state building and the search for order in the …...hysteria over witchcraft affected the lives of...

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CHAPTER 15

S T A T E B U I L D I N G A N D T H E S E A R C H F O R O R D E RI N T H E S E V E N T E E N T H C E N T U R Y

CHAPTER OUTLINEAND FOCUS QUESTIONS

Social Crises, War, and Rebellions

What economic, social, and political crises did Europeexperience in the first half of the seventeenth century?

The Practice of Absolutism: Western Europe

What was absolutism in theory, and how did its actualpractice in France reflect or differ from the theory?

Absolutism in Central, Eastern, and NorthernEurope

What developments enabled Brandenburg-Prussia,Austria, and Russia to emerge as major powers in theseventeenth century?

Limited Monarchy and Republics

What were the main issues in the struggle between kingand Parliament in seventeenth-century England, andhow were they resolved?

The Flourishing of European Culture

How did the artistic and literary achievements of this erareflect the political and economic developments of theperiod?

CRITICAL THINKING

What theories of government were proposed by JacquesBossuet, Thomas Hobbes, and John Locke, and howdid their respective theories reflect concerns andproblems of the seventeenth century?

Hyacinth Rigaud’s portrait of Louis XIV captures the king’ssense of royal grandeur.

BY THE END of the sixteenth century, Europe was begin-ning to experience a decline in religious passions and a grow-ing secularization that affected both the political andintellectual worlds (on the intellectual effect, see Chapter 16).Some historians like to speak of the seventeenth century as aturning point in the evolution of a modern state system inEurope. The ideal of a united Christian Europe gave way tothe practical realities of a system of secular states in whichmatters of state took precedence over the salvation of sub-jects’ souls. By the seventeenth century, the credibility ofChristianity had been so weakened through religious warsthat more and more Europeans came to think of politics insecular terms.

One of the responses to the religious wars and othercrises of the time was a yearning for order. As the internalsocial and political rebellions and revolts died down, itbecame apparent that the privileged classes of society—thearistocrats—remained in control, although the various statesexhibited important differences in political forms. The mostgeneral trend saw an extension of monarchical power as astabilizing force. This development, which historians havecalled absolute monarchy or absolutism, was most evidentin France during the flamboyant reign of Louis XIV,

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Social Crises, War,and Rebellions

Focus Question: What economic, social, and politicalcrises did Europe experience in the first half of theseventeenth century?

The inflation-fueled prosperity of the sixteenth centuryshowed signs of slackening by the beginning of the sev-enteenth. Economic contraction was evident in someparts of Europe in the 1620s. In the 1630s and 1640s, asimports of silver from the Americas declined, economicrecession intensified, especially in the Mediterraneanarea. Once the industrial and financial center of Europein the Renaissance, Italy was now becoming an economicbackwater. Spain’s economy was also seriously failing bythe 1640s.

Population trends of the sixteenth and seventeenthcenturies also reveal Europe’s worsening conditions.The sixteenth century was a period of expanding pop-ulation, possibly related to a warmer climate and in-creased food supplies. It has been estimated that thepopulation of Europe increased from 60 million in 1500to 85 million by 1600, the first major recovery of Eu-ropean population since the devastation of the BlackDeath in the mid-fourteenth century. Records also

indicate a leveling off of the population by 1620,however, and even a decline by 1650, especially incentral and southern Europe. Only the Dutch, English,and French grew in number in the first half of theseventeenth century. Europe’s longtime adversaries---war, famine, and plague---continued to affect pop-ulation levels. After the middle of the sixteenth century,another ‘‘little ice age,’’ when average temperatures fell,affected harvests and caused famines. These problemscreated social tensions that came to a boil in thewitchcraft craze.

The Witchcraft CrazeHysteria over witchcraft affected the lives of many Eu-ropeans in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.Witchcraft trials were held in England, Scotland, Swit-zerland, Germany, some parts of France and the LowCountries, and even New England in America.

Witchcraft was not a new phenomenon. Its practicehad been part of traditional village culture for centuries,but it came to be viewed as both sinister and dangerouswhen the medieval church began to connect witches tothe activities of the devil, thereby transforming witchcraftinto a heresy that had to be wiped out. After the estab-lishment of the Inquisition in the thirteenth century,some people were accused of a variety of witchcraftpractices and, following the biblical injunction ‘‘Thoushalt not suffer a witch to live,’’ were turned over tosecular authorities for burning at the stake or, in England,hanging.

The Spread of Witchcraft What distinguished witch-craft in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries fromthese previous developments was the increased numberof trials and executions of presumed witches. Perhapsmore than 100,000 people were prosecuted throughoutEurope on charges of witchcraft. As more and morepeople were brought to trial, the fear of witches as well asthe fear of being accused of witchcraft escalated tofrightening proportions. Although larger cities were af-fected first, the trials also spread to smaller towns andrural areas as the hysteria persisted well into the sev-enteenth century (see the box on p. 445).

The accused witches usually confessed to a numberof practices, most often after intense torture. But evenwhen people confessed voluntarily, certain practices standout. Many said that they had sworn allegiance to the deviland attended sabbats or nocturnal gatherings where theyfeasted, danced, and even copulated with the devil insexual orgies. More common, however, were admissionsof using evil incantations and special ointments andpowders to wreak havoc on neighbors by killing theirlivestock, injuring their children, or raising storms todestroy their crops.

A number of contributing factors have been suggestedto explain why the witchcraft frenzy became so widespread

444444 C H A P T E R 1 5 STATE BUILDING AND THE SEARCH FOR ORDER IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY

regarded by some as the perfect embodiment of an absolutemonarch. In his memoirs, the duc de Saint-Simon, who hadfirsthand experience of French court life, said that Louis was‘‘the very figure of a hero, so imbued with a natural butmost imposing majesty that it appeared even in his mostinsignificant gestures and movements.’’ The king’s naturalgrace gave him a special charm as well: ‘‘He was as dignifiedand majestic in his dressing gown as when dressed in robesof state, or on horseback at the head of his troops.’’ Hespoke well and learned quickly. He was naturally kind and‘‘loved truth, justice, order, and reason.’’ His life was orderly:‘‘Nothing could be regulated with greater exactitude thanwere his days and hours.’’ His self-control was impeccable:‘‘He did not lose control of himself ten times in his wholelife, and then only with inferior persons.’’ But even absolutemonarchs had imperfections, and Saint-Simon had the cour-age to point them out: ‘‘Louis XIV’s vanity was without limitor restraint,’’ which led to his ‘‘distaste for all merit, intelli-gence, education, and, most of all, for all independence ofcharacter and sentiment in others,’’ as well as ‘‘to mistakes ofjudgment in matters of importance.’’

But absolutism was not the only response to the searchfor order in the seventeenth century. Other states, such asEngland, reacted differently to domestic crisis, and anothervery different system emerged in which monarchs werelimited by the power of their representative assemblies.Absolute and limited monarchy were the two poles ofseventeenth-century state building.

