL1b 47 48 Hambantota and Lunugamwehera target sites. ThesetwoDSdivisionsarelocatedintheHambantotaadministrativedistrictofthe SouthernprovinceofSriLanka.Accordingtotheagro-ecologicalmapofSriLanka (2003),thesetwositesfallundertheDL5Agro-EcologicalRegion(AER).TheDL5 AER ofSouthernDryzoneisconsideredasthedriestpartofSriLankawithanannualaverage rainfallof900mmandannualdependablerainfallofgreaterthanorequalto650mm.Thedistributionofrainfallisnotconduciveanyformofcropgrowthhavingalonger growthcycle.Considerableamountofrainfall,nearly70%oftheannualtotalreceives onlyduringmid-Octobertomid-January,theMahaseason(Map15,Figure1&2).The Yalarainsofabout300mmbetweenmidMarchtomidMayarenotadequatetoraisea crop.TheperiodbetweenmidMaytoSeptemberisdryandwindywithveryhigh temperaturesandevaporationrates.Thedaytimemaximumtemperatureinthisregion couldvaryfrom30to35degreesofCentigradedependingonthetimeoftheyear.The highesttemperaturesarebeingrecordedduringMaytoSeptember,thedryperiodofthe year (Table 12). NaturalvegetationofbothDSdivisionsispredominatelyscrublandwiththornytype specieswithisolatedtreesandpatchesoftrees.Meanwhile,tankbedsofabandoned smalltanksfoundinthesetwotargetsitescouldbeconvertedtograzinglandswith improvedvarieties.Moreover,thereisaconsiderableextentoflandthatissaltaffected, especiallyinthelowestpositionofthecatenarysequenceinLunugamweheratargetsite.Forsomepartofthesesaltaffectedlands,irrigationwaterisalsoavailable.Insome cases,drainagewatercomingfromtheuppercatenarypositionscouldalsobeused. Hence,establishmentsalttolerantpasturespeciescouldbeoneofthebestformofland useforsuchlands,makingthewayforanimalhusbandrywithappropriatebreedsthatare adaptable to high temperature conditions prevailing in the area.49 Figure 1Average monthly rainfall at Hambantota (1921 - 1990) 020406080100120140160180200Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov DecMonthRainfall mm50 Figure 2Average monthly rainfall at Lunugamwehera (1983 - 1999) 050100150200250Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov DecMonthRainfall mm51 Table 12Average climatic conditions of the DL5 agro-ecological region of SriLanka (Location: Weerawila/1990-1996) JanFebMarAprMayJunJulAugSepOctNovDec Max temp. (0C)313233.434.13334.433.63432.832.631.829 Min temp. (0C)21.321.621.722.522.522.821.72120.620.820.319.2 Rainfall(mm)77.349.832.892.672.224.628.539.368.4117.1274.9158.5 Evaporation (mm/day)4.44.95.94.65.26.26.87.67.15.34.04.0 Wind velocity (kmph)7.77.46.24.89.812.112.613.210.58.25.06.6 Bright sunshine Hours7.17.78.26.77.65.76.27.67.75.45.85.7 RH (%) - morning797773757572767979618081 RH (%) - evening716868726766687971737478 52 MalalaOyaandKaraganOyaarethemajorstreamsthatflowthroughtheHambantota DSdivisionwhileKirindiOyaistheonlystreamthatflowsthroughLunugamweheraDS division(Table13&Map5).Catchmentsofthesethreestreams,whicharerelatively small,aremainlyconcentratedintheDryzoneandpossesintermittentflows.However,a partofthecatchmentoftheKirindiOyaliesintheIntermediatezone.Thereislarge numberoftanksintheHambantotaDSdivision(Table14)outofwhichBandagiriyatank istheprominentoneandothersmostlybelongstothecategoryofsmalltanks. BandagiriyatankisfedbybothMalalaOyaanddivertedwaterofLunugamwehera reservoir.However,mostofthesmalltanksfoundintheareaareeitherabandonedor