stanisŁaw Żerko: poland, germany and the genesis of world war ii

7/28/2019 STANISAW ERKO: Poland, Germany and the Genesis of World War II

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PRZEGLD ZACHODNI2009, No 2

StANISAw ERkOPozna

Poland, Germany and the Genesis of World War ii

HItLERS PROGRAmmE AND HIS AttEmPt tO ImPLEmENt It

the ar, hich as ean o give Geran conrol over Europe and laer onalso orld doinaion, consiued in Hilers prograe he onl realisic eanso build he iperialis posiion of Geran. In fac he prograe as drafed ina general ouline b he leader of NSDAP as earl as a he beginning of his ason -ishing poliical career. Using he concep of Lebensrau he ainained ha heGeran naion should ae under iliar conrol oher erriories on he Europeanconinen, and ore specicall hose on he debris of he Sovie Union1. He sa hissupporer in Ial bu i as Grea Briain hich he inended o be his os iporanall. Announcing his ill o brea aa fro he so far praciced sle of expansion

he declared, Le us sop he everlasing Geranic arch o he souh and es ofEurope and le us direc our ees oards easern erriories. () If e oda alabou ne lands in Europe e can hin rs of all abou Russia and is subordinaesaes along he easern borderlands2. Alliances ih Grea Briain and Ial ouldae i possible for Geran o rs bea France and hen he ould creae condi-ions o go eas agains he Sovie Union. the ai of he ne ar as supposed obe he creaion of he raciall pure3 Geran epire in he eas of he coninen.According o Hiler Geran ill eiher becoe a orld poer or i ill cease oexis4. He lef no doub ha he fuure of he Reich ill be decided ih ars 5. He

claied ha ever naion has he righ o ae land hich i needs and hich i hashe capaci o uilize6.

1 A. Hiler,Mein Kampf, mnchen 1937, p. 57.2 Ibide, p. 742.3 the racis naure of he fuure poer as for Hiler beond doub; see ibide, p. 311 and 444.

Hiler, for exaple roe, the sae, hich a he era of racial conainaion, ill devoe iself o nurur-ing is bes racial feaures, us one da becoe he aser of he orld; ibide, p. 782.

4 Ibide, p. 742.5Hitler: Reden, Schriften, Anordnungen. Februar 1924 bis Januar 1933, mnchen 1992 Bd. III,

teil 2, doc. 6 (speech fro 15 mar 1929).6 Ibide, Bd. III, teil 3, doc. 61 (speech fro 19 Juni 1930).


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24 Sanisa ero

Afer Hiler cae o poer he radicall changed he one of his public speechesand he as creaing an iage of a peaceaer and a he os an adheren of equalrighs for Geran. He liied his posulaes o enueraing he rongdoing hich

Geran suffered folloing he trea of Versailles. Hoever, during secre ee-ings he spoe of soehing differen. He declared no onl freeing Geran frohe resoluions iposed b he trea of Versailles bu as his ai he sa conquer-ing ne living space in he eas and subjecing i o ruhless Geranizaion7. Duringone of he rs cabine eeings he announced ha araens in Geran ill begiven absolue priori8.

three and a half ears laer b he end of suer in 1936 in his eoranduconcerning he four-ear plan Hiler reinded ha i had becoe indispensible oenlarge he living space, ha is he ra aerial base and he saple food reserves forour naion. I is he as of he poliical rule o solve his issue in fuure. He epha-sized ha counis has becoe he ain hrea for Europe, and above all he gaveorders: I. the Geran ar us in four ears be read for acion. II. the Geranecono us in four ears be read o ae he burden of ar. the Reich ushave he bes ar in he orld since, as Hiler claied, he orld is a he brin ofa decisive bale ih he Jeish-Bolshevi hrea9. Earl in Sepeber 1936 duringa cabine eeing Gring10 said ha seling aers ih Russia as ineviable. Ina face o face privae conversaion he Fhrer, according o a noe in Goebbels diarsaid, Araens are sill in full sing. we have invesed huge sus of one. weshall be copleel read in 1938. the decisive bale ih Bolshevis ill coe.

we shall be prepared. () we ill gain conrol over Europe. Hoever, e us noiss an chances. Araens are a us11. He as elling his inisers ha hen icoes o he araen prograe nancial aers canno be an issue12.

In he ears o follo inning an all in Grea Briain as one of he ainobjecives of he Nazi dicaor. Joachi von Ribbenrop becae a ind ofFhrerspersonal plenipoeniar ho as ean o negoiae an alliance ih Grea Briain.Indeed, he anaged o negoiae he Geran-Briish naval agreeen signed on 18June 1935, hich ared he 120h anniversar of he bale of waerloo here he

7 A speech delivered o he high ofcers ofReichswehrandReichsmarine on 3 Feb1933; a quoefro a shor noe suarizing Hilers heses, ade b general kur Liebann; th. Vogelsang,NeueDokumente zur Geschichte der Reichswehr 1930-1933, VfZg 1954, p. 434.

8Akten der Reichskanzlei. Regierung Hitler 1933-1938, teil 1, Bd. 1, Boppard a. Rh. 1983, doc. 17(cabine eeing 8 Feb 1933).

9 meorandu in: w. treue,Hitlers Denkschrift zum Vierjahresplan 1936, Viereljahrshefe frZeigeschiche 1955, p. 204.

10Der Prozess gegen die Hauptkriegsverbrecher vor dem Internationalen Militrgerichtshof, Nrn-berg, 14. November 1945 1. Oktober 1946, Nrnberg, Bd. XXXVI, p. 489. (he Reich cabine eeing4 Sep 1936).

11 E. Frhlich (Hrsg.),Die Tagebcher von Joseph Goebbels, Bd. III/2, p. 251-252 (noe fro 15

Nov 1936).12 Ibide, p. 272-273 (noe fro 2 Dec 1936).


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25Poland, Geran and he Genesis of world war II

Prussian ar helped he vicor of he Briish side. the agreeen as signed onlhree onhs afer shedding he iliar sancions b he Reich and i consiued an-oher blo agains he trea of Versailles. the da hen he agreeen as signed

Hiler called he happies da of his life13

, since he aned o see in his docuenan inroducion o a uch furher reaching alliance beeen boh counries. In hisconversaion ih David Llod George, he forer prie iniser of Grea Briainho visied Geran in Sepeber 1936, he Fhrersaid ha in Ribbenrop he issending o London his bes an so ha he, alread as an abassador, can aehe las aep o convince he Briish abou he necessi of a closer relaionshipih he Reich14. when in Ocober he as bidding fareell o his condan seingoff for London he old hi, Ribbenrop, ha I an fro ou is o ae Englandjoin he Ani-Coinern Pac, i is bigges ish15.

Hoever, Ribbenrops ission ended up in failure. the Nazi abassador as-ounded he orld ih his ignorance of he enali of he English16 bu he ruhas ha even he os clever diploa ould no be able o fulll he as Hiler hadiposed on he Reichs abassador o London. the Geran offer presened o heBriish conained, aong ohers, a proise of respecing b he Reich hestatus quoin wesern Europe, a division of he areas of ineres beeen London and Berlin (afree hand for Geran on he coninen ih guaranees for is esern par and herecogniion of he preponderance of Grea Briain ouside of Europe), a coienb he Reich o provide iliar suppor a an ie in he case of a hrea o heBriish Epire. Above all hoever, Hiler deanded fro London o be given a free

hand in Cenral Europe, Cenral-Easern and Easern Europe.Hoever, Grea Briain did no ish o ener ino such a liaison ih Nazi Ger-an. the Briish side as illing o ae considerable concessions hen i caeo lifing soe of he sancions iposed on Geran b he Versailles trea, buhere could be no enion of a coplee dsintrssementof London in he face ofGeran expansion on he coninen. According o he Briish an correcions o he1919 resoluions should happen b peaceful eans and Geran ould have o beilling o cooperae ih he reaining poers.

this as enirel agains Hilers expecaions ho as groing ipaien be-cause of he Briish aiude. He coplained ha he Briish auhoriies are coplee-

13 J. von Ribbenrop,Zwischen London und Moskau, hrsg. von A. von Ribbenrop, Leoni a. Sarn-berger See 1961, p. 64. the sae ile of he boo (b he a ver supercial) R. Ingri,Hitlers glck-lichster Tag. London, am 18. Juni 1935, Sugar 1962.

14 th. Jones,Diary with Letters 1931-1950, London 1954, p. 251.15 Quoed afer: th. Soer,Deutschland und Japan zwischen den Machten 1935-1940, tbingen

1962, p. 32 (the Ani-Coinern Pac as signed a onh laer bu he negoiaions had lased for quiesoe ie). According o Ribbenrops ife Hiler said, Ribbenrop I an ou o bring e an allianceih England!, J. von Ribbenrop,Zwischen London und Moskau, p. 93.

16 L. Ger von Scheppenburg,Erinnerungen eines Militrattachs. London 1933-1937, Sugar1949, p. 113.


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l devoid of insinc17. In his speech delivered in heReichstagon his fourh anni-versar of coing o poer he expressed his regre ha he danger of he Bolsheviplague18 has no been recognized on he Briish Isles. the Nazi dicaor sared o

realize, a conclusion b all eans correc, ha he Briish as a aer of fac ano lii and conrol he Reichs expansion and ha he ill an o preven hecreaion of a Geran Epire. In a conversaion ih Carl J. Burchard in Sepe-ber 1937 he coplained saing ha, All life I had loved England and Englishpeople. I had never ceased o offer he he friendship of Geran, he friendshipof he grea naion (). the pushed e aa; he have alas pushed e aa,ha as he ruh. I is pure adness () hich can resul in a errible caasrophebu neverheless I have o coe o ers ih i19. wha is ore, he enion of arelaionship of he Reich ih Ial and Japan sared o sound lie a hrea. A hesae ie Gring as arning he Briish abassador, Neville Henderson ha ifhe Briish Epire persisenl refused o cooperae ih Geran, Geran couldendeavour o desro he Epire insead of susaining is posiion in he orld20.Erns von weizscer, ho as soon o becoe he secrear of sae in Auswrtiges

Amt, said o Burchard ha he ani-Briish urn (he effec of being unhapp inlove) occurred in Hiler copleel unexpecedl, and hen i as no a all possibleo al ih hi abou England21.