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into a heresy that had to be wiped out. After the estab-

in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Religious un-certainties clearly played some part. Many witchcraft trialsoccurred in areas where Protestantism had been recentlyvictorious or in regions, such as southwestern Germany,where Protestant-Catholic controversies still raged. As

religious passions became inflamed, accusations of beingin league with the devil became common on both sides.

Recently, however, historians have emphasized theimportance of social conditions, especially the problems ofa society in turmoil, in explaining the witchcraft hysteria.


A Witchcraft Trial in France

Persecutions for witchcraft reached their high point in

the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries when tens of

thousands of people were brought to trial. In this

excerpt from the minutes of a trial in France in 1652,

we can see why the accused witch stood little chance

of exonerating herself.

The Trial of Suzanne Gaudry28 May, 1652. . . . Interrogation of Suzanne Gaudry, prisonerat the court of Rieux. . . . [During interrogations on May 28and May 29, the prisoner confessed to a number of activ-ities involving the devil.]

Deliberation of the Court—June 3, 1652

The undersigned advocates of the Court have seen theseinterrogations and answers. They say that the aforemen-tioned Suzanne Gaudry confesses that she is a witch, thatshe had given herself to the devil, that she had renouncedGod, Lent, and baptism, that she has been marked on theshoulder, that she has cohabited with the devil and that shehas been to the dances, confessing only to have cast a spellupon and caused to die a beast of Philippe Cornie. . . .

Third Interrogation—June 27

This prisoner being led into the chamber, she was exam-ined to know if things were not as she had said and con-fessed at the beginning of her imprisonment.

—Answers no, and that what she has said was done soby force.

Pressed to say the truth, that otherwise she would besubjected to torture, having pointed out to her that heraunt was burned for this same subject.

—Answers that she is not a witch. . . .

She was placed in the hands of the officer in charge oftorture, throwing herself on her knees, struggling to cry,uttering several exclamations, without being able, never-theless to shed a tear. Saying at every moment that she isnot a witch.

The Torture

On this same day, being at the place of torture.This prisoner, before being strapped down, was admon-

ished to maintain herself in her first confessions and torenounce her lover.

—Says that she denies everything she has said, andthat she has no lover. Feeling herself being strapped down,says that she is not a witch, while struggling to cry . . . andupon being asked why she confessed to being one, saidthat she was forced to say it.

Told that she was not forced, that on the contrary shedeclared herself to be a witch without any threat.

—Says that she confessed it and that she is not a witch,and being a little stretched [on the rack] screams cease-lessly that she is not a witch. . . .

Asked if she did not confess that she had been a witchfor twenty-six years.

—Says that she said it, that she retracts it, crying thatshe is not a witch.

Asked if she did not make Philippe Cornie’s horse die,as she confessed.

—Answers no, crying Jesus-Maria, that she is not awitch.

The mark having been probed by the officer, in thepresence of Doctor Bouchain, it was adjudged by the afore-said doctor and officer truly to be the mark of the devil.

Being more tightly stretched upon the torture-rack,urged to maintain her confessions.

—Said that it was true that she is a witch and that shewould maintain what she had said.

Asked how long she has been in subjugation to thedevil.

—Answers that it was twenty years ago that the devilappeared to her, being in her lodgings in the form of aman dressed in a little cow-hide and black breeches . . . .

Verdict

July 9, 1652. In the light of the interrogations, answersand investigations made into the charge against SuzanneGaudry, . . . seeing by her own confessions that she is saidto have made a pact with the devil, received the markfrom him, . . . and that following this, she had renouncedGod, Lent, and baptism and had let herself be known car-nally by him, in which she received satisfaction. Also, see-ing that she is said to have been a part of nocturnal carolsand dances.

For expiation of which the advice of the undersignedis that the office of Rieux can legitimately condemn theaforesaid Suzanne Gaudry to death, tying her to a gallows,and strangling her to death, then burning her body andburying it here in the environs of the woods.

Why were women, particularly older women, espe-

cially vulnerable to accusations of witchcraft? What

‘‘proofs’’ are offered here that Suzanne Gaudry had con-

sorted with the devil? What does this account tell us

about the spread of witchcraft accusations in the seven-

teenth century?

SOCIAL CRISES, WAR, AND REBELLIONS 445

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At a time when the old communal values that stressedworking together for the good of the community weredisintegrating before the onslaught of a new economicethic that emphasized looking out for oneself, propertyowners became more fearful of the growing numbers ofpoor in their midst and transformed them psychologicallyinto agents of the devil. Old women were particularlysusceptible to suspicion. Many of them, no longer therecipients of the local charity available in traditional so-ciety, may even have tried to survive by selling herbs,potions, or secret remedies for healing. When problemsarose---and there were many in this crisis-laden period---these women were handy scapegoats.

That women should be the chief victims of witchcrafttrials was hardly accidental. Nicholas Remy, a witchcraftjudge in France in the 1590s, found it ‘‘not unreasonablethat this scum of humanity [witches] should be drawnchiefly from the feminine sex.’’ To another judge, it cameas no surprise that witches would confess to sexual ex-periences with Satan: ‘‘The Devil uses them so, because heknows that women love carnal pleasures, and he means tobind them to his allegiance by such agreeable provoca-tions.’’1 Of course, witch hunters were not the only oneswho held women in such low esteem. Most theologians,lawyers, and philosophers in early modern Europe be-lieved in the natural inferiority of women and thus wouldhave found it plausible that women would be moresusceptible to witchcraft.

Decline By the mid-seventeenth century, the witchcrafthysteria began to subside. The destruction caused by thereligious wars had at least forced people to accept agrudging toleration, tempering religious passions. More-over, as governments began to stabilize after the period ofcrisis, fewer magistrates were willing to accept the un-settling and divisive conditions generated by the trials ofwitches. Finally, by the turn of the eighteenth century,more and more educated people were questioning theirold attitudes toward religion and finding it contrary toreason to believe in the old view of a world haunted byevil spirits.

The Thirty Years’ WarAlthough many Europeans responded to the upheavals ofthe second half of the sixteenth century with a desire forpeace and order, the first fifty years of the seventeenthcentury continued to be plagued by crises. A devastatingwar that affected much of Europe and rebellions seem-ingly everywhere protracted the atmosphere of disorderand violence.

Background to the War Religion, especially the strugglebetween militant Catholicism and militant Calvinism,played an important role in the outbreak of the ThirtyYears’ War (1618--1648), often called the ‘‘last of the reli-gious wars.’’ As the war progressed, however, it became

increasingly clear that secular, dynastic-nationalist con-siderations were far more important. Although much ofthe fighting in the Thirty Years’ War took place in theGermanic lands of the Holy Roman Empire, it became aEurope-wide struggle (see Map 15.1). In fact, some his-torians view it as part of a larger conflict for Europeanleadership between the Bourbon dynasty of France andthe Habsburg dynasties of Spain and the Holy RomanEmpire and date it from 1609 to 1659.