heavilysilted.Thereare14tanksintheLunugamweheraDSdivision(Table15) includingtheLunugamweheramajorreservoir,builtin1980sandWeerawilaWewaand PannegamuwaWewa.EventhoughLunugamweherareservoirisoneofthefewrecently builtmajorirrigationschemesofSriLankawithanirrigableareaof13,000ha,on averageitdoesnotreceivetheestimateddesigndischargein3outof4years.Thisis mainlyduetooverestimationbyabout20%ofbasinwateravailabilityduringthe planningphase(IIMI,1990).Therefore,cropfailureshavebecomefrequentproblemin thisirrigationschemewithaseriousissueofpovertyandmalnutritionofsettlersandtheir dependents.Astudyconductedbytheworldfoodprogrammein2003hasflagged LunugamweheraDSdivisionasanareaof"Mostvulnerable"tofoodinsecuritywhile Hambantota DS division falling under the category of"Less vulnerable" (Map 9). Itisunlikelythatmoreinvestmentwillbemadeavailabletorescuethisill-fated irrigation projectinthenearfuture.Hence,thereisagreaterpotentialforlivestockfarminginthis region.However,caremustbegiventochoosesuitablelivestockspeciesfortheregion as high temperature regime may hinder the potential performance of animals. 53 Table 13Hydrological characteristics of major rivers in target sites Basin No. Name of basin Catchment area (km2) Precipitation volume (Million m3) Discharge volume(Million m3) % Discharge19Karagan Oya58671522 20Malala Oya3994347417 22Kirindi Oya1165160647622 34Helawa Ara51822834.5 35Wila Oya48465321533 36Heda Oya60496739441 37Karanda Oya42267619629 38Semane Ara51822531 67Yan Oya1520226930019 90Aruvi Aru3246459256812 Source: National Atlas, 1988 Table 14Tanks found in the Hambantota DS division NameName 1Bandagiriya Wewa12Weligatta Wewa 2Kelliywalana Wewa13Anokkan Wewa 3Weheragoda Wewa14Nabada Wewa 4Palessa Wewa15Kuda Wewa 5Andara Wewa16Metigatta Wewa 6Kapuwatta Wewa17Koholangoda Wewa 7Keligama Wewa18Hangaranga Wewa 8Juligama Wewa19Divul Wewa 9Kalupalla Wewa20Kattana Wewa 10Rambuk Wewa21Beligas Wewa 11Gat Wewa 54 Table 15Tanks found in the Lunugamwehera DS division NameName 1Sinikku Wewa7Ijukpelessa Wewa 2Kadawara Wewa8Degaldehera Wewa 3Kukulkatuwa Wewa9Kotakumbuka Wewa 4Lutana Wewa10Pannagamuwa Wewa 5Punchi Appu Jandura Wewa11Weerawila Wewa 6Unctu Wewa12Lunugamwehera Reservoir 13Kikiliwidda Wewa Beingasemi-aridregion,thecroporpastureproductioninthesetwositesislargely determinedbyclimaticandedaphicfeatures.ReddishBrownEarth(RBE)withhigh amountofgravelisthepredominantsoiltypeofthisregionthatcanbefoundoncrest, upperandmidslopesofgentlyundulatingtoundulatinghighlands.LowHumicGley (LHG)soilisthemostcommonlyfoundsoiltypeinvalleybottomswithinclusionof pocketsofSolodizedSolonetzwheresoildrainageisverypoor.Potentialandlimitations of these two predominant soil types are given below. Potential and limitations Reddish Brown Earths (Rhodustalf) ThisisthemostwidespreadsoiltypeintheDryzoneincludingtwotargetsitesunder review.Itoccupiesincrestandwell-drainedmidandupperslopesofthecatenary sequence.Thestructureisweaktomoderatesub-angularblocky.Thesoilmoisture relationshipischaracterizedbylowwaterholdingcapacitywitharapidreleaseofsoil moistureattensionlowerthanoneatmosphere.Thesoilisextremelyhardwhendry, friabletofirmwhenmoistandstickywhenwet.Agoodaccountofphysicalpropertiesof RBEcanbefoundinJoshua(1988).Thissoiltypepossessesgoodchemical characteristicscomparedtoothersoiltypesofthecountry.Thesoilreactionisslightly acidic to neutral with 60 to 80% base saturation.55 