A a secre conference on 5 Noveber 1937, Hiler alread referred o GreaBriain and France as o haeful eneies (Hassgegner) for ho he Gerangian in he hear of Europe is a horn in heir esh. these poers are agains he

furher epoeren of Geran boh in Europe and on he overseas erriories andin his disapproval all he paries in hose counries are unanious. the chance forGeran lies hoever, in he eaening of boh esern poers, and in paricularof Grea Briain. the soluion o he Lebensraum proble as possible onl bar and herefore according o he dicaor i had o ae place no laer han be-een 1943-1945 bu should favourable circusances arise, Geran could srieearlier22. when o ees laer in Berchesgaden lord Halifax offered o Hiler oreacivae he Four-Poer Pac, pariall abandoned in 1933, as ell as o repairisaes of he Versailles trea and o sele he quesion of Gdas, Ausria,Czechoslovaia and he issues of he colonies, heFhrergave hi a cold shoulder.the condiion ha he changes ae place in he process of peaceful evoluionean ha he governen of Her Roal Highness does no in an a inend o

17 E. Frhlich (Hrsg.),Die Tagebcher von Joseph Goebbels, Bd. III/2, p. 249 (noe fro 13 Nov1936).

18Hitler: Reden und Proklamationen,1932-1945, m. Doarus (Hrsg.), wrzburg 1962 Bd. I, p. 664.19 An excerp fro a repor of he High Coissioner of he League of Naions in Gdas fro 20

Sep 1937, quoed afer: C. J. Burchard,Meine Danziger Mission 1937-1939, mnchen 1960, p. 65-66.20 N. Henderson, Failure of a Mission, p. 63.21 C. J. Burchard,Meine Danziger Mission, p. 68.22 ADAP, Serie D, Bd. I, doc. 19.


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give Gerans a free hand on he coninen23. As relaed b Alber Speer, Hiler in hisaddress delivered o he par Kreisleiters b he end of Noveber 1937 announcedha England is our nuber one ene!24. Goebbels suarized he henFhrers

reasoning in his diar in he folloing a: England ans o give he colonies,ha is no b iself bu onl ihin he general regulaions. this eans a reurn o heLeague of Naions. tha is no on. I (England) ans o gran us concessions in Cen-ral Europe. Hoever, heFhrerrefused. Cenral Europe should no boher Englanda all. Also he proble of Gdas has o be solved. wha is Londons business inha?25 A he ie Ribbenrop as also convinced ha an agreeen ih GreaBriain as no longer possible. He as ring o persuade he Ialian foreign iniserha a conic ih he esern poers is unavoidable and herefore a Geran-Ialian-Japanese iliar alliance becoes a necessi26. In his repor for heFhrerdaed 2 Januar 1938 Ribbenrop ade an assupion ha a change o he statusquo in he eas can be ade onl hrough ar and he as arguing ha he hope forreaching an agreeen ih London is graduall fading aa. wha is ore, heexpressed his belief ha a Geran-Briish conic is ineviable. In fuure each da() in hich our poliical consideraions are no based on our convicion ha Eng-land is our os dangerous opponen o u l d b e f o r h e b e n e f i o f o u re n e i e s. the couner-easures included building a neor of allies againsEngland, ha in pracice ean deepening friendl relaions ih Ial and Japan,and hen aracing all counries hose ineress are direcl or indirecl convergenih ours27. Poland as supposed o be one of hese counries since relaions ih

Geran, folloing an unexpeced breahrough hich occurred in 1933/34, saredo ae an aazing urn.

POLAND BEtwEEN GERmANy AND tHE USSR

For an ears beeen he o orld ars one of he os serious roublespos as he sae of Polish-Geran relaions and he conic resuling fro Ber-lins drive o revie he join borderline. warsa ade ever effor o assure beonddoub ha an aep o enforce he revisionis posulaes of he Gerans concern-

ing he easern border of he Reich ill be e ih a r objecion fro he Polishside, including he use of iliar easures. when in he spring of 1933 he prospecsof esablishing a direcorae in Europe eerged hich included four poers unied

23 Ibide, doc. 31, appendix.24 A. Speer, Wspomnienia [meories], warsa 1990, p. 210.25 E. Frhlich (Hrsg.), Die Tagebcher von Joseph Goebbels, teil I: Aufzeichnungen 1923-1941,

Bd. IV, mnchen 2000, p. 425 (noe fro 27 Nov 1937).26 G. Ciano, Tagebcher 1937/38, ranslaed fro Ialian, Haburg (1949), p. 32 (noe fro 24 Oc

1937).27 ADAP, Serie D, Bd. I, doc. 93 (underlined in he original).


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b heir abiion o enforce revisionis soluions a he expense of saller counries,he Polish iniser Jzef Bec ade i ver clear b saing ha, If an counr, onis on or in he copan of ohers, should be eped o ae even a square eer

of our errior he cannons ill spea. the no abou i in Berlin and he haveacnoledged i. Bu I a afraid he sill do no no i clearl enough in London,Roe and no even in Paris28.

As long as Geran reained eaened as a resul of he resricions iposedb he trea of Versailles a hrea o Polands securi fro is esern side asrelaivel lo. Hoever, here as a real possibili ha he Reich igh receiveperission fro he poer counries o be exep fro hose clauses of he treahich deanded fro Berlin o have an ar consising of onl 100,000 en ih-ou a iliar air force, arour, heav ariller, subarines and cheical eapons.Alread a he Paris peace conference he Briish delegaion criicized heir Frenchparners for having iposed on Geran oo severe ers. Ana, no long aferhe trea of Versailles had been signed, he French poliicians heselves saredo arrive a a conclusion ha he aeps o execue he resoluions of he treaenforced upon Geran in an uncoproising a as equivalen o going dona blind alle. the French occupaion of he Ruhr Valle in Januar 1923, as a aerof fac ended ih ebarrassen hich exposed he poliical helplessness of srong,in he iliar sense, France. the conclusions hich ere dran fro ha failure inParis led he conference able in Locarno29.

the naional securi of he Republic of Poland relied on is on iliar force

and on allied relaions ih France. Hoever, he iliar doinance over he Ger-an ar reduced o he nuber of 100,000 en could disappear if Berlin anagedo cancel he resoluion of he Versailles trea in his aer. the acual srengh ofhe alliance ih France as becoing ore and ore doubful because Paris, sincehe Locarno Conference (1925) in an increasingl clear a aned a ore relaxedapproach o is coiens ade oards warsa30. In an a, France fro hever beginning reaed he Polish all lie a vassal, and i as using he alliance ihPoland as a hand eans of exering pressure on Geran. thus, here as a fearha he esern poers in heir aep o reach agreeen ih Geran coulddecide ha a correcion of he Polish-Geran border is a leas pariall necessar inhe nae of peace in Europe.

the chronic crisis hich had been presen in he Polish-Geran relaions asunder he hrea of escalaion afer Hiler cae o poer in 1933. I seeed obvi-

28 J. Laroche,Poland of 1926-1935. Memoirs of the French Ambassador, warsa 1966, p. 123.29 A. Adahaie, Grandeur and Misery: Frances Bid for Power in Europe 1914-1940, London

1995, p. 101.30 Ana even before he Locarno Conference and afer he lef-ing coaliion had on he parlia -

enar elecions in France, i as aen ino accoun b warsa ha Paris could denounce he Polish-

French alliance fro 1921; P. wandcz,France and Her Eastern Allies 1919-1925, wespor, Conneci-cu 1974, p. 312.


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ous ha he Nazi leader ould a leas coninue he ani-Polish policy of he forerchancellors. therefore, he inernaional public opinion as even ore surprised henfolloing a conversaion beeen he Geran chancellor and he Polish envoy, Alfred

wysoci (on 2 may 1933) here as an unexpeced relaxaion of he ension in herelaions beeen boh counries, and on 26 January 1934 boh counries signed a Ger-an-Polish Non-Aggression Pac. A noralizaion of he relaions ih he Reich asa grea success of marshal Pisudsi and iniser Jzef Bec. the laer one as righhen he said ha he breahrough hich had occurred recenly in Polish-Geranrelaions as one of he os radical changes in European poliics since he ie of hear31. the dene in he relaions ih he Reich expanded he roo for anoeuvringfor he governen in warsa. the issue of revieing he borders ih Gerany disap-peared fro he daily agenda, and warsa could ae an aep o sele he relaionsih Paris on parnership ers. As a Polish diploa roe, Poland ill no longer re-

rea fro he course of independen poliics bu i is alays ready for als ih France.Nobody desires a Franco-Polish alliance ore han e do under he condiion ha i isa rue alliance and based on equaliy32.

the alliance ih France as for Pisudsi and Bec he cornersone and he ainpoliical safeguard agains poenial aggression fro he Reich. maing his alliancesronger and, if he possibiliy arose, copleening i ih a siilar alliance ihGrea Briain ould have been he ideal soluion for he Polish leaders. Besides, in war-sa hey believed ha he ne Geran leaders ould be ore ineresed in expansionsouh-eas and ha hey ould be illing o abandon he ypical for Prussia ani-Polish

policy. I as also considered ha he Nazis ould need a lo of ie o inroducechanges in he Reich iself and o srenghen he regie33. the probles in he esern-souhern direcion ere supposed o disrac he aenion of Berlin, fro he easernissues, a leas parially34. A he sae ie, i as rly believed ha, as Bec said inJune 1935 a he conference ih he miniser of he Inerior, seling our neighbourlyrelaions ih Gerans had only becoe possible hans o he Hiler revoluion35.

the Polish-Geran Non-Aggression Pac signed in Januar 1934 as precededb he Non-Aggression Pac signed ih he Sovie Union in 1932. In a condenialdocuen in he Foreign minisr fro 1935 i said, b having regulaed on ouron relaions ih our o larges neighbours in he ers laid ou in bilaeral rea-

ies, Poland a he sae ie has cancelled in a radical a he possibili of beingreaed as a bargaining ie in he poliical gae led b France. Auoaicall andb he sae oen, he ies of Poland being reaed as an objec in French poliics

31 the Ne Records Archives. warsa, minisr of Foreign Affairs 11464, J. Becs speech a aconference ih he miniser of he Inerior 5 Jun 1935, p. 5.