The Peace of Augsburg in 1555 had brought an endto religious warfare between German Catholics and Lu-therans. Religion, however, continued to play a divisiverole in German life as Lutherans and Catholics persistedin vying for control of various principalities. In addition,although the treaty had not recognized the rights ofCalvinists, a number of German states had adoptedCalvinism as their state church. At the beginning of theseventeenth century, the Calvinist ruler of the Palatinate,the Elector Palatine Frederick IV, assumed the leadershipin forming a league of German Protestant states called theProtestant Union. To counteract it, the Catholic Leagueof German states was organized by Duke Maximilian ofthe south German state of Bavaria. By 1609, then, Ger-many was dividing into two armed camps in anticipationof religious war.

The religious division was exacerbated by a con-stitutional issue. The desire of the Habsburg emperors toconsolidate their authority in the Holy Roman Empirewas resisted by the princes, who fought for their‘‘German liberties,’’ their constitutional rights and pre-rogatives as individual rulers. To pursue their policies,the Habsburg emperors looked to Spain (ruled by an-other branch of the family) for assistance while theprinces turned to the enemies of Spain, especially France,for help against the emperors. The divisions in the HolyRoman Empire and Europe made it almost inevitablethat if war did erupt, it would be widespread and diffi-cult to stop.

The Bohemian Phase Historians have traditionally di-vided the Thirty Years’ War into four major phases. TheBohemian phase (1618--1625) began in one of the Habs-burgs’ own territories. In 1617, the Bohemian Estates(primarily the nobles) accepted the Habsburg ArchdukeFerdinand as their king but soon found themselves un-happy with their choice. Though many of the nobles wereCalvinists, Ferdinand was a devout Catholic who began aprocess of re-Catholicizing Bohemia and strengtheningroyal power. The Protestant nobles rebelled against Ferdi-nand in May 1618 and proclaimed their resistance bythrowing two of the Habsburg governors and a secretaryout of the window of the royal castle in Prague, the seatof Bohemian government. The Catholic side claimedthat their seemingly miraculous escape from death in the70-foot fall from the castle was due to the intercession ofthe Virgin Mary, while Protestants pointed out that they fellinto a manure pile. The Bohemian rebels now seizedcontrol of Bohemia, deposed Ferdinand, and elected as his



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replacement the Protestant ruler of the Palatinate, ElectorFrederick V, who was also the head of the Protestant Union.

Ferdinand, who in the meantime had been electedHoly Roman Emperor, refused to accept his deposition.Aided by the imposing forces of Maximilian of Bavariaand the Catholic League, the imperial forces defeatedFrederick and the Bohemian nobles at the Battle of WhiteMountain outside Prague on November 8, 1620. Spanishtroops took advantage of Frederick’s predicament by in-vading the Palatinate and conquering it by the end of1622. The unfortunate Frederick fled into exile in theUnited Provinces. The Spanish took control of thewestern part of the Palatinate (to gain the access routefrom Italy to the Netherlands that they had wanted), andDuke Maximilian of Bavaria took the rest of the territory.Reestablished as king of Bohemia, Emperor Ferdinanddeclared Bohemia a hereditary Habsburg possession,

confiscated the land of the Protestant nobles, and estab-lished Catholicism as the sole religion. The Spanish re-newed their attack on the Dutch, and the forces ofCatholicism seemed on the road to victory. But the warwas far from over.

The Danish Phase The second phase of the war, theDanish phase (1625--1629), began when King Christian IVof Denmark (1588--1648), a Lutheran, intervened on be-half of the Protestant cause by leading an army intonorthern Germany. Christian had made an anti-Habsburgand anti-Catholic alliance with the United Provinces andEngland. He also wanted, however, to gain possession ofsome Catholic territories in northern Germany to benefithis family.

In the meantime, Ferdinand had gained a newcommander for the imperial forces in Albrecht von


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MAP 15.1 The Thirty Years’ War. The conflict began in the German states asEurope’s major powers backed either the northern Protestant Union or the southern CatholicLeague. As the war progressed, religion receded in importance, replaced by a dynastic strugglebetween the French Bourbons and the Spanish and Austrian Habsburgs.

Compare this map with Map 13.2. Which countries engaged in the war were predominantlyProtestant, which were predominantly Catholic, and which were mixed? View an animated

version of this map or related maps at www.thomsonedu.com/history/spielvogel


Propert

y Europe’s major powers backed either the northern Protestant Union or the southern Catholic

Propert

y Europe’s major powers backed either the northern Protestant Union or the southern CatholicLeague. As the war progressed, religion receded in importance, replaced by a dynastic struggle

Propert

y League. As the war progressed, religion receded in importance, replaced by a dynastic strugglebetween the French Bourbons and the Spanish and Austrian Habsburgs.

Propert

y between the French Bourbons and the Spanish and Austrian Habsburgs.

Propert

y

replacement the Protestant ruler of the Palatinate, ElectorPropert

y

replacement the Protestant ruler of the Palatinate, ElectorFrederick V, who was also the head of the Protestant Union.Prop

erty

Frederick V, who was also the head of the Protestant Union.Ferdinand, who in the meantime had been electedProp

erty

Ferdinand, who in the meantime had been elected

Compare this map with Map 13.2. Which countries engaged in the war were predominantly

Propert

y Compare this map with Map 13.2. Which countries engaged in the war were predominantly

Protestant, which were predominantly Catholic, and which were mixed?

Propert

y Protestant, which were predominantly Catholic, and which were mixed?version of this map or related maps at

Propert

y version of this map or related maps at www.thomsonedu.com/history/spielvogel

Propert

y www.thomsonedu.com/history/spielvogel

of of of The conflict began in the German states asof The conflict began in the German states asEurope’s major powers backed either the northern Protestant Union or the southern Catholicof Europe’s major powers backed either the northern Protestant Union or the southern CatholicLeague. As the war progressed, religion receded in importance, replaced by a dynastic struggleof League. As the war progressed, religion receded in importance, replaced by a dynastic struggle

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Wallenstein. A brilliant and enigmatic commander,Wallenstein was a Bohemian nobleman who had takenadvantage of Ferdinand’s victory to become the country’swealthiest landowner. Wallenstein’s forces defeated aProtestant army at Dessau and then continued to operatein northern Germany. The forces of Christian IV, despitesubstantial aid from their allies, were defeated in 1626 byan army of the Catholic League under Count Tilly andthen suffered an even more devastating loss to Wallen-stein’s forces the following year. Wallenstein now occu-pied parts of northern Germany, including the Balticports of Hamburg, Lubeck, and Bremen. Christian IV’sdefeat meant the end of Danish supremacy in the Baltic.

After the success of the imperial armies, EmperorFerdinand II was at the height of his power and took thisopportunity to issue the Edict of Restitution in March1629. His proclamation prohibited Calvinist worship andrestored to the Catholic Church all property taken byProtestant princes or cities during the past seventy-fiveyears. But this sudden growth in the power of theHabsburg emperor frightened many German princes,who feared for their independent status and reacted byforcing the emperor to dismiss Wallenstein.