RBEischaracterizedbyhavingagravellayerinthesub-soilandthereforerootgrowthis restrictedduetoshallowdepth.Itbecomeseasilyslakeunderheavyrainfallandmake tillageoperationsaredifficult,thus,canoperateonlyunderlimitedmoisturerange.As soilmoistureislostatlowtensions,soilmoisturestressisverycommoneveninshortdry spells.Asthestructureisweak,itishighlyvulnerabletosoilerosionandrequires adoptionofsoilmoistureconservationmeasures.Thepresenceofcharacteristicsgravel layerinthesub-soilhindersthedownwardmovementofwaterandhence,an improvement to drainage during rainy seasons is essential. Potential and limitations Low Humic Gley soils (Tropaqualf) NexttotheRBE,LowHumicGleysoils(LHG)arethemostextensivegreatsoilgroupin SriLankawithnoexceptioninthesetwotargetsites.Thissoilgroupisessentiallya hydromorphicsoillocatedinthefootslopesofundulatinglandscapeoftheDryzone. However,duetolowrainfallandhighlysalinegroundwaterinHambantotaand LunugamweheraDSdivisions,agreaterproportionoftheLHGinthesetwoDSdivisions aresaltaffected.Thebasesaturationisintherangeof90to100%andfreecarbonates arepresentatvaryingdepthofthesub-soilandthus,soilreactionismoderatelyalkaline. Thewaterholdingcapacityofthesoilisfairlygoodbecauseofthepresenceofhigh amountofclaywithsmectite.Themostsuitablelanduseforthissoilgroupispaddyand whenthesoilbearshighsaltcontents,thesalttolerantgrassesarethemostappropriate landuse.Cultivationofuplandcropsornon-waterlovingplantsisadifficulttaskinthis soilduetopoordrainagecondition.Insomeplaces,drainageimprovementhastobe donebeforetheestablishmentofanycroporgrasstofacilitateflushingoutofsaltsand excess water coming from the higher positions of the catena. Siyambalanduwa target site TheSiymbalanduwaDSdivisionislocatedintheMonaragalaadministrativedistrictof theUvaprovinceofSriLankaandbelongstotheWellassaregionoftheancient kingdom.Accordingtotheagro-ecologicalregionmapofSriLanka(2003),thisDS divisioncomesundertheDL1bAgro-EcologicalRegion(AER).Animportant characteristicsoftheDL1bAERisthepresenceofwelldefinedtworainyseasons, 56 namely,YalaandMahawithannualaveragerainfallof1,600mmandannualdependable rainfallofgreaterthanorequalto900mm.TheMahaormajorrainyseasonisfrom OctobertolateJanuaryandtheYala,minorrainyseasonisfromlateMarchtomidMay. Hence,monthlyrainfallrecordsdepictabi-modalrainfallpatternwithtwomarkeddry seasons,oneduringFebruarytomidMarch,whichisshortandmoderate,andtheother duringmidMaytoSeptemberwhichislongandprotracted(Map15).Nearly70%ofthe annualtotalrainfalloccursduringtheMahaseasonwhilethebalanceoccursduringthe Yalaseason.MonthsfromJunetoSeptemberaregenerallyrainless.Evenifitrains,it willbefarbelowtheevapotranspirationrequirementduetoprevailinghightemperature andwinds(Table16).However,incontrarytootherpartsoftheDL1bAER,thisarea receivesconsiderableamountofrainsduringJanuaryandFebruarythroughnortheast monsoonrains(Figure3).Thisismainlyattributedtoitsproximitytotheeasterncoast wherenortheastmonsoonalwindsbeginstosheditsmoisture.Therefore,drynessduring FebruarytomidMarchmaynotbesosevereascomparedtoothertypicalDL1bregions of the Dry zone. NaturalvegetationofSiyambalanduwaDSdivisionis"moistdeciduousforest". However,duetoclearingofforestforshiftingor"Chena"cultivation,whatisleftofthe forestvegetationisquitesmallandpredominanttypeexistingvegetationissecondary vegetation of scrub