32 t. koarnici (ed.),Diariusz i teki Jana Szembeka [Diary and portfolios of Jan Szembek] (hence:DPJS), vol. I, London 1964, doc. 38, p. 91-92.

33 J. Bec,Last report, warsa 1987, p. 46.34 DPJS, I, doc. 31 (insrucions issued b he Foreign minisr for diploaic poss, 31 Oc 1933).35 AAN warsa, Foreign minisr 11464, J. Becs speech delivered a he eeing ih he min-

iser of he Inerior 5 June 1935, p. 6.


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are over, and according o he Polish undersanding his opens a ne prospec ofproviding proper conen for he Franco-Polish alliance b reinsaing he so farcoproised balance of righs and responsibiliies ihin is scope36.

In an ofcial couniqu fro 1937, i as saed ha, here is a need o ain-ain a polic of equilibriu beeen he o neighbouring counries37. the erpolic of equilibriu as soeies also used in inernal als. In ever da prac-ice, hoever, here as no equilibriu in he poliical relaions beeen Poland andboh neighbouring large poers. the equilibriu as onl a feaure of he Polishsraeg oards Berlin and mosco, according o hich Poland should no ener inan alliance ih one of he poers agains he oher, and in ers of he agreeensi should no exceed he scope of he Non-Aggression Pacs signed in 1932 and 1934.I as considered unaccepable o join eiher he bloc of counries hich as be-ing fored b Geran or he ulilaeral allied union ih he USSR. there ereorries, no ihou a reason, ha in he forer case Poland ould run he ris ofbeing vassalized b Geran and in he laer one he Red Ars advance on Polisherrior in he role of an all could rigger unaccounable consequences.

this as ho far he so called polic of equilibriu reached. the copleelincorrec vie as ha he polic of equilibriu as a resul of he convicion hawarsa rs of all had o srive for good relaions ih is os poerful neigh -bours, ha is Geran and he Sovie Union because of is geo-poliical locaion. thebasic guideline as absaining fro cooperaion ih one of he counries againshe oher. I as also assued ha an siuaions hich could lead o ha end ere

o be avoided38

. A careful analsis of he Polish-Geran and Polish-Sovie relaionsin he ears 1934-1938 gives preises o den each of he hree saeens. Polandade endeavours oards good relaions no ih he USSR bu ih Geran, a -eping a he sae ie o isolae he USSR fro European aers. In addiion,warsa did no hesiae o cooperae poliicall and diploaicall ih Berlin inorder o preven iniiaives hich could srenghen he posiion of he Sovie Union(saring ih issue of he Easern Pac in 1934 unil he Sudeen crisis in 1938).wha is ore, siuaions hich opened opporuniies for such cooperaion ere noa all avoided. Diploaic cooperaion ih Geran as giving subsanial polii-cal benes as long as here as subsanial cauion on he Polish side. while noacceping he Nazi ideolog and deonsraing doubs concerning Hilers soluions,Polish leaders sa in he third Reich a counr ih hich i ill be possible osrenghen is neighbourl relaions. while a Naional Socialis Geran could nobe isolaed, i seeed possible o reduce and ous he Sovie Unions inuence onhe course of evens.

36 Quoed afer P. ossosi,Polska w Europie i wiecie 1918-1939 [Poland in Europe and in heworld 1918-1939], warsa 1990, p. 218.

37 DPJS, III, appendix. 70, p. 396.

38 m. J. Zacharias,Jzef Beck i polityka rwnowagi [Jzef Bec and he equillibriu polic],Dzieje Najnosze 1988, No. 2, p. 8.


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the Polish-Geran close relaions iniiaed in 1933/34 (laer on called he Lineof 26 Januar fro he dae hen he Polish-Geran Non-Aggression Pac assigned) ere becoing closer and reached a pea during he Sudeen crisis. Siul-

aneousl hoever, relaions beeen warsa and mosco ere sseaicalldeerioraing. In he id 1930s Polish-Sovie relaions ere in deep crisis hichlased, alos ihou an change unil he end of he Second Polish Republic39.

POLAND BEtwEEN GERmANy AND FRANCE

Shorl afer he Polish-Geran Non-Aggression Pac had been signed, JzefPisudsi said o his saff ebers ha good relaions ih Geran are onl aeporar sae hich ill be difcul o uphold longer han four ears40. On anoher

occasion he as repored o have said, Having he o pacs [ih Geran andhe USSR S. .] e are siing on o sools. this canno las long. we need ono hich one e ill fall off rs and hen41. Soon hough in he Foreign min-isr leadership, especiall afer he marshals deah, he belief ha he pro-Polishcourse in Geran poliics as seling in becae apparen. Firs of all, here ereillusions concerning Hilers inenions. the Foreign miniser Jzef Bec adied ilaer hiself riing in a leer o a friend, On he basis of he neverheless concreeevidence in 1934 I had reasons o regard hi [Hiler] as a rare in Geran exapleof coon sense in foreign polic. the Nazi dicaor had as if o sa a sense ofoderaion, hich according o esiaion he ried o represen in a Bisarcfashion for he rs ie in Geran. Bec also added ha even in 1938 i as pos-sible o al ih heFhrersensibl abou European poliics, and ha i as onlduring he conversaion in Berchesgaden on 5 Januar 1939 ha he had noiced adangerous change in his an. Bec en on o reveal ha the Coander hadonce foreseen rouble hich ould coe fro our unhealh roances ih heGerans, bu he as convinced ha e ould no be able o reach a sensible agree-en ih counries in wesern Europe if e had no creaed, even onl for soeie, our on Polish-Geran poliics42.

In he ne concepion of Polish foreign polic hich as saring o crsallize

in warsa since 1933/34 he acual relaions ih Geran and France ere in a

39 S. Gregoroicz,Polsko-radzieckie stosunki polityczne w latach 1932-1935 [Polish-Sovie rela-ions in ears 1932-1935],warsa 1982, p. 248.

40 A he eeing in march 1934, the Coander recons ha good relaions beeen Poland andGeran can las for abou four ore ears bu because of he changes hich are currenl happening inhe enali of he Geran naion, he Coander canno guaranee good relaions in ears o coek. ialsi,Diariusz 1919-1935 [Diar 1919-1935], warsa 1992, p. 660-661.

41 Relaed b gen. kaziierz Fabrc, quoed afer: w. Jdrzejeicz,Kronika ycia Jzefa Pisud-skiego 1867-1935 [Chronicle of Jzef Pisudskis life], vol. II: 1921-1935, London 1986, p. 487.

42 PDD 1939, doc. 275 (privae leer fro Bec o B. wieniaa-Dugoszosi fro 10 ma1939).


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32 Sanisa ero

a uuall dependen. Beer relaions ih Berlin ere o be our repl o he con-ciliaor endencies esern poers deonsraed in heir polic oards Geran.On he oher hand, ainaining an alliance ih Paris as considered as a reassur-

ance of he Line of 26 Januar. Cobining hese o facors required huge dexer-i. wih ie, hoever, i urned ou ha for he Polish iniser ore iporanceas aached o beer relaions ih he Reich. the endeavours o ainain goodneighbourl relaions ih Geran seeed a ell jusied polic bu in pracice iled o a crisis beeen warsa and Paris, and boh sides ere o blae.

B he end of 1935 he depu foreign iniser, Jan Szebe hen aling o hissuperior quoed Pisudsis ords fro he previous ear in hich he marshal hadsrongl ephasized ha alhough our alliance ih France is as a aer of fac los-ing is iporance, e canno under an circusances allo for i o be denounced.the iniser clearl ignored his adoniion and replied ha Pisudsi had alasrecoended ha he Polish-French als should be liied o conversaions be-een he foreign inisers of boh counries during heir eeings in Geneva43.General kaziierz Sosnosi did no voice an reservaions concerning he ideaof good neighbourl relaions ih Geran hen he aled abou hese issues. InJanuar 1936 he said ha ore han once he had ondered ha ai Pisudsi had inind in 1933 bu alhough I could never ge a clear anser I had alas presuedha all he effor as ade o ge France. Sosnosi did no den ha Francehad aced in a ver disloal a oards us on ore han one occasion, bu nev-erheless he as convinced ha an iproveen in Polish-French relaions is in

line ih our ineres because i is he priar condiion of ainaining our presenposiion in Berlin44. In fac Sosnosi as ephaic for soe ie hen ha if eare supposed o conduc Geran poliics, he alliance ih France is our counerbal-ance and a safeguard for our poliical ineres ()45. the advocaes of he Line of26 Januar, lie for exaple Jzef Lipsi ere aare of his and he agreed haainaining our alliance ih France is an undeniable necessi os of all becauseof our polic of accord ih Geran46.