The Swedish Phase The Swedish phase (1630--1635)marked the entry of Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden(1611--1632), into the war. Gustavus Adolphus was re-sponsible for reviving Sweden and transforming it into agreat Baltic power. A military genius, he brought a dis-ciplined and well-equipped Swedish army to northernGermany. He was also a devout Lutheran who felt com-pelled to aid his coreligionists in Germany.

Gustavus’s army swept the imperial forces out ofthe north and moved into the heart of Germany. Indesperation, the imperial side recalled Wallenstein, whowas given command of the imperial army that metGustavus’s troops near Leipzig. At the Battle of Lutzen(1632), the Swedish forces prevailed but paid a highprice for the victory when the Swedish king was killedin the battle. Although the Swedish forces remained inGermany, they proved much less effective. Despite theloss of Wallenstein, who was assassinated in 1634 on theorders of Emperor Ferdinand, the imperial army deci-sively defeated the Swedes at the Battle of Nordlingen atthe end of 1634 and drove them out of southern Ger-many. This imperial victory guaranteed that southernGermany would remain Catholic. The emperor usedthis opportunity to make peace with the Germanprinces by agreeing to annul the Edict of Restitution of1629. But peace failed to come to war-weary Germany.The Swedes wished to continue, while the French, un-der the direction of Cardinal Richelieu, the chief min-ister of King Louis XIII, entered the war directly,beginning the fourth and final phase of the war, theFranco-Swedish phase (1635--1648).

The Franco-Swedish Phase By this time, religious is-sues were losing their significance. The Catholic French

were now supporting the Protestant Swedes against theCatholic Habsburgs of Germany and Spain. The Battle ofRocroi in 1643 proved decisive as the French beat theSpanish and brought an end to Spanish military great-ness. The French then moved on to victories over theimperialist-Bavarian armies in southern Germany. By thistime, all parties were ready for peace, and after five yearsof protracted negotiations, the war in Germany was of-ficially ended by the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. The warbetween France and Spain, however, continued until thePeace of the Pyrenees in 1659. By that time, Spain hadbecome a second-class power, and France had emerged asthe dominant nation in Europe.

Outcomes of the War What were the results of this‘‘basically meaningless conflict,’’ as one historian hascalled it? The Peace of Westphalia ensured that all Ger-man states, including the Calvinist ones, were free todetermine their own religion. Territorially, France gainedparts of western Germany, part of Alsace, and the threecities of Metz, Toul, and Verdun, giving the Frenchcontrol of the Franco-German border area. While Swedenand the German states of Brandenburg and Bavariagained some territory in Germany, the Austrian Habs-burgs did not really lose any but did see their authority asrulers of Germany further diminished. The more thanthree hundred states that made up the Holy RomanEmpire were recognized as virtually independent, sinceeach received the power to conduct its own foreignpolicy. The Habsburg emperor had been reduced to afigurehead in the Holy Roman Empire. The Peace ofWestphalia also made it clear that religion and politicswere now separate. The pope was completely ignored inall decisions at Westphalia, and political motives became


CHRONOL0GY The Thirty Years’ War

Protestant Union 1608

Catholic League 1609

Election of Habsburg Archduke Ferdinandas king of Bohemia

1617

Bohemian revolt against Ferdinand 1618

Bohemian phase 1618–1625

Battle of White Mountain 1620

Spanish conquest of Palatinate 1622

Danish phase 1625–1629

Edict of Restitution 1629

Swedish phase 1630–1635

Battle of Lutzen 1632

Battle of Nordlingen 1634

Franco-Swedish phase 1635–1648

Battle of Rocroi 1643

Peace of Westphalia 1648

Peace of the Pyrenees 1659


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y desperation, the imperial side recalled Wallenstein, who

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y desperation, the imperial side recalled Wallenstein, whowas given command of the imperial army that met

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y was given command of the imperial army that metGustavus’s troops near Leipzig. At the Battle of Lu

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y (1632), the Swedish forces prevailed but paid a highprice for the victory when the Swedish king was killed

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orders of Emperor Ferdinand, the imperial army deci-sively defeated the Swedes at the Battle of NoProp

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sively defeated the Swedes at the Battle of No

of Gustavus’s army swept the imperial forces out of

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the north and moved into the heart of Germany. Inof the north and moved into the heart of Germany. Indesperation, the imperial side recalled Wallenstein, whoof desperation, the imperial side recalled Wallenstein, who

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e were now supporting the Protestant Swedes against the

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e were now supporting the Protestant Swedes against the

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e ciplined and well-equipped Swedish army to northern

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e ciplined and well-equipped Swedish army to northernGermany. He was also a devout Lutheran who felt com-Cen

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Germany. He was also a devout Lutheran who felt com-

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Gustavus’s army swept the imperial forces out of

Catholic Habsburgs of Germany and Spain. The Battle of

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e Catholic Habsburgs of Germany and Spain. The Battle ofRocroi in 1643 proved decisive as the French beat the

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e Rocroi in 1643 proved decisive as the French beat theSpanish and brought an end to Spanish military great-

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e Spanish and brought an end to Spanish military great-ness. The French then moved on to victories over the

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e ness. The French then moved on to victories over theimperialist-Bavarian armies in southern Germany. By this

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e imperialist-Bavarian armies in southern Germany. By thistime, all parties were ready for peace, and after five yearsCen

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the guiding forces in public affairs as religion movedcloser to becoming primarily a matter of personal con-viction and individual choice.

The economic and social effects of the Thirty Years’War on Germany are still debated. The most recent workpictures a ruined German economy and a decline inGerman population from 21 million to 16 million be-tween 1618 and 1650. Some areas of Germany werecompletely devastated, but others remained relativelyuntouched and even experienced economic growth. Inany case, the Thirty Years’ War was undoubtedly the mostdestructive conflict Europeans had yet experienced (seethe box above).

A Military Revolution?

By the seventeenth century, war played an increasinglyimportant role in European affairs. Military power wasconsidered essential to a ruler’s reputation and power;thus, the pressure to build an effective military machinewas intense. Some historians believe that the changes thatoccurred in the science of warfare between 1560 and 1660warrant the title of military revolution.

Medieval warfare, with its mounted knights andsupplementary archers, had been transformed in theRenaissance by the employment of infantry armed withpikes and halberds and arranged in massed rectangles


The Face of War in the Seventeenth Century

We have a firsthand account of the face of war in Ger-

many from a picaresque novel called Simplicius Simpli-

cissimus, written by Jakob von Grimmelshausen. The

author’s experiences as a soldier in the Thirty Years’

War give his descriptions of the effect of the war on

ordinary people a certain vividness and reality. This

selection describes the fate of a peasant farm, an expe-

rience all too familiar to thousands of German peasants

between 1618 and 1648.