jungles. HedaOyaistheonlymajorstreamthatflowsthroughtheSiyambalanduwaDSdivision (Map5).UnliketheothertargetsitesintheHambantotadistrict,theSiyambalnduwaDS divisionisnotblessedwithlargenumberoftankshavingonlyHedaOyareservoir,Una ElareservoirandPolgahagamaWewainoperation.Theworldfoodprogrammestudy (2003)hascategorizedtheSiyambalanduwaDSdivisionasanareaof"Mostvulnerable" tofoodinsecurity(Map9)anditcouldbeattributedtolackoflargenumberofsurface water reservoirs in the area. 57 Figure 3Average monthly rainfall at Siyambalnduwa (1943 - 1980) 050100150200250300350Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov DecMonthRainfall mm58 Table 16 Average climatic conditions of the DL1b agro-ecological region of Sri Lanka (Location: Angunakolapelessa/1992 -2001) JanFebMarAprMayJunJulAugSepOctNovDec Max temp. (0C)30.931.632.832.732.632.332.332.532.131.630.830.6 Min temp. (0C)22.022.222.624.325.124.624.724.42423.52322.5 Rainfall(mm)63.967.055.4100.495.264.442.041.3112.8167.3235.0111.4 Evaporation (mm/day)4.14.65.34.54.54.65.05.14.74.03.43.6 Wind velocity (kmph)6.25.54.84.86.97.98.58.67.45.74.35.3 Bright sunshine Hours7.18.38.987.57.27.48.17.16.566.1 RH (%) - morning848481828181797879828585 RH (%) - evening707169757372706769757868 59 BeingintheDryzone,predominantsoiltypeoftheSiyambalanduwaDSdivisioniswell andimperfectlydrainedReddishBrownEarth(RBE)ontheconvexuplandsandlower midslopesofgentlytoundulatinglandscape.LowHumicGley(LHG)soil,thepoorly drainedmemberofthecatenarysequenceisthemostcommonlyfoundsoiltypeinthe concavevalleysandbottomlands.Potentialandlimitationsofthesetwopredominantsoil types of the target area have already been discussed in a preceding section. Panama and Pottuvil target sites. BoththesetargetsitesarelocatedinthePottuvilDSdivisionoftheAmpara administrativedistrictofthenortheasternprovinceofSriLanka.Accordingtotheagro-ecologicalregionmapofSriLanka(2003),PanamafallsundertheDL1bAERwhile PottuviliscomingundertheDL2aAER.Eventhough,Siymbalanduwatargetsite,which wasdiscussedintheprecedingsectionandPanamasite,arelocatedinthesameAER,the DL1b,rainfalldistributionofPanamaisquitedifferentfromthetypicalrainfall distributionofDL1b.Generally,Panamaresemblesauni-modalrainfalldistribution (Figure4)whereasbi-modalpatternisthecharacteristicsrainfalldistributionofDL1b (Figure3).UndersuchsituationPanamashouldhavebeencategorizedunderDL2AER wherethecharacteristicsrainfalldistributionisuni-modal.However,delineationofDL2 wasprimarilybasedonthepresenceofNonCalcicBrown(NCB)Soilsasthe predominantsoiltype.SincePanamaischaracterizedbyhavingRBEsoilswithnoNCB soilsoritsassociations,ithasbeencompelledtocategorizedPanamaundertheDL1b AER.Panamaareareceivesabout1,500mmannualrainfallwith1,150mmofannual dependablerainfall.Nearly80%oftheannualrainfallisreceivedduringtheMaha season.NoneofthemonthsintheYalaseasonreceiverainfallinexcessof evapotranspiration and hence, a Yala season is not discernible in the region (Figure 4). PottuviltargetsiteislocatedintheDL2aAERwherepredominantsoiltypeisNCBand monthlyrainfalldistributionisuni-modal(Figure5).Hence,itdoesnotpermityear aroundcultivationunlessirrigationwaterisprovided.Theannualdependablerainfallof thisregionequalsorexceeds1,300mm.TheMahaseasonatbothtargetsitesisrelatively longercomparedtootherpartsoftheDryzone,startingfromOctobertoFebruary receiving nearly 80% of the annual rainfall (Figure 4 & Figure 5).60 Figure 4Average monthly rainfall at Panama (1950 - 1988) 050100150200250300350Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov DecMonthRainfall mm61 Figure 5 Average monthly rainfall at Pottuvil (1983 - 2003) 050100150200250300350Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov DecMonthRainfall mm62 Table 17 Average climatic conditions of the DL2 agro-ecological region of Sri Lanka (Location: Aralaganwila/1992 -2001) JanFebMarAprMayJunJulAugSepOctNovDec Max temp. (0C)29.731.534.131.835.634.534.53535.333.531.229.6 Min temp. (0C)21.220.721.223.323.924.124.223.522.922.822.722 Rainfall(mm)245.4141.214.5111.464.919.835.031.888.7184.6387.9358.0 Evaporation (mm/day)3.34.05.14.95.66.77.07.06.24.83.53.0 Wind velocity (kmph)3.23333.76.36.95.94.73.82.73 Bright sunshine Hours6.27.5988.67.27.68.47.66.55.55.1 RH (%) - morning929186827769687070808992 RH (%) - evening777058656056545455667780 64 AtbothPanamaandPottuvil,theperiodbetweenmidMaytoSeptemberisdryand windywithveryhightemperaturesandevaporationrates.Thedaytimemaximum temperatureinthisregioncouldvaryfrom30to37degreesofCentigradedependingon thetimeoftheyear.ThehighesttemperaturesarebeingrecordedduringMayto September, the dry period of the year (Table 17). Naturalvegetationofboththesetargetsitesispredominately"Dryevergreenforests". HelawaAraandWilaOyaarethemajorstreamsthatflowthroughPanamaareawhile HedaOya,KarandaOyaandSemaneArafindtheirwaytotheeasterncoastthrough Pottuvilarea(Map5).Catchmentsofthesethreestreams,whicharerelativelysmall,are mainlyconcentratedintheDryzoneandpossesintermittentflows.Thereisalarge numberofsmalltanksinthePottuvilDSdivisionwithsomelagoons(Table18).The worldfoodprogrammestudyof2003hasflaggedPottuvilDSdivisionasanareaof "Lessvulnerable"tofoodinsecurityandisamong4ofsuchDSdivisionsintheAmpara district out of total of 19 DS divisions (Map 9). BeingintheDL1bAER,thepredominantsoiltypesinthePanamaareaarewelland imperfectlydrainedReddishBrownEarth(RBE)ontheconvexuplandsandlowermid slopesofgentlytoundulatinglandscapeofinland.LowHumicGley(LHG)soil,the poorlydrainedmemberofthecatenarysequenceisthemostcommonlyfoundsoiltypein theconcavevalleysandbottomlands.Potentialandlimitationsofthesetwopredominant soiltypesofthetargetareahavealreadybeendiscussedinaprecedingsection.In addition,sandyRegosolsarefoundalongorneartothecoastlineusuallyaselongated strips.Generally,Regosolsshownostructuraldevelopmentandbothsurfaceandsub-surfacesoilsaresinglegrain.Soilreactionisneutralwithabasesaturationof75to90%. 65 Table 18Tanks found in the Pottuvil DS division NameName Pottuvil areaPanama area 1Kirikovi Kulam1Helawa Kalpuwa 2Serolai Kulam2Kunikala Kalpuwa 3Tamara Kulam3Solambe Kalpuwa 4Pallanchi Wettiya Kulam4Weddana Kalpuwa 5Manthodai Kulam5Pannakala Wewa 6Siriyawa Kulam6Helawa Wewa 7Rota Kulam7Panama Wewa 8Semani Kulam8Viagalla Wewa 9Arugam Kalapu9Wedagama Wewa 10Paladi Kalapu10Miyangoda Wewa 11Nalitta Wewa 12Watawana Wewa 13Naulla Wewa 14Uipassa Wewa 15Ullawera Villu 16Eratil Tank 17Rugam Well Kulam Although,thesandyRegosolshavearapidinfiltration,theinfiltratedwaterisstoredin theunderlyingstaticGyben-Herzberglensoffreshwater,whichpermitsstablehuman settlementandagriculturalproductiononthislandscapeevenintheverydryenvironment (Panabokke,1996).Apartfromthesesoils,Alluvialsoilscouldbefoundineithersideof