the closer Polish-Geran relaions had becoe he ore blurred ere beco-ing he relaions beeen warsa and Paris. to a cerain exen his sae as inde-penden of Poland since he French side ade a lo of effor o sop he Polish Repub-lic fro ring o reach a consensus ih our esern neighbour. Noihsanding,he Polish side no onl responded ih an allergic reacion o an aeps o forcewarsa o aler he ne direcions in our foreign polic, bu i also ih conen re-aliaed as if in response o he injusice i had suffered in he pas. miniser Bec asparicularl faous for i. In effec he French allies could ofen hear ords uered

43 Pisudsis opinion fro 26 Dec 1934, quoed b J. Szebe in his conversaion ih J. Bec 13Dec 1935, DPJS, I, p. 438-439.

44 DPJS, II, p. 52 (24 Jan 1936).45 Ibide, I, p. 225 (1 Feb 1935).46 Ibide, p. 307 (27 ma 1935).


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b he Polish in a sle hich had lile in coon ih he sill ofciall declaredfriendship. For exaple, in Januar 1936 iniser Bec reaed Alexis Lger, he sec-rear general in he French Foreign Ofce ih arrogance un for a diploa. the

Polish iniser us have fel saised aferards bu ih such conduc he did nogain friends for his on counr. when in march 1939 he idea of he Briish-Frenchguaranees for Poland as being conceived, he sae Lger as ring o convincehe Briish abassador in Paris ha Bec canno be rused as he is enirel cnicaland false and herefore he ill ae he rs opporuni o bera his allies47.

the disrus on he par of he French as no cleared even b marshal Pisudsisreassurance ha here is nohing ore han ha acuall has been rien don48in he Polish-Geran Non-Aggression declaraion fro 26 Januar 1934, ore soha i as ore or less a he ie hen serious discrepancies beeen he ocounries occurred concerning he projec of he Easern Pac. warsa fough againshe idea of Easern Locarno ih he bes inenions for Poland, bu he Polishsandpoin oards he plans of Barhou and Liino o a large exen overlappedhe vies represened b he Reich. I as alread hen ha he prospec of Polish-Geran diploaic cooperaion as being enioned in soe European capials.the increasingl frequen visis of Hilers digniaries o Poland ere becoing anexernal sign no of ha he acuall ere, ha is an oucoe of relaxaion inhe Polish-Geran relaions, bu he ere aen as proof of he eerging Polish-Geran rappor. the French abassador spoe abou i on he rs anniversar ofsigning he Polish-Geran declaraion49 in an explici a isinerpreing Polish

inenions in he folloing ords, wha is seen as rong b he French is ha oucoe in oo close conac ih he Gerans, and ha ou see heir advice in ever-hing. the sae abassador, Jules Laroche hen aling o Szebe o das laerduring he rs visi paid b Gring o Poland ade a coen ha your als ihGeran are perceived in France as a sign ha ou are saring o aach less valueo he alliance ih France. If he French governen under he pressure of publicopinion as forced o denounce his alliance, i ould be ver bad for France, and Ido no no if i as good for Poland50. when Bec as infored abou he co-en ade b Laroche he ignored he hrea claiing ha i reall ould be suicidal

for France51

. Besides, he Polish side did no cease ring o convince he French haheir aeps o include mosco ino European poliics, and especiall he French-Sovie alliance (ma 1935) can have disasrous consequences52.

47Documents on British Foreign Policy, 3rd series, vol. IV, London 1951, doc. 405.48 J. Laroche,Polska lat 1926-1935 [Poland in he ears 1926-1935], p. 147.49 Ibide, p. 217.50 Ibide, p. 222 (28 Jan 1935).51 Ibide, p. 223.52 Ibide, p. 372 (15 Oc 1935).


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34 Sanisa ero

In vie of he conciliaor endencies prevalen in esern counries oardsGeran he Line of 26 Januar could prove o be a leas for soe ie a curefor appeaseen. Sensing ha he verball harsh reacion voiced in esern capials

in response o he reiliarizaion of he Rhineland in march 1936 ill no resul inaing acion he leadership of he Polish foreign polic ade ever effor o ain-ain he Line of 26 Januar. Alread afer he rs visi paid b Gring o Poland inFebruar 1935, miniser Bec said o his depu ha, he relaxaion of ension in re-laions beeen Poland and Geran consiues he greaes and he os preciousachieveen of our foreign polic. the iniser added, we ould be in a righsae oda if e did no have he Polish-Geran Non-Aggression Pac (). mosliel in London als e ould have been sold for 2 pounds 13 shillings53. Suchobservaions, undoubedl righ, ere for Bec reassuring ha his foreign polichile srenghening Polish naional securi i did no conain an eleens of ris.

Alhough he possibiliy of a conic ih Gerany as no excluded in he

Foreign Ofce a wierzboa sree, i as no considered probable. As he iniser

said in June 1935, the Polish-Geran agreeen is respeced by he Nazi gov-

ernen ih effor ha is orhy of being recognized. the Naional Socialis

leadership has addiionally aken he burden of breaking he ani-Polish aiude in

Geran enaliy and acing ihin is capaciies i is rying o fulll he ask, and

soe incidens hich do occur fro ie o ie are dapened don in Berlin54.

In early July 1935 he head of he Polish diploacy reurned fro his rip o Berlin

in a very good ood, very happy ih having esablished personal conac ih

he leaders of Geran poliics. He conded in his depuy ha personally heipression he had afer alking o Hiler as os posiive. Hiler seeed o hi

absoluely hones in his poliical ideas and very sincere in his reasoning55. Accord-

ing o Beck and he ajoriy of his saff ebers all he ploing agains Poland

(especially around Gdask) as no insigaed by Hiler bu by Berlins conserva-

ive circles inAuswrtiges Amt56. In his concepion Hiler as supposed o be he

guaranee of he good neighbourly policy of Berlin oards he Polish Republic.

wha is ore, according o Becks ords, hich ere uered soon afer Pisudski

had died, Gerany had o ake ore noice of Poland since he Polish sae

has been coninuously gaining srengh hereas souh of he Carpahian moun-

ains here as peranen chaos57. Soe of his co-orkers shared his vies, like

for exaple Juliusz ukasieicz ho as convinced (shorly before he Geran

roops enered he deiliarized Rhineland) ha he value of Poland on an inerna-

53 Ibide, p. 233 (13 Feb 1935).54 AAN warsa, Foreign minisr 11464, J. Becs speech a he eeing ih he miniser of he

Inerior 5 Jun 1935, p. 7.55 DPJS, I, p. 332 (9 Jul 1935).56 Ibide, p. 323 (26 Jun 1935), p. 345 (7 Aug 1935).

57 AAN warsa, Foreign minisr 11464, speech b J. Bec a a eeing ih he miniser of heInerior 5 Jun 1935, p. 5-6.


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ional scale ses fro he fac ha boh France and Gerany are rying o keep

Poland closer for fear of i joining he opposie cap. this akes Poland a kind

of apoiner ha can ip he balance ()58. Indeed his as an incredibl ap depic-

ion of he naure of he Polish polic of balancing beeen Paris and Berlin hareained valid unil he brea of 1938/39.In Poland, hoever, he drive oards closer relaions ih Geran as in-

creasingl criicized. Bec cae under aac no onl fro he opposiion bu alsofro inuenial circles in he governen, including iliar circles. the publicaiude as sricl ani-Geran. In April 1937 Szebe coplained o he Foreignminiser ha he ani-Geran ood as hriving even in governenal circles,nael Individual inisers ade excuses no o organize a recepion for Gring.Also, he difculies experienced b hi [Bec S. .] ere spoaic henhe as going o appoin he chairan of he Polish-Geran Socie in warsa59.Siilarl, he Foreign minisr had serious reservaions hen i cae o he policof local auhoriies oards he Geran inori. A peranen source of disconenfor he Foreign minisr as he ough polic oards he Geran inori agedb micha Grasi, he head of he Silesian Province60.

Conrar o soe opinions Pisudsis successor, Edard Rdz-ig as noan opponen of he Line of 26 Januar. ye, he ould express his opinion haBerlin canno be absoluel rused, ha he Gerans afer all have had a hosileaiude oards us (sic!) and because of ha e need a counerbalance in he forof our alliances ih Roania, and rs of all ih France61. when in id 1936 he

aled o Szebe hile saing he necessi o coninue he polic of accord ihGeran, he general sressed ha a he sae ie i as essenial o eep on guard.Geran araens are undoubedl also direced agains us. A he oen heReich needs 2-3 ore ears o reach is full operaional readiness62. General Rdz-ig as unilling o be convinced b he saeen of he depu Foreign min-iser ha he Nazi Reich ill direc is expansion souh and voiced his opinion haGdas ill be he ee of he conic hich ill sar a Polish-Geran ar ()63.In general hoever, he did no disagree ih he Foreign minisrs line of polic.

the Polish side as eager o record all he ani-Sovie coens ade b isGeran parners. Also, all ore or less explici offers of a ore peranen bondbeeen Poland and Geran and a closer cooperaion direced agains he SovieUnion, hich ould follo should Poland join he Ani-Coinern Pac, ere noed

58 DPJS, II, p. 96 (27 Feb 1936).59 Ibide, III, p. 74 (12 Apr 1937). Finall senaor wojciech Gouchosi, a person of secondar

iporance in governenal circles, as appoined he chairan of he Socie.60 Ibide, p. 271 (18 Apr 1935).61 Ibide, p. 364 (8 Oc 1935).62 Ibide, vol. II, p. 238 (noe fro 30 Jun 1936).63 Ibide, p. 239 (30 Jun 1936).I should be saed ha he general alas aes ino accoun he

possibili of a fuure conic ih Geran, ibide, p. 272 (16 Sep 1936).