Jakob von Grimmelshausen, Simplicius SimplicissimusThe first thing these horsemen did in the nice back roomsof the house was to put in their horses. Then everyone tookup a special job, one having to do with death and destruc-tion. Although some began butchering, heating water, andrendering lard, as if to prepare for a banquet, others racedthrough the house, ransacking upstairs and down; not eventhe privy chamber was safe, as if the golden fleece of Jasonmight be hidden there. Still others bundled up big packs ofcloth, household goods, and clothes, as if they wanted tohold a rummage sale somewhere. What they did not intendto take along they broke and spoiled. Some ran their swordsinto the hay and straw, as if there hadn’t been hogs enoughto stick. Some shook the feathers out of beds and put baconslabs, hams, and other stuff in the ticking, as if they mightsleep better on these. Others knocked down the hearth andbroke the windows, as if announcing an everlastingsummer. They flattened out copper and pewter dishes andbaled the ruined goods. They burned up bedsteads, tables,chairs, and benches, though there were yards and yards ofdry firewood outside the kitchen. Jars and crocks, pots andcasseroles all were broken, either because they preferredtheir meat broiled or because they thought they’d eat onlyone meal with us. In the barn, the hired girl was handled soroughly that she was unable to walk away, I am ashamed toreport. They stretched the hired man out flat on the ground,stuck a wooden wedge in his mouth to keep it open, andemptied a milk bucket full of stinking manure drippingsdown his throat; they called it a Swedish cocktail. He didn’t

relish it and made a very wry face. By this means theyforced him to take a raiding party to some other placewhere they carried off men and cattle and brought themto our farm. Among those were my father, mother, andUrsula [sister].

Then they used thumbscrews, which they cleverlymade out of their pistols, to torture the peasants, as if theywanted to burn witches. Though he had confessed to noth-ing as yet, they put one of the captured hayseeds in thebake-oven and lighted a fire in it. They put a rope aroundsomeone else’s head and tightened it like a tourniquetuntil blood came out of his mouth, nose, and ears. In short,every soldier had his favorite method of making life miser-able for peasants, and every peasant had his own misery.My father was, as I thought, particularly lucky because heconfessed with a laugh what others were forced to say inpain and martyrdom. No doubt because he was the headof the household, he was shown special consideration;they put him close to a fire, tied him by his hands andlegs, and rubbed damp salt on the bottoms of his feet. Ourold nanny goat had to lick it off and this so tickled myfather that he could have burst laughing. This seemed soclever and entertaining to me—I had never seen or heardmy father laugh so long—that I joined him in laughter, tokeep him company or perhaps to cover up my ignorance.In the midst of such glee he told them the whereabouts ofhidden treasure much richer in gold, pearls, and jewelrythan might have been expected on a farm.

I can’t say much about the captured wives, hired girls,and daughters because the soldiers didn’t let me watchtheir doings. But I do remember hearing pitiful screamsfrom various dark corners and I guess that my mother andour Ursula had it no better than the rest.

What does this document reveal about the effect

of war on ordinary Europeans? Compare this descrip-

tion with the descriptions of the treatment of civilians in

other wars. Does Grimmelshausen exaggerate, or does

this description agree with the other descriptions?


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y emptied a milk bucket full of stinking manure drippingsdown his throat; they called it a Swedish cocktail. He didn’t

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down his throat; they called it a Swedish cocktail. He didn’t

of chairs, and benches, though there were yards and yards of

of chairs, and benches, though there were yards and yards ofdry firewood outside the kitchen. Jars and crocks, pots andof dry firewood outside the kitchen. Jars and crocks, pots andcasseroles all were broken, either because they preferredof casseroles all were broken, either because they preferredtheir meat broiled or because they thought they’d eat onlyof their meat broiled or because they thought they’d eat only

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e sleep better on these. Others knocked down the hearth and

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e sleep better on these. Others knocked down the hearth and

summer. They flattened out copper and pewter dishes and

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e summer. They flattened out copper and pewter dishes andbaled the ruined goods. They burned up bedsteads, tables,Cen

age

baled the ruined goods. They burned up bedsteads, tables,chairs, and benches, though there were yards and yards ofCen

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chairs, and benches, though there were yards and yards ofdry firewood outside the kitchen. Jars and crocks, pots and

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dry firewood outside the kitchen. Jars and crocks, pots and

father that he could have burst laughing. This seemed so

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e father that he could have burst laughing. This seemed soclever and entertaining to me—I had never seen or heard

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e clever and entertaining to me—I had never seen or heardmy father laugh so long—that I joined him in laughter, to

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e my father laugh so long—that I joined him in laughter, tokeep him company or perhaps to cover up my ignorance.

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e keep him company or perhaps to cover up my ignorance.In the midst of such glee he told them the whereabouts of

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e In the midst of such glee he told them the whereabouts ofhidden treasure much richer in gold, pearls, and jewelry

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e hidden treasure much richer in gold, pearls, and jewelrythan might have been expected on a farm.

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e than might have been expected on a farm.

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ingevery soldier had his favorite method of making life miser-

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ingevery soldier had his favorite method of making life miser-able for peasants, and every peasant had his own misery.

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ingable for peasants, and every peasant had his own misery.My father was, as I thought, particularly lucky because he

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ingMy father was, as I thought, particularly lucky because heconfessed with a laugh what others were forced to say in

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ingconfessed with a laugh what others were forced to say inpain and martyrdom. No doubt because he was the head

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ingpain and martyrdom. No doubt because he was the headof the household, he was shown special consideration;

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ingof the household, he was shown special consideration;they put him close to a fire, tied him by his hands and

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ingthey put him close to a fire, tied him by his hands andlegs, and rubbed damp salt on the bottoms of his feet. Our

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inglegs, and rubbed damp salt on the bottoms of his feet. Ourold nanny goat had to lick it off and this so tickled myLe

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old nanny goat had to lick it off and this so tickled myfather that he could have burst laughing. This seemed soLe

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father that he could have burst laughing. This seemed soclever and entertaining to me—I had never seen or heardLe

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clever and entertaining to me—I had never seen or heard

known as squadrons or battalions. The use of firearmsrequired adjustments to the size and shape of the massedinfantry and made the cavalry less effective.

It was Gustavus Adolphus, the king of Sweden, whodeveloped the first standing army of conscripts, notablefor the flexibility of its tactics. The infantry brigades ofGustavus’s army were composed of equal numbers ofmusketeers and pikemen, standing six men deep. Theyemployed the salvo, in which all rows of the infantryfired at once instead of row by row. These salvos of fire,which cut up the massed ranks of the opposing infantrysquadrons, were followed by a pike charge, giving theinfantry a primarily offensive deployment. Gustavus alsoused the cavalry in a more mobile fashion. Aftershooting a pistol volley, they charged the enemy withtheir swords. Additional flexibility was obtained by us-ing lighter artillery pieces that were more easily movedduring battle. All of these changes required coordina-tion, careful training, and better discipline, forcing rul-ers to move away from undisciplined mercenary forces.Naturally, the success of Gustavus Adolphus led toimitation.