banksofriverandstreamswithavariabletextureanddrainage.Soilreactionofthe AlluvialsoilsoftheDryzoneisslightlyacidtoslightlyalkalinewithabasesaturationof 60to90%.AsreportedbyAlwisandEriyagama(1969),"thebestDryzonevegetation occuronthesesoils.Paradoxically,someoftheworstvegetationalsoexistsonAlluvial 66 soilswhereahighwatertableorveryclayeytextureimpedesaeration.Ingeneral,tall trees with other mesophytic species of the Dry zone are found on these soils". Potential and limitations of Regosols and Alluvial soilsThemostsignificantfeatureofRegosolistheoccurrenceofGyben-Herzberglensof freshwaterforcultivation.However,overexploitationoflensoffreshwatercouldlead tocontaminationofgroundwaterbybrackishwaterfromthesea.Tillageoperationsin thesesoilsareveryeasy.Asthesoilishighlypermeable,microirrigationisthemost suitabletypeofirrigationforthesesoils.Italsohelpstoreducetheaccumulationof addednutrientsinthegroundwater.Alluvialsoilspossesgoodphysicalcharactersand highlyproductive.Asthesesoiloccurneartoriversandstreams,surfaceandground wateravailabilityisrelativelyhighercomparedtoothersoilsofthearea.Dependingon the location, flooding and poor drainage may become a problem in Alluvial soils. Thirappane and Galenbindunuwewa target sites. ThesetwoDSdivisionsarelocatedintheAnuradhapuraadministrativedistrictofthe North-centralprovinceofSriLanka.Accordingtotheagro-ecologicalmapofSriLanka (2003),thesetwotargetsitesfallundertheDL1bAgro-EcologicalRegion(AER).The mainfeaturesoftheDL1bAERhavebeenadequatelydescribedinaprecedingsection, thereforeneedsnofurtherelaboration.However,itmustbenotedthat GalenbindunuwewabeingclosertotheDL1emayexperienceuni-modalrainfallpattern withanextendedMahaseasonandpoorYalarains(Figure7).Forthespecialneedofthis report,however,thegeneralclimaticconditionoftheDL1bAERofNorth-central provincehasshownintheTable19.Astherewasnorainmeasuringstationsfrom respectivetargetsites,rainfallclimatologyofthetwositeshasshownusingdatafrom nearby stations (Figure 6 & 7). NaturalvegetationofbothDSdivisionsis"moistdeciduousforest".However,dueto clearingofforestforshiftingor"Chena"cultivation,whatisleftoftheforestvegetation isquitesmallandpredominanttypeexistingvegetationissecondaryvegetationofscrub 67 jungles.Meanwhile,tanksbedsofabandonedsmalltanksfoundinthesetwotargetsites could be converted to grazing lands with improved varieties. AruviAruisthemajorstreamthatflowsthroughtheThirappaneDSdivision,whichhas fairlylargecatchmentacrosstheDryzone(Map5).Therearealargenumberofsmall tanksintheThirappaneDSdivisionalongwithsomebigtankssuchasNachchaduwa Wewainacascadesystem(Table19).However,mostofthesmalltanksfoundinthe areaareeitherabandonedorheavilysilted.Astudyconductedbytheworldfood programmein2003hasflaggedThirappaneDSdivisionasanareaof"Mostvulnerable" tofoodinsecurityamidstlargenumbersmalltanksavailableinthearea.Itsuggeststhat eventhoughthenumberishigher,thesetanksoperatewellbelowtheircapacitydueto siltation and disturbance in the respective minor catchment of the cascadei. YanOyaisthemajorstreamthatflowsthroughtheGalenbindunuwewaDSdivision, whichhasarelativelysmallcatchmentcomparedtoAruviAru(Table13&Map5).As inthecaseofThirappaneDSdivision,GalenbindunuwewaDSdivisionhasalsobeen blessedwithlargenumberofsmalltanksalongwithHuruluWewainacascadesystem(Table21).However,mostofthesmalltanksfoundintheareaareeitherabandonedor heavilysilted.Theworldfoodprogrammestudyin2003hasidentifiedtheThirappane DSdivisionasanareaof"Mostvulnerable"tofoodinsecurityamidstlargenumbersmall tanksfoundinthearea.Short-sightedeffortstodevelopeachtankinisolationhasmade tremendousdamagetothesetankscascadesresultingreducedinflowconditionsalong with increased siltation. i Cascade or chain of tanks is series of small reservoirs that are constructed at successive locations down one single common water course. 