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36 Sanisa ero

don. Alhough hese offers ere no acceped he ere a source of saisfacionalloing o assue ha he ani-Sovie aiude exhibied b he Nazi leadership,and personall b Hiler ould render an agreeen beeen Berlin and mosco

iprobable. For he above reasons as ell as due o he aiudes of he esern po-ers, as i as said b Szebe in his conversaion ih he Prie miniser, marianZndra kociaosi in march 1936, he agreeen reached ih Geran in1933/34 is for us of priar iporance and canno be under an circusancescoproised. miniser Becs depu sressed he fac ha i as he Sovie Unionand no Geran ha as ore hreaening for Poland64.

Saeens ade b Hiler and oher Geran digniaries in hich he declaredheir illingness o esablish he bes possible relaions ih he Polish Republicbecae deepl iprined in he conscious inds of Polish diploas. I as alsobelieved ha he iporance of good relaions ih Poland as so signican forBerlin, ha i ould be possible o evade fro acceping Geran offers of uchcloser collaboraion. A he sae ie hoever, aeps ere ade o obain frohe Reich conraion of hestatus quo on he Polish-Geran border and a guar-anee of he Polish righs concerning Gdas, and perhaps even having hese righssrenghened (should an changes be ade in he inernaional legal regulaions re-ferring o he saus of he Free Ci). As said b Bec in earl 1936, he Polishside sared o surise ha he os benecial ove for Poland ould be o solveall pending dispuable issues ih Geran b eans of one grand Ausgleich65.Neverheless, he Gerans did no an o ae up he aer unil he auun of

1938 hen Joachi von Ribbenrop addressed abassador Lipsi ih his ind ofproposal. For he ie being hough Geran liied iself o soe rears ha infuure i a be possible o nd a coproise, for exaple concerning he Cor-ridor hich ould guaranee Polands access o he sea. On he hole, Geransoo care o spea abou i in a friendl one bu soe rears ere saring o soundoinous. to illusrae, on 18 Noveber 1936 abassador mole folloing insruc-ions fro Berlin plainl arned Bec, ho had coe up ih a proposal o exainehe possibiliies of exending Polish righs in he Free Ci, no o raise he unpleas-an aer of Gdas and hreaened ha his ould ee ih a sharp reacionand ensue severe disurbances in Polish-Geran relaions66. wha is ore, molereieraed his saeen o Rdz-ig on 25 Noveber. For he rs ie since1933 he Geran side resored o hreas in als ih Poland.

when in he suer of 1937 Bec ade an aep o obain fro Geranan saeen conring hestatus quo in Gdas, a he beginning of Sepeber

64 DPJS, II, p. 127-129 (15mar 1936).65 Ibide, p. 65 (1 Feb 1936).66 ADAP, D, V, doc. 11, foonoe 4 (fragen; he enire docuen is in DPJS, II, appendix 91,

moles repor fro 18 Nov 1936), quoed afer m. wojciechosi, Stosunki polsko-niemieckie 1933-

1938 [Polish-Geran relaions 1933-1938], 2nd ediion, Pozna 1980, p. 301. Polish noe fro heaforeenioned conversaion (in DPJS) does no conain he quoed fragen.


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he received via mole reassurance ha he Fhrerand he Chancellor of he Reichconsidered he Gdas saue o be a reali (eine Realitt) and did no inend o in-fringe upon i bu here is no a a public saeen conaining his conen could

be issued67

. Furherore, in Ocober iniser Neurah ruhlessl old abassadorLipsi ha sooner or laer he Gdas issue ill have o be solved in a fundaenala ha is in he sense of resoring he naural relaion beeen Gdas and heReich ih aing ino accoun he econoic ineress of Poland. Lipsi, asonishedb he urn he aers had aen ased Neurah heher he inended o ae up heissue in he near fuure bu he did no receive an concree repl68. I appeared haconcerning he Gdas issue he Polish side had o accep he ineri soluion of-fered b Geran. In a conversaion ih abassador Lipsi on 5 Noveber 1937Hiler announced ha, 1) there ill be no changes in he legal and poliical siua-ion of Gdas (), 2) the righs of he Polish residens in Gdas ill be respeced,3) Polands righs in Gdas ill no be violaed69. this saeen hoever, as noo be ade public and in he ofcial couniqu i as liied o a enion hahe eeing as concluded () ih a saeen ha Polish-Geran relaions can-no be disurbed b he Gdas proble70.

In he face of appeaseen endencies oards Geran gaining srengh in hewes, he Polish Foreign minisr did no doub ha i as essenial o hold on o heLine of 26 Januar. In he Polish governenal circles i as concluded ha hehe polic of relaxaion in our relaions ih Geran is he bes defence againsan aeps o pa for he so called pacicaion of Europe a he expense of Po-

land. wha could have consiued a hrea for us before 1934 is no a huge hreao Czechoslovaia71. In a speech delivered in he Bruhla Palace pro foro interno isaid, Even a he oen hen he Versailles trea has been shaered, even ahe oen hen he inernaional econoic ide is so srongl favouring Geran,() he Reich Chancellor is reieraing his declaraion oards us as far as he needo ainain hestatus quo and Polands righs in Gdas are concerned. A conclu-sion as dran ha Berlins aiude as a resul of a ver sensible evaluaion ofhe siuaion b he Gerans, ho us ae ino accoun he srong resisance onhe Polish side concerning Gdas, ha he gains obained fro is annexaion couldno cover he cos ()72.

67 Quoed afer B. Dopieraa, Gdaska polityka Jzefe Becka [the Gdas polic of Jzef Bec],Pozna 1967, p. 239.

68 ADAP, D, V, doc. 13.69 DPJS, III, appendix. 65;Diplomat in Berlin, doc. 73.70 Quoed afer B. Dopieraa, Gdaska polityka, p. 243.71 DPJS, III, p. 214 (14 Dec 1937).72 AAN warsa, Foreign minisr 117,Przegld Inforacjn Polsa a Zagranica [Inforaion

Revie Poland and Abroad] nr 17 fro 18 Dec 1937, quoed afer S. Sierposi, rda do historii

powszechnej okresu midzywojennego [Sources for he general hisor of he iner-ar period] , vol. III,Pozna 1992, doc. 364.


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38 Sanisa ero

the balancing of Poland beeen France, Grea Briain and Geran reacheda pea in 1938 during he Sudeen crisis. Poland did no have uch roo o a -noeuvre and he pressure pu b Paris and London on he Polish Republic o ae

is aiude oards Geran ore r as ipossible o reconcile ih he Polishineres under he condiions ofappeasement. the deand issued b Paris in mao carr ou a arning dmarche in Berlin as unhinable for Bec. As he in-iser said o his depu, e ould iediael nd ourselves in a conic ihhe Gerans and e ould cross ou an possibiliies of conducing a polic ofequilibriu73. Hoever, Polish diploac having decided ha he disunion of heCzechoslovaian sae is in he ineres of Poland, sared o pla a ris gae hichade i easier for Berlin o encircle Czechoslovaia. Saring ih he rs alsconcerning Czechoslovaia hich Herann Gring had ih Bec in warsa on23 Februar, he conacs beeen boh sides ere becoing increasingl igher. Ias on his occasion ha an aep as ade o obain fro Geran a decisivedeclaraion concerning Gdas, he shared border and an exension of he Pac fro26 Januar 1934. the aep ended in a failure, he Geran parners plaed forie and a he sae ie he ere asing ore explicil abou Poland joining heAni-Coinern Pac. Afer he Sudeen crisis Poland earned he opinion of being de

facto an accoplice of he Reich, as ell as iiaing is ehods. the relaions ihFrance laid in ruins, and here as nearl a iliar confronaion on he border ihhe Sovie Union, folloed b a diploaic noe fro mosco o warsa in hicha hrea of denouncing he 1932 Non-Aggression Pac as clearl saed74.

wha is ore, on he da hen he Polish handed in heir uliau in Praguedeanding he evacuaion of Czechoslovaians fro Zaolzie, miniser Bec di-reced a quesion o Geran heher in case of a iliar conic beeen Polandand Czechoslovaia he Reich ould resue an aicable approach oards Poland.the iniser also ased heher in he case of Poland being aaced b he SovieUnion, Geran ould sho a friendl aiude75. the repl as delivered o Becb Ribbenrop hiself a noon on 1 Ocober. Geran reassured ofciall ha in hecase of a ar beeen Poland and Czechoslovaia warsa can coun on an aicableaiude fro Berlin. In he case of a Polish-Sovie ar he Reich ill ae a ore-han-friendl approach, suggesing [Ribbenrop] clearl ha he Geran govern-en ould offer help76. On he sae da he abassador also aled o Gring ho

73 DPJS, IV, p. 158. In his eoires Bec noed aliciousl bu correcl ha the various ac -ions aen b he French diploas aied a bringing a relief o he Czechs b spoiling Polish-Geranrelaions; [J. Bec],Polska polityka zagraniczna w latach 1926-1939, edied b A. m. Cienciaa, Paris1990, p. 213.

74 the Polish oves are analzed b he presen auhor in: S. ero,Polen, die Sudetenkrise und dieFolgen von Mnchen, : Das Mnchener Abkommen 1938 in europischer Perspektive, hrsg. i Insiufr Zeigeschiche (in press).

75 ADAP, D, V, doc. 54.76 PDD 1938, doc. 364.


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as even ore open as he reassured ha, I is copleely inconceivable ha he Reich

ould no help Poland in is gh agains he Sovies77. this inciden ephaicallyshos ha he noion policy of equilibriu in fac consiued an epy declaraion.