Some historians have questioned the use of thephrase ‘‘military revolution’’ to describe the militarychanges from 1560 to 1660, arguing instead that militarydevelopments were gradual. In any case, for the rest of theseventeenth century, warfare continued to change.Standing armies, based partly on conscription, grew everlarger and more expensive. Standing armies necessitatedbetter-disciplined and better-trained soldiers and led tothe education of officers in military schools. Armies alsointroduced the use of linear rather than square for-mations to provide greater flexibility and mobility intactics. There was also an increased use of firearms as the

musket with attached bayonet increasingly replaced thepike in the ranks of the infantry. A naval arms race in theseventeenth century led to more and bigger warships orcapital ships known as ‘‘ships of the line.’’ By the end ofthe seventeenth century, most of these had two or threedecks and were capable of carrying between fifty and onehundred heavy cannon.

Larger armies and navies could be maintained onlyby levying heavier taxes, making war a greater economicburden and an ever more important part of the earlymodern European state. The creation of large bureau-cracies to supervise the military resources of the state ledto growth in the power of state governments.

RebellionsBefore, during, and after the Thirty Years’ War, a series ofrebellions and civil wars stemming from the discontent ofboth nobles and commoners rocked the domestic stabilityof many European governments. To strengthen theirpower, monarchs attempted to extend their authority atthe expense of traditional powerful elements who resistedthe rulers’ efforts. At the same time, to fight their battles,governments increased taxes and created such hardshipsthat common people also rose in opposition.

Between 1590 and 1640, peasant and lower-class re-volts erupted in central and southern France, Austria, andHungary. In the decades of the 1640s and 1650s, evengreater unrest occurred. Portugal and Catalonia rebelledagainst the Spanish government in 1640. The commonpeople in Naples and Sicily revolted against both thegovernment and the landed nobility in 1647. Russia, too,was rocked by urban uprisings in 1641, 1645, and 1648.Nobles rebelled in France from 1648 to 1652 in an effort


Soldiers Pillaging aFarm. This painting shows agroup of soldiers running amokon a French peasant’s farm. Thisscene was typical of many thatoccurred during the Thirty Years’War, especially in Germany,where the war caused enormousdestruction.

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of musketeers and pikemen, standing six men deep. They

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to halt the growth of royal power. The northern states ofSweden, Denmark, and the United Provinces were alsonot immune from upheavals involving clergy, nobles, andmercantile groups. The most famous and widest-rangingstruggle, however, was the civil war and rebellion inEngland, commonly known as the English Revolution(discussed later in this chapter).

The Practice of Absolutism:Western Europe

Focus Question: What was absolutism in theory, andhow did its actual practice in France reflect or differfrom the theory?

Absolute monarchy or absolutism meant that the sover-eign power or ultimate authority in the state rested in thehands of a king who claimed to rule by divine right. Butwhat did sovereignty mean? The late-sixteenth-centurypolitical theorist Jean Bodin believed that sovereignpower consisted of the authority to make laws, tax, ad-minister justice, control the state’s administrative system,and determine foreign policy. These powers made a rulersovereign.

One of the chief theorists of divine-right monarchyin the seventeenth century was the French theologian andcourt preacher Bishop Jacques Bossuet (1627--1704), whoexpressed his ideas in a book titled Politics Drawn from theVery Words of Holy Scripture. Bossuet argued first thatgovernment was divinely ordained so that humans couldlive in an organized society. God established kings andthrough them reigned over all the peoples of the world.Since kings received their power from God, their authoritywas absolute. They were responsible to no one (includingparliaments) except God. There was, however, a large gulfbetween the theory of absolutism as expressed by Bossuetand the practice of absolutism. A monarch’s absolutepower was often limited greatly by practical realities.

Absolute Monarchy in FranceFrance during the reign of Louis XIV (1643--1715) hastraditionally been regarded as the best example of thepractice of absolute monarchy in the seventeenth century.French culture, language, and manners reached into alllevels of European society. French diplomacy and warsshaped the political affairs of western and central Europe.The court of Louis XIV seemed to be imitated everywherein Europe. Of course, the stability of Louis’s reign wasmagnified by the instability that had preceded it.

Foundations of French Absolutism: Cardinal RichelieuThe fifty years of French history before Louis XIV came topower were a time in which royal and ministerial gov-ernments struggled to avoid the breakdown of the state.The line between order and anarchy was often a narrow

one. The situation was especially complicated by the factthat both Louis XIII (1610--1643) and Louis XIV wereonly boys when they succeeded to the throne in 1610 and1643, respectively, leaving the government dependent onroyal ministers. Two especially competent ministersplayed crucial roles in maintaining monarchical authority.

Cardinal Richelieu, Louis XIII’s chief minister from1624 to 1642, initiated policies that eventually strength-ened the power of the monarchy. By eliminating thepolitical and military rights of the Huguenots whilepreserving their religious ones, Richelieu transformed theHuguenots into more reliable subjects. Richelieu actedmore cautiously in ‘‘humbling the pride of the greatmen,’’ the important French nobility. He understood theinfluential role played by the nobles in the French state.The dangerous ones were those who asserted their ter-ritorial independence when they were excluded fromparticipating in the central government. Proceedingslowly but determinedly, Richelieu developed an efficientnetwork of spies to uncover noble plots and then crushedthe conspiracies and executed the conspirators, therebyeliminating a major threat to royal authority.

To reform and strengthen the central administration,initially for financial reasons, Richelieu sent out royal


Cardinal Richelieu. A key figure in the emergence of astrong monarchy in France was Cardinal Richelieu, picturedhere in a portrait by Philippe de Champagne. Chief ministerto Louis XIII, Richelieu strengthened royal authority byeliminating the private armies and fortified cities of theHuguenots and by crushing aristocratic conspiracies.

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officials called intendants to the provinces to execute theorders of the central government. As the functions of theintendants grew, they came into conflict with provincialgovernors. Since the intendants were victorious in mostof these disputes, they further strengthened the power ofthe crown. Richelieu proved less capable in financialmatters, however. Not only was the basic system of statefinances corrupt, but so many people benefited from thesystem’s inefficiency and injustice that the governmentfaced strong resistance when it tried to reform it. Thetaille (an annual direct tax usually levied on land orproperty) was increased---in 1643 it was two and a halftimes what it had been in 1610---and crown lands weremortgaged again. Richelieu’s foreign policy goal of con-fronting the growing power of the Habsburgs in theThirty Years’ War, however, led to ever-increasing ex-penditures, which soon outstripped the additional rev-enues. French debt continued its upward spiral underRichelieu.

Cardinal Mazarin Richelieu died in 1642, followed fivemonths later by King Louis XIII, who was succeeded by hisson Louis XIV, then but four years old. This necessitated aregency under Anne of Austria, wife of the dead king. Butshe allowed Cardinal Mazarin, Richelieu’s trained successor,to dominate the government. An Italian who had come toFrance as a papal legate and then become naturalized,Mazarin attempted to carry on Richelieu’s policies until hisdeath in 1661.