68 Figure 6Average monthly rainfall at Maradankadawala (1970 - 1999)* 050100150200250Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov DecMonthRainfall mm*Nearest raingauge station to Thirappane69 Figure 7Average monthly rainfall at Kahatagasdigiliya (1941 - 1963) 050100150200250300350Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov DecMonthRainfall mmNearest rain gauge station to Galenbindunuwewa70 Table 19 Average climatic conditions of the DL1b agro-ecological region of Sri Lanka (Location: Maha-Illuppalama/1992 -2001) JanFebMarAprMayJunJulAugSepOctNovDec Max temp. (0C)29.43233.833.933.132.132.432.733.131.530.229.2 Min temp. (0C)20.920.821.723.72524.824.624.423.823.222.621.7 Rainfall(mm)101.6129.629.9175.577.826.221.038.682.2248.0304.8185.5 Evaporation (mm/day)2.93.84.84.64.74.85.35.55.03.62.62.5 Wind velocity (kmph)4.04.24.44.99.612.412.412.110.46.53.53.6 Bright sunshine Hours6.98.69.58.68.97.97.68.28.16.75.65.6 RH (%) - morning978682828080797878838789 RH (%) - evening716151656766626164747970 72 BeingintheDryzone,thecroporpastureproductioninthesetwositesislargely determinedbyclimaticandedaphicfeatures.ReddishBrownEarth(RBE)withhigh amountofgravelisthepredominantsoiltypeofthisregionthatcanbefoundoncrest, upperandmidslopesofgentlyundulatingtoundulatinghighlands.LowHumicGley (LHG)soilisthemostcommonlyfoundsoiltypeinvalleybottoms.Potentialand limitationsofthesetwopredominantsoiltypeshavealreadybeendiscussedina preceding section and therefore, will not elaborate here. Table 20Tanks found in the Thirappane DS division NameName 1Nachchaduwa Wewa17Meegassegama Wewa 2Thirappane Wewa18Kon Wewa 3Sembukulama Wewa19Alistana Wewa 4Wellamudawa Wewa20Kudagama Wewa 5Hammilla Kulama Wewa21Wagaya Kulama Wewa 6Hinnawatta Wewa22Bulankulama Wewa 7Pahala Mawata Wewa23Vendarankulama Wewa 8Wettan Kulama Wewa24Ittikattiya Wewa 9Selesti Maduwa Wewa25Periya Kulama Wewa 10Tammennagala Wewa26Puduk Kulama Wewa 11Ulan Kulama Wewa27Uttimaduwa Wewa 12Aiyatiyagama Wewa28Muriyakadawala Wewa 13Amanakattuwa Wewa29Karuwalagas Wewa 14Siwalagala Wewa30Galkulama Wewa 15Torapitiya Wewa31Eru Wewa 16Mahakanumulla Wewa32Periya Maduwa Wewa 73 Table 21Tanks found in the Galenbindunuwewa DS division NameName 1Hurulu Wewa17Aswayabendi Wewa 2Ichchan Kulama Wewa18Pahala Kantegama Wewa 3Kele Kumbuk Wewa19Taranagollewa Wewa 4Kanni Maduwa Wewa20Maha Keligama Wewa 5Gatalawa Wewa21Kuda Himbutugollewa Wewa 6Divul Wewa22Maha Himbutugollewa Wewa 7Pahala Nittawa Wewa23Bora Wewa 8Palugalla Wewa24Siyambala Wewa 9Jayanthi Wewa25Rotagollagama Wewa 10Rambewa Wewa26Kolongas Wewa 11Karawalagas Wewa27Muwapitiya Wewa 12Ulpotagama Wewa28Uddiyan Kulama Wewa 13Elapatgama Wewa29Tammenawa Wewa 14Thimbirigas Wewa30Manakkettiya Wewa 15Ranorawa Wewa31Galwetiya Wewa 16Upuldeniya Wewa32Yakalla Wewa 74 References Alwis, K.A. de and C.R. 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