Abroad in deocraic counries he fac ha Poland led an uliau oardsPrague and hreaened Czechoslovaia, hich had been abandoned by everybody,ih a ar osly ade a bad ipression. the orries expressed by he depuy Prieminiser, Eugeniusz kiaosi, ho as agains he uliau, aerialized henhe prediced ha he decision fro 30 Sepeber ill cas a long shado on he i-age of Poland78. there ere voices ha Poland behaved lie a hyena hich aacs avici already beaen in munich. the ile of he Sedish daily, Dagens Nyheer(4 Oc 1938), Germanys Followersbelonged o he ore resrained ones. the co-enaors no very noledgeable in ha had oivaed Polands acions becaeconvinced ha iniser Bec is disloyal and deceiful acing as a aer of fac inleague ih he Nazi Reich. many auhoriies in he wes sared o reach a conclusionha Poland does no deserve help, should i becoe he nex arge of Geran aggres-sion79. the Prie miniser Edouard Daladier, ho hiself no long before had beenshoing off in munich, copensaed his disasefulness ih conepuous rearsabou Polands conduc80. Even in he sae onh hen Polish soldiers eneredZaolzie he French abassador o warsa, Leon Nol presened o his superiors aeorandu calling for a reducion of he coiens oards Poland because ofhe fac ha i alos all he ie in is everyday poliical life is acing in he ineresof Frances opponens no aer ho hey are81. Siilarly in London, especially in

heForeign Ofce, he Poles ere given a cold shoulder and reaed ih disrus82

.As i as relaed b he Polish consuls in he Reich, he opinions ha no i ill

be Polands urn ere no rare aong he Gerans. I as heard in conversaionsha Hiler ill an he Pozna Province, Gdas Poerania and Higher Silesia,and ha Gerans living in Poland should be se free83. Siilar vies becae co-on ihin he Geran inoriies in Poland, hich pu he Polish auhoriies in asae of jusied uneasiness.

77 PDD 1938, doc. 364, also doc. 363 and Z. Landau, J. toaszesi,Monachium 1938 [munich1938], doc. 463.

78 E. kiaosi, W takim ylimy wiecie [the world e lived in], kra 1990, p. 103.See also[J. Bec]Polska polityka zagraniczna, p. 223 and DPJS, IV, p. 283-284 (30 Sep 1938). On anoheroccasion Bec roe abou kiaosi ha he depu prie iniser as alas afraid of aing anore serious decisions, [J. Bec],Polska polityka zagraniczna, p. 208.

79 wider abou he reacions o he Polish uliau: S. ero, Stosunki polsko-niemieckie 1938-1939 [Polish-Geran relaions 1938-1939], Pozna 1998, p. 98.

80 this as repored in washingon b abassador willia Bulli; FRUS, 1938, 1, p. 667.81 L. Nol,Agresja niemiecka na Polsk [Geran invasion of Poland], warsa 1966, p. 206, quoed

fro p. 210.82 E. Raczsi, W sojuszniczym Londynie [In he allied London], London 1997, p. 22-23.

83 Ne Files Archives, warsa, Ebass in Berlin 841, general consul in Leipzig F. Chiczesi oJ. Lipsi, 17 Nov 1938, p. 74.


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40 Sanisa ero

Soe Geran diploas of he old Conservaive-Naionalis school ere reach-ing he sae conclusions. the Geran diploas ho ere unaare of Hilersplans, sared o deliberae heher Berlin should ae advanage of he favourable

circusances and resor o soe of he old revisionis issues. I as noed ha ifhe Reich oo up he proble of he (Corridor) Poland could no coun on anof is friends84. Erns von weizscer in his eoirs expressed his convicionha nobod ould rush ih help for a discredied and isolaed Poland, he jacalof munich85. In he auun of 1938 he decided ha Geran should a las de-and fro he Polish governen in warsa being conneced o Easern Prussia(he er Landbrckenach Ostpreuen is unclear) as ell as perission for Gdaso be annexed o he Reich. Poland as o be reduced o he role of a buffer saebeeen Geran and Russia. I as also he advice weizscer gave o Ribbenropin Deceber 193886. As weizscer old Adiral Canaris, Grea Briain and France

ould reain neural in he case of a Polish-Geran conic87. In a siilar vein, heGeran abassador o London, Herber von Dirsen argued ha since he Sudeencrisis warsa has ade iself unpopular on he thaes and ha he Briish do aeino consideraion ha he Reich ill deand fro Poland a leas Gdas and hePolish Corridor88. Noneheless, Hiler had differen plans concerning Poland.

GERmAN AttEmPtS tO AttRACt POLAND AS ItS ALLy

For Hiler he oives o depar fro he so far ani-Polish polic of Berlin ere

iniiall of a acical naure. As he adied in he auun of 1938 in a closed eeingfor Geran journaliss, Circusances ade e al abou peace for an ears89.Firs, heFhreraned o lead his regie hrough he ris phase ha is hileGeran as sill ea, hen he aned o gain ie, srenghen his rule, ar heReich, eaen he French neor of alliances b planing a edge beeen Franceand Poland, saboage all he aeps o creae an ani-Geran coaliion, islead anddisorienae poenial opponens. In his speeches and diploaic noes he invariablould assure abou his alleged exclusivel peaceful inenions. the Polish-Gerandeclaraion as o be proof ha he as read o see agreeen even hen conicould see invincible90.

84 R. Spiz, So haben wir das Reich verspielt. Bekenntnisse eines Illegalen, mnchen-wien 1986,p. 324.

85 Earlier versions of weizscers eoires, according o: R. A. Blasius,Fr Grodeutschland gegen den groen Krieg. Staatssekretr Ernst Frhr. von Weizscker in den Krisen um die Tschechoslo-wakei und Polen 1938/39, kln wien 1981, p. 75-76.

86 L. E. Hill (Hrsg.),Die Weizscker-Papiere 1933-1950, Franfur a.m.-Berlin-wien 1974, p. 150.No uch in: E. von weizscer,Erinnerungen, mnchen-Leipzig-Freiburg i. Br. 1950, p. 212.

87 H. Groscurh, Tagebcher eines Abwehrofziers 1938-1940, Sugar 1970, p. 159.88 ADAP, D, IV, doc. 287.

89 H. von koze, H. krausnic (Hrsg.),Es spricht der Fhrer, Gersloh 1966, p. 269.90 See S. ero,Niemiecka polityka zagraniczna 1933-1939, Pozna 2005, chaper II,p. 59.


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Soon hoever, he Nazi dicaor decided ha a acical alliance ih he easernneighbour could be ransfored ino a ore peranen bond. He soeho caeo he conclusion ha perhaps i ould be possible o nd for Poland a place in

he fuure Geran Europe. Poland dividing Geran fro he USSR had a isdisposal a sizeable iliar poenial. Also he genuine recogniion ha Hiler andsoe oher Nazi digniaries had oards Pisudsi, he conqueror of he Red Arin 1920, plaed a signican par in Hilers calculaions. Addiionall, he fac hahe poliical sse inroduced b Pisudsi depared fro he principles of parlia-enar deocrac, hich Hiler despised, as of considerable iporance. Since1933 in alos ever conversaion ih Polish diploas, he chancellor referred ohe Sovie hrea and aled abou Polands signican role in he eas91.

Soon inensive effors ere ade o in over Poland as an all. Herann Gring,ho as enrused b Hiler o ae care of relaions ih Poland, plaed a chief rolein hese endeavours92. Saring in Februar 1935, his regular huning expediions ohe Biaoiea Fores provided hi ih aple opporuniies o presen he Geranoffer ihou incing his ords. Alread during his rs visi o Poland he en farin his offer and suggesed a division of ineres zones concerning Russian aers93.when hoever, he Nazi digniar oo up his issue hile speaing o Pisudsi,he marshal disissed he opic and explained ha he Polish Republic inends oconduc a polic of cauion ih he USSR94. Noihsanding, Gring coninued hiseffors in he folloing ears. In Februar 1936 a Polish high-raning ofcial in heForeign minisr sued up he reasoning of he Geran guess during anoher of

Grings visis o Poland in he folloing a, Poland should go agains he Soviesin an alliance ih he Gerans95. On anoher occasion he Nazi digniar said ohis Polish inerlocuor ha in he face of aggressive plans of he krelin Polandand Geran ill have o join forces heher he ill or ill no an o (). Inan a here is a grea fuure before Poland and Geran since he cenrifugal en-dencies in Russia are gaining srengh96. In Februar 1937 in an exensive speechhe as ring o convince Rdz-ig abou he need o align Polish and Ger-an poliics97, and in Noveber he ade a casual coen ha the Balic is no

91 more deails in: S. ero, Stosunki polsko-niemieckie, p. 33.92 A ider accoun of hese aciviies of he Nazi digniar in: S. marens,Hermann Gring: Er-

ster Paladin des Fhrers und Zweiter mann im Reich, Paderborn 1985; A. kube, Pour le mrite undHakenkreuz. Hermann Gring im Dritten Reich, mnchen 1987.

93 the Polish Insiue and General Siorsi museu, London, A.11 E/144, A coiee appoinedin relaion ih he resuls of he ar capaign of 1939, doc. 6, esion b J. Lipsi fro 6 mar 1941,p. 24l; also DPJS, I, p. 225and 230.

94 more in: S. ero, Stosunki polsko-niemieckie, p. 43.95 DPJS, II, p. 93 (23 Feb 1936).96 Ibide, p. 261 (12 Aug 1936).

97 Ibide, III, doc. 7 (noe b Szebe, correced b Lipsi, fro he conversaion beeen Gring-ig 16 Feb 1937).


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42 Sanisa ero

enough for Poland as i should have a indo ono he Blac Sea98. I as henha he inernaional press roe inensel abou ruours ha he Polish Republicigh possibl join he Ani-Coinern Pac. On 9 Noveber 1937 iniser Bec

fel obliged o insruc he Polish ebassies and diploaic issions ha Poland hadno received an proposiions o join he pac, and in an a warsa ould nojoin he Ani-Coinern Pac because of is specic locaion as a neighbour counrof he USSR, and is principal sance agains blocs99. the sae saeen as re-peaed hree das laer in a couniqu released b he Polish Poliical Inforaionagenc ih an addiional enion of he need o ainain he polic of equilibriubeeen he o neighbour counries100. Neverheless, he effecs of he above de-menti ere of liied appeal and he ruours of Polands possible accession o heAni-Coinern Pac did no cease.