The most important event during Mazarin’s rulewas a revolt known as the Fronde. As a foreigner, Maz-arin was greatly disliked by all elements of the Frenchpopulation. The nobles, who particularly resented thecentralized administrative power being built up at theexpense of the provincial nobility, temporarily alliedwith the members of the Parlement of Paris, who op-posed the new taxes levied by the government to paythe costs of the Thirty Years’ War (Mazarin continuedRichelieu’s anti-Habsburg policy), and with the massesof Paris, who were also angry at the additional taxes.The Parlement of Paris was the most important court inFrance, with jurisdiction over half of the kingdom, andits members formed the nobles of the robe, the servicenobility of lawyers and administrators. These nobles ofthe robe led the first Fronde (1648--1649), which brokeout in Paris and was ended by compromise. The secondFronde, begun in 1650, was led by the nobles of thesword, whose ancestors were medieval nobles. Theywere interested in overthrowing Mazarin for their ownpurposes: to secure their positions and increase theirown power. The second Fronde was crushed by 1652, atask made easier when the nobles began fighting eachother instead of Mazarin. With the end of the Fronde,the vast majority of the French concluded that the besthope for stability in France lay in the crown. WhenMazarin died in 1661, the greatest of the seventeenth-century monarchs, Louis XIV, took over supremepower.

The Reign of Louis XIV (1643–1715)The day after Cardinal Mazarin’s death, Louis XIV, agetwenty-three, expressed his determination to be a realking and the sole ruler of France:

Up to this moment I have been pleased to entrust the gov-ernment of my affairs to the late Cardinal. It is now timethat I govern them myself. You [secretaries and ministers ofstate] will assist me with your counsels when I ask for them.I request and order you to seal no orders except by mycommand. . . . I order you not to sign anything, not even apassport . . . without my command; to render account to mepersonally each day and to favor no one.2

His mother, who was well aware of Louis’s proclivity forfun and games and getting into the beds of the maids inthe royal palace, laughed aloud at these words. But Louiswas quite serious.

Louis proved willing to pay the price of being astrong ruler (see the box on p. 453). He established aconscientious routine from which he seldom deviated,but he did not look upon his duties as drudgery since heconsidered his royal profession ‘‘grand, noble, and de-lightful.’’ Eager for glory (in the French sense of achievingwhat was expected of one in an important position),Louis created a grand and majestic spectacle at the courtof Versailles. Consequently, Louis and his court came toset the standard for monarchies and aristocracies all overEurope. Just a few decades after the king’s death, the greatFrench writer Voltaire dubbed the period from 1661 to1715 the ‘‘Age of Louis XIV,’’ and historians have tendedto call it that ever since.

Although Louis may have believed in the theory ofabsolute monarchy and consciously fostered the myth ofhimself as the Sun King, the source of light for all of hispeople, historians are quick to point out that the realitiesfell far short of the aspirations. Despite the centralizingefforts of Cardinals Richelieu and Mazarin, seventeenth-century France still possessed a bewildering system ofoverlapping authorities. Provinces had their own regionalcourts, their own local Estates, their own sets of laws.Members of the high nobility, with their huge estates andclients among the lesser nobility, still exercised muchauthority. Both towns and provinces possessed privilegesand powers seemingly from time immemorial that theywould not easily relinquish.

Administration of the Government One of the keys toLouis’s power was that he was able to restructure thecentral policy-making machinery of government becauseit was part of his own court and household. The royalcourt located at Versailles was an elaborate structure thatserved different purposes: it was the personal householdof the king, the location of central governmental ma-chinery, and the place where powerful subjects came tofind favors and offices for themselves and their clients aswell as the main arena where rival aristocratic factionsjostled for power. The greatest danger to Louis’s personalrule came from the very high nobles and princes of the



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ingfun and games and getting into the beds of the maids in

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ingfun and games and getting into the beds of the maids in

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ingthe royal palace, laughed aloud at these words. But Louis

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ingthe royal palace, laughed aloud at these words. But Louis

Louis proved willing to pay the price of being a

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ingLouis proved willing to pay the price of being astrong ruler (see the box on p. 453). He established a

Learn

ingstrong ruler (see the box on p. 453). He established aconscientious routine from which he seldom deviated,

Learn

ingconscientious routine from which he seldom deviated,but he did not look upon his duties as drudgery since he

Learn

ingbut he did not look upon his duties as drudgery since heconsidered his royal profession ‘‘grand, noble, and de-

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ingconsidered his royal profession ‘‘grand, noble, and de-lightful.’’ Eager for glory (in the French sense of achievingLe

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lightful.’’ Eager for glory (in the French sense of achievingwhat was expected of one in an important position),Le

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what was expected of one in an important position),Louis created a grand and majestic spectacle at the court

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Louis created a grand and majestic spectacle at the court

blood (the royal princes), who considered it their naturalfunction to assert the policy-making role of royal min-isters. Louis eliminated this threat by removing themfrom the royal council, the chief administrative body ofthe king and overseer of the central machinery of gov-ernment, and enticing them to his court, where he couldkeep them preoccupied with court life and out of politics.Instead of the high nobility and royal princes, Louis re-lied for his ministers on other nobles. His ministers wereexpected to be subservient; said Louis, ‘‘I had no in-tention of sharing my authority with them.’’

Louis’s domination of his ministers and secretariesgave him control of the central policy-making machineryof government and thus authority over the traditionalareas of monarchical power: the formulation of foreignpolicy, the making of war and peace, the assertion of thesecular power of the crown against any religious authority,and the ability to levy taxes to fulfill these functions. Louishad considerably less success with the internal admin-istration of the kingdom, however. The traditional groupsand institutions of French society---the nobles, officials,town councils, guilds, and representative Estates in someprovinces---were simply too powerful for the king to have

direct control over the lives of his subjects. Consequently,control of the provinces and the people was achievedlargely by bribing the individuals responsible for executingthe king’s policies. Nevertheless, local officials could stillobstruct the execution of policies they disliked, indicatingclearly that a so-called absolute monarch was not alwaysabsolute. A recent study of Louis’s relationship with theparlements, however, asserts that he was able to exerciseboth political and economic control over these provinciallaw courts.

Religious Policy The maintenance of religious harmonyhad long been considered an area of monarchical power.The desire to keep it led Louis into conflict with theFrench Huguenots. Louis XIV did not want to allowProtestants to practice their faith in largely CatholicFrance. Perhaps he was motivated by religion, but it ismore likely that Louis, who believed in the motto ‘‘Oneking, one law, one faith,’’ felt that the existence of thisminority undermined his own political authority. InOctober 1685, Louis issued the Edict of Fontainebleau. Inaddition to revoking the Edict of Nantes, the new edictprovided for the destruction of Huguenot churches and


Louis XIV: Kingly Advice

Throughout his reign, Louis XIV was always on stage,

acting the role of the wise ‘‘grand monarch.’’ In 1661,

after he became a father, Louis began his Memoirs for

the Dauphin, a frank collection of precepts for the educa-

tion of his oldest son and heir to the throne. He contin-

ued to add to the Memoirs over the next twenty years.

Louis XIV, Memoirs for the DauphinKings are often obliged to do things which go against theirinclinations and offend their natural goodness. Theyshould love to give pleasure and yet they must often pun-ish and destroy persons on whom by nature they wish toconfer benefits. The interest of the state must come first.One must constrain one’s inclinations and not put oneselfin the position of berating oneself because one could havedone better in some important affair but did not becauseof some private interest, because one was distracted fromthe attention one should have for the greatness, the goodand the power of the state. Often there are troublesomeplaces where it is difficult to make out what one shoulddo. One’s ideas are confused. As long as this lasts, one canrefrain from making a decision. But as soon as one hasfixed one’s mind upon something which seems best to do,it must be acted upon. This is what enabled me to succeedso often in what I have done. The mistakes which I made,and which gave me infinite trouble, were the result of thedesire to please or of allowing myself to accept too care-lessly the opinions of others. Nothing is more dangerousthan weakness of any kind whatsoever. In order to com-mand others, one must raise oneself above them and once

one has heard the reports from every side one must cometo a decision upon the basis of one’s own judgment, with-out anxiety but always with the concern not to commandanything which is of itself unworthy either of one’s placein the world or of the greatness of the state. Princes withgood intentions and some knowledge of their affairs, eitherfrom experience or from study and great diligence in mak-ing themselves capable, find numerous cases whichinstruct them that they must give special care and totalapplication to everything. One must be on guard againstoneself, resist one’s own tendencies, and always be onguard against one’s own natural bent. The craft of a king isgreat, noble and delightful when one feels worthy of doingwell whatever one promises to do. But it is not exempt fromtroubles, weariness and worries. Sometimes uncertaintycauses despair, and when one has spent a reasonable timein examining an affair, one must make a decision and takethe step which one believes to be best. When one has thestate in view, one works for one’s self. The good of the oneconstitutes the glory of the other. When the former is fortu-nate, eminent and powerful, he who is the cause thereofbecomes glorious and consequently should find more enjoy-ment than his subjects in all the pleasant things of life forhimself and for them. When one has made a mistake, itmust be corrected as soon as possible, and no other consid-eration must stand in the way, not even kindness.

What general principles did Louis XIV set forth for

the guidance of his son (and heir to the throne)? To

what extent did Louis follow his own advice?


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great, noble and delightful when one feels worthy of doing

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the closing of Protestant schools. It is estimated that200,000 Huguenots defied the prohibition on their leav-ing France and sought asylum in England, the UnitedProvinces, and the German states. Many of them wereskilled artisans, and their exodus weakened the Frencheconomy and strengthened the states they moved to,which later joined a coalition of Protestant states formedto oppose Louis.

Financial Issues The cost of building Versailles andother palaces, maintaining his court, and pursuing hiswars made finances a crucial issue for Louis XIV. He wasmost fortunate in having the services of Jean-BaptisteColbert (1619--1683) as controller general of finances.Colbert sought to increase the wealth and power ofFrance through general adherence to mercantilism, whichstressed government regulation of economic activities tobenefit the state. To decrease the need for imports and

increase exports, Colbert attempted to expand thequantity and improve the quality of French manufac-tured goods. He founded new luxury industries, such asthe royal tapestry works at Beauvais; invited Venetianglassmakers and Flemish clothmakers to France; drew upinstructions regulating the quality of goods produced;oversaw the training of workers; and granted specialprivileges, including tax exemptions, loans, and subsidies,to individuals who established new industries. To im-prove communications and the transportation of goodsinternally, he built roads and canals. To decrease importsdirectly, he raised tariffs on foreign manufactured goods,especially English and Dutch cloth, and created a mer-chant marine to facilitate the conveyance of Frenchgoods.

Although Colbert’s policies are given much credit forfostering the development of manufacturing, some his-torians are dubious about the usefulness of many of his


The Palace of Versailles as Depicted in an Eighteenth-Century Engraving. LouisXIV spent untold sums of money on the construction of a new royal residence at Versailles.The enormous palace (it was more than a quarter of a mile long) also housed the members ofthe king’s government and served as home for thousands of French nobles. As the largest royalresidence in Europe, Versailles impressed foreigners and became a source of envy for otherrulers.

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mercantilistic policies. Regulations were often evaded, andthe imposition of high tariffs brought foreign retaliation.French trading companies entered the scene too late to bereally competitive with the English and the Dutch. Andabove all, Colbert’s economic policies, which were gearedto making his king more powerful, were ultimately self-defeating. The more revenue Colbert collected to enablethe king to make war, the faster Louis depleted thetreasury. At the same time, the burden of taxes fell in-creasingly on the peasants, who still constituted theoverwhelming majority of the French population.

Daily Life at the Court of Versailles The court of LouisXIV at Versailles set a standard that was soon followed byother European rulers. In 1660, Louis decided to converta hunting lodge at Versailles, not far from the capital cityof Paris, into a chateau. Not until 1688, after untold sumsof money had been spent and tens of thousands ofworkers had labored incessantly, was construction com-pleted on the enormous palace.

Versailles served many purposes. It was the residenceof the king, a reception hall for state affairs, an officebuilding for the members of the king’s government, andthe home of thousands of royal officials and aristocraticcourtiers. Versailles became a symbol for the French ab-solutist state and the power of the Sun King, Louis XIV.As a visible manifestation of France’s superiority andwealth, this lavish court was intended to overawe subjectsand impress foreign powers.

Versailles also served a practical political purpose. Itbecame home to the high nobility and princes of the blood(the royal princes), those powerful figures who had aspiredto hold the policy-making role of royal ministers. Bykeeping them involved in the myriad activities that madeup daily life at the court of Versailles, Louis excluded them

from real power while allowing them to share in themystique of power as companions of the king.

Life at Versailles became a court ceremony with LouisXIV at the center of it all. The king had little privacy; onlywhen he visited his wife or mother or mistress or metwith ministers was he free of the noble courtiers whoswarmed about the palace. Most daily ceremonies werecarefully staged, such as those attending Louis’s risingfrom bed, dining, praying, attending Mass, and going tobed. A mob of nobles aspired to assist the king in car-rying out these solemn activities. It was considered agreat honor for a noble to be chosen to hand the king hisshirt while dressing. But why did nobles participate in somany ceremonies, some of which were so obviously de-meaning? Active involvement in the activities at Versailleswas the king’s prerequisite for obtaining the offices, titles,and pensions that only he could grant. This policy re-duced great nobles and ecclesiastics, the ‘‘people ofquality,’’ to a plane of equality, allowing Louis to exercisecontrol over them and prevent them from interfering inthe real lines of