Also oher Nazi digniaries ere involved in ring o dra Poland closer, liefor exaple Joseph Goebbels as convinced, as he roe in his privae diar, hahe axis Berlin-London-Roe-warsa ould be soehing no o hro aa101,or he fuure general governor, Hans Fran. the laer in earl 1936 as ring oconvince his hoss in warsa ha Poland and Geran going hand in hand con-siue a poer hich ill be difcul o resis in Europe; a bloc consising of acopound ass of 100 illion people102. Aeps o arac he Polish side erealso joined, aong ohers b Joachi von Ribbenrop, relaivel earl ell beforehe becae he head of Hilers diploac. He said o depu-iniser Szebe,ho as saing in Berlin on he occasion of he Olpic Gaes, ha boh naions

us coe ogeher and he presen hen relaxaion in Polish-Geran relaions isonl he beginning because Poland and Geran ill ogeher achieve far greaerhings. In vie of hese ass all quarrels fro he pas should ae second place103.Ribbenrop ade siilar coens a shor hile laer hen aling o abassadorRaczsi in London.

ye, he Geran public and a decisive ajori of he conservaive elies did noillingl accep he ne polic oards Poland. Also, an leaders of he Geraninori in Poland did no hide heir disappoinen as he coplained ha Berlinlef he coparios sranded behind he easern border. the ne poliical course asacceped ih clenched eeh in he Geran Foreign Ofce doinaed b he advo-caes of he radiional ani-Polish aiude, and i as no infrequenl saboagedin various as. Sill he analsis of he Auswrtiges Amt revealed a ore soberesiae of he Polish Republics foreign polic. Hence, in he aerial prepared for

98 Ibide, p. 163-164 (4 Nov 1937).99 Ibide, appendix 69.100 Ibide, appendix 70.101 E. Frohlich (Hrsg),Die Tagebcher von Joseph Goebbels, Bd. III, p. 4 (noe fro 4 Jan 1937).102 DtJS, II, p. 82 (12 Feb 1936).103 Ibide, noes fro 8, 12and 14 Aug 1936 (Ribbenrop aled o Szebe hree ies on ha

occasion).


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iniser Neurah daed 11 Januar 1938, i as apl noed ha he Polish-Frenchalliance reains he cornersone of Polish foreign polic104. Ana, also abas-sador von mole, an advocae of good neighbourl relaions beeen warsa and

Berlin arned agains draing overopiisic conclusions fro an analsis of Polishpoliical oves.I is quie characerisic ha he Geran digniaries hile repeaing heir a-

eps o recrui Poland ould no and hen ipl he need o revise he status quoalong he Polish-Geran border. Hiler also aled abou i, for exaple o Lipsi on22 ma 1935. He hen reassured ha alhough Geran does need living space,

Lebensraum is no o be found in Poland. One could onl infer ha he chancellorean USSR errior. Iediael Hiler added ha he had a cerain idea hichcould be ipleened in abou 15 ears ie, nael a special Geran raila lineand a oora across he Gdas Poerania105. this as no a novel idea and ihad appeared in previous ears. Also, in he folloing period he Geran side ouldreurn o his projec (for exaple, Gring in he auun of 1936 in a conversaionih Lipsi, in Februar 1937 in a conversaion ih Rdz-ig, and rs of allHiler once ore in his conversaion ih Lipsi on 20 Sepeber 1938)106.

the Polish side reaed he advances ade b Geran eiher ih genle refusalor a he os in an evasive a. warsa ried o ainain he bes possible relaionsih Geran bu ihou aing a bond ih he Reich. the Polish leadershipalos b insinc fel ha an alliance ih Berlin ould ean degrading he PolishRepublic o he ran of a vassal of he third Reich. Sill he op priori as o obain

proper guaranees fro France hile a he sae ie creaing appropriae circu-sances for a closer relaionship ih Grea Briain. ye, abandoning he Line of 26Januar ould see irresponsible in vie of he doinan appeaseen endenciesoards Geran in he polic conduced in Paris and especiall in London

In he eanie hoever, he Geran dicaor nall decided ha Grea Briainould no give hi a free hand in he eas. He as no longer saised b he policof appeaseen on he par of he esern poers. As earl as during he Sudeencrisis he as read o ris a ar ih he esern poers if he had decided ocoe ih help should he Reich have aaced Czechoslovaia. Hiler believed haa iliar confronaion in he es as unavoidable. I ould be difcul o hinabou ipleening his ajor objecive, hich as building a Geran epire onhe debris of he USSR, ihou having eliinaed France and having isolaed GreaBriain. Indeed, before the Wehrmachtcould se ou eas he Gerans should securehe rear. thus, he Ani-Coinern Pac as being perceived no onl as a bloc iha blo aied a he Sovie Union bu as an alliance of counries read o age a aragains Grea Briain and France.

104 ADAP, D, V, doc. 25.105Diplomat in Berlin, doc. 44.106 S. ero, Stosunki polsko-niemieckie, p. 45.


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44 Sanisa ero

For ha aer hile earlier on Hiler sa in Poland an all during his aacon he USSR hen, ha is in he auun of 1938 he aned Poland o pla a dif-feren par. the Polish divisions ould rs secure he Reich during is aac on

he esern poers, and he aac on he Sovie Union as supposed o coe aferFrance had been beaen. In an a, rs i as essenial o urge he Polish leaders ounequivocall declare heselves on he Geran side.

On 16 march 1938 during a conversaion ih Lipsi, Gring cae up ih adirec offer of Polish-Geran iliar cooperaion agains Russia. the abassadorade a noe in his records ha he offer as uch ore deailed han he propos-als pu forard earlier on107. On he las da of march Joachi von Ribbenrop, hehen ne foreign iniser of he Reich, as encouraging Lipsi o esablish idercooperaion beeen Poland and Geran in he Ani-Coinern spiri. A he ieRibbenrop ased Lipsi o rea his proposal as inforal108. On 10 Augus Gringrepeaed his arguens o Lipsi aied a closer cooperaion beeen Poland andGeran in he ani-Sovie spiri109. On he nigh of 27 and 28 of Sepeber Rib-benrop repeaed o Lipsi his offer of a peranen alliance ih Poland ihin heAni-Coinern Pac bu his ie he insised ha Lipsi should infor iniserBec abou he Geran suggesion110.

Afer he Polish capaign concerning Zaolzie Hiler and his paladins did nosip on copleens for warsa. On 1 Ocober Gring in his elephone conversa -ion ih abassador Lipsi assessed he Polish ove as an incredibl bold opera-ion carried ou in an excellen sle. On he sae da Ribbenrop said o Lipsi ha

he chancellor during his breafas spoe o his enourage ih grea esee abouPolish poliics. Bec as infored b a Polish diploa fro Berlin ha our oveas regarded here as an expression of grea poer and independen hining, hichconsiues he os cerain guaranee of our good relaions ih he Reichs govern-en (sic!)111. the Polish-Geran discrepancies concerning he ne dearcaionline ere quicl overcoe because he Reich handed over o Poland he righ o ae raila juncion in Bohuin.

the Polish abassador as invied for 24 Ocober o Berchesgaden here Rib-benrop as saing. the Geran iniser as ell prepared for he eeing and heconduced i ver sillfull. He spoe in superlaives abou he Polish sance duringhe Sudeen crisis. Aong ohers he referred o Hilers ords: the Poles are abrave fol. Pisudsi ould be proud of he. Lipsi alos iediael presenedhe real reason for his visi hich as obaining Geran suppor for he cause ofadjoining he Sub-Carpahian Ruhenia o Hungar. Ribbenrop en on preending

107Diplomat in Berlin, p. 353-354.108 PDD 1938, doc. 74; ADAP, D, V, doc. 34; DPJS, IV, p. 119 (4 Apr 1938).109 PDD1938, doc. 176.110 the repor of he Polish abassador concerning his opic of he conversaion is said o have

been los; he hisorian has access onl o a noe Lipsi ade laer:Diplomat in Berlin, p. 427.111 PDD 1938, doc. 364.


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ha he plans of creaing a coon Polish-Hungarian border ere soehing ne ohi and as evasive oards he aer, exaggeraed poenial obsacles and beingsraighforard he oo up he issue hich as ean o doinae he enire con-

versaion. He sressed ha no he ie has coe o cleanse he relaions beeenGeran and Poland fro all exising probles and his ould be he croningachieveen of he creaion ha marshall Pisudsi and he Fhrerhad sared.thus, he proposed a general regulaion of Polish-Geran relaions. Firs of all,he proble of Gdas needed o be solved b incorporaing i ino he Reich. Anexraerriorial Auobahn belonging o Geran and a raila connecion o EasPrussia as supposed o be buil across he Gdas Poerania. the join borderould receive a guaranee of being peranen and he Polish-Geran Non-Aggres-sion Pac fro 1934 ould be exended for a furher 10 o 25 ears. Hoever, i ashe o las poins on Ribbenrops lis ha ere he os iporan.

No onl as warsa o join he Ani-Coinern Pac bu i also had o accepan addiional consulaion clause appended o he rea fro 1934 hich ouldoblige Poland o negoiae is foreign polic ih Berlin. Ribbenrop noed ha hedid no expec an iediae anser and ased Bec o carefull consider his pro-posal. more or less en inues laer he Geran iniser called in Lipsi againand added ha if he global regulaion in he relaions beeen Geran and Polandis achieved hen also in he case of Sub-Carpahian Ruhenia a benecial agree-en could be achieved112. the Geran proposals unabiguousl aied a aingPoland he Reichs saellie, alhough he deands concerning Gdas and he Auo-

bahn ere no in heselves exorbian.when deepl alared Lipsi repored in person he subjec aer of he con-versaion o Bec, he did no aach uch iporance o he Geran proposals. Aa eeing called b he iniser on 4 Noveber ih a sall group of saff he didno enion a ord abou he. He assessed he Polish posiion in opiisic ersand hen aling abou relaions ih Geran he as joing ha lions are noso erce hen ou live closer ih he. He ainained ha Polands posiion isbenecial (poliicall e are a a good poin). He sill reained ipressed b hesuccess achieved a he expense of Czechoslovaia and ep on saing ha ias possible o ge ore fro he Czechs ihou uch resisance. the eanessof ha counr as beond our expecaions113. I ould be difcul o nd a beerexaple of being disorienaed, careless and overesiaing he role of ones oncounr.

Bec gave orders o repl o Berlin in a polie anner neverheless refusing heiroffer. the Polish iniser believed ha he ould be able o coninue his polic ofbalancing beeen Geran and he esern poers, and ha he Reich ill coe oers ih he Polish refusal also his ie. He seeed o have paid less aenion o

112 Quoaions based on he Polish docuen: PDD 1938, doc. Geran version: ADAP, D, V, doc.

81.113 DPJS, IV, p. 357, 358.


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46 Sanisa ero

he eerging prospec of confronaion ih Geran han o he issue of Sub-Car-pahian Ruhenia. Incorporaing his in counr ino Hungar ould no onl gerid of he Urainian Piedon bu i as rs of all o be a sage in ipleening a

copleel unrealisic concepion of a third Europe, ha is a grouping of ediuand saller counries in Cenral and Souh-Eas Europe independen of Geran.Ana, Bec considered he proposal fro 24 Ocober o be a schee ploedb Ribbenrop. Hoever, on 5 Januar 1939 during a eeing ih he Fhrer inBerchesgaden Bec as o realize hiself ha hings ere differen han he hadhough, and ha i as Hiler hiself ho as behind he proposal. the chancellorade an effor o ainain a friendl one in he conversaion, bu on he folloingda Ribbenrop as uch ore aggressive. Bec ho had previousl deluded hi-self ha in he face of he Polish refusal Geran ould no insis on he Ocoberproposals as hen pu sraigh.

As soon as he iniser had reurned o warsa, a consulaion eeing as con-vened in a narro group of op saesen including presiden mocici and arshalRdz-ig. the leaders of he Polish sae unaniousl agreed ha acceping heGeran offer (i needs o be reinded ha i as sill no a deand bu a proposal)ill ineviabl ae he Polish Republic ono an inclined plane resuling in a loss ofindependence and assuing a role of Gerans vassal114. the Polish side did alloa argin of concessions concerning he issue of Gdas and access via he Cor-ridor and expressed he illingness o see a coproise bu on he oher hand anaep as going o be ade o srenghen relaions ih France and Grea Briain.

On 25 Januar 1939 (on he eve of he 5h

anniversar of signing he Non-AggressionPac) iniser Ribbenrop as received in warsa ih he uos coures. thegues and he hoss ere oudoing one anoher in heir assurance of he ill o ain-ain friendl relaions. Hoever, hen Ribbenrop reurned o he Geran proposalhe pracicall did no achieve anhing. Bec even arned Ribbenrop agains beingoveropiisic hen relaing he course of he warsa als o Hiler115. Neverhe-less, boh sides cared abou evading crisis. Oher digniaries of Hiler ere coingo warsa (aong ohers Hans Fran in Deceber 1938 and Heinrich Hiler inhe Februar of he folloing ear). All he signs ere here ha he Line of 26Januar as sill being observed. the Polish refusal, afer all no he rs one, didno see o be snonous ih breaing relaions beeen warsa and Berlin.

I can be assued ha Hiler sill couned on aing Poland join he coaliionheaded b Geran. Folloing a noe ade b one of his aide-de-caps on 18 Feb-ruar 1939, he chancellor did no longer exclude resoring if necessar o oher handiploaic eans116. A fe das laer Hiler revealed in condence ha he inendedo send a srong group ofKriegsmarine o Gdas aing in his a a deonsra-

114 [J. Bec],Polska polityka zagraniczna..., p. 240.115 S. ero, Stosunki polsko-niemieckie 1938-1939, chapers II and III.116 H. von koze (Hrsg.),Heeresadjutant bei Hitler 1938-1943. Aufzeichnungen des Majors Engel,

Sugar 1974, p. 45.


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ion of poer (hich hoever did no ae place)117. Ribbenrop ade he las a-ep o convince he Polish in he second half of march 1939 afer he nal breaupof he Czechoslovaian sae and he esablishen of he Proecorae of Czech and

moravia. the repl passed on fro Bec b abassador Lipsi on 26 march 1939did no leave an roo for delusion. the Poles ill reain our eneies ere heFhrers ords noed don b Goebbels118. when a fe das laer on 31 march1939 Prie miniser Neville Chaberlain announced in he House of Coons heBriish guaranees for Poland, Hiler had no doubs ha Poland ill reain a counrconneced ih he esern poers in he poliical and iliar sense. In earl Aprilorders ere given o sar preparaions o aac Poland.

tHE RAtIONALE BEHIND tHE POLISH DECISION

the decision ade b he highes poliical auhoriies of he Polish Republic ourn don heFhrers agnanious offer as ade a he beginning of Januar1939, ha is before Grea Briain expressed readiness o issue a guaranee of inde-pendence for Poland. the paricipans of he eeing in he Roal Casle ere aareof he seriousness of he siuaion bu he undoubedl couned on overcoing heeerging crisis ih diploaic eans.

when several ees laer he Wehrmachtar enered Prague he advocaesof he appeaseen ere discredied and inernaional opinion as alared as ohe real objecives of Nazi Geran, he posiion of Poland appeared o have beensrenghened. I needs o be reebered ha he nal refusal hich as handedover b abassador Lipsi o Ribbenrop on 26 march 1939 oo place in a radi-call changed siuaion. Alhough in effec of he Geran occupaion of Czech andmoravia Poland becae enrapped also fro he souh, is poliical posiion asclearl srenghened. Addiionall, he Briish-French guaranees obained b Polandve das laer ere evaluaed as a grea asse on he Polish side. Finall, he circu-sances ere here o sop he expansion of he Nazi Reich. I seeed ha he Polishleadership in is cones ih Berlin as a las holding a good hand of cards.

we no ha i as no an eas decision o ae a leas for Bec; he iniser

of foreign affairs as ver uch aare of he ris he as burdened ih119. Undoub-edl hen aing he decision he Polish iliar poenial as vasl overesiaedand he iliar poer of Geran as underesiaed. I igh be ha he decisionas ade ih aareness ha an closer cooperaion ih he Reich, han ha asunil hen deerined b he Line of 26 Januar, ould no be acceped b hehoroughl ani-Geran Polish public, and he generals ere osl ver disrus-

117 ADAP, D, VI, doc. 361, foonoe 1.118 E. Frhlich (Hrsg.),Die Tagebcher von Joseph Goebbels, Bd. III, p. 584 (noe fro 28 mar

1939).119 PDD 1939, doc. 275.


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48 Sanisa ero

ful oards he Gerans. Resigning fro he alliance ih France could even havebrough abou an inernal poliical crisis and collapse of he exising governen.the prospec ha he Polish ar ould shield he Reich fro he eas in order o

creae good condiions for he Wehrmachtforces o bea France ould no be ac-cepable for boh he vas ajori of he Polish elies as ell as generall for publicopinion. miniser Bec as even irriaed b he enhusias ih hich he Poleselcoed severing relaions ih Geran. Neverheless, hen analzing he siu-aion of Poland in he spring of 1939 i as difcul o assue ha he asses in hefor of alliances ih France and grea Briain ere of an illusor naure.

the onhs folloing he breaing of he relaions beeen warsa and Berlinresuled in a ar of nerves ha Hiler aged on Poland and he esern poers.Hoever, he fear of he ris gae plaed b heirFhreras also shared b Hi-lers poliical collaboraors and ar generals. Also, he Geran public as full ofanxie. On he one hand, i elcoed ih saisfacion he collapse of close rela-ions ih he dislied neighbour and i as read o illingl accep a shor localar agains Poland bu i as on he oher hand, paralzed b he hough ha a localcapaign could ransfor ino a idespread conic. In warsa he believed hahe ar of nerves can be on b deonsraing a r aiude. On miniser Becsiniiaive and in line ih he declaraion ha he Polish governen ill no be in-iidaed an aeps ere ade o re-esablish relaions ih Geran. Signalsere sen hrough he Japanese, Ialians and Hungarians, Roanian and Bulgariandiploas ere used and even as i sees he chief-in-coand of he Esonian

ar as involved. there ere also aeps o esablish relaions direcl ihGeran120. these hoever, reain alos unnon episodes in he hisor of heSecond Polish Republic hich neverheless allo o quesion he sereopical opin-ions abou he alleged uncoproising Polish aiude.

maing an assupion ha he nal decisions ade in Berlin ill be raionalproved o be false. the preise ha he Briish guaranee for Poland ould consi-ue a challenge for Hiler, ho as aing decisions in he anner of a va banqueplaer, as unjusied. Anoher isae as assuing ha he esern allies ouldevenuall rejec he defeais sraeg and in heir bes ineress ould ae aciondirecl afer Geran had begun heir ar operaions. I also proved o be false oassue ha Hilers ani-Sovie aiude rules ou an alliance beeen Geran andhe USSR. Noihsanding i does no see ha, conrar o ha is presenl ri-en, he Geran-Sovie Pac as he facor hich nall ade i possible for Hilero aac Poland and unleash world war II.

120 See S. ero, Stosunki polsko-niemieckie 1938-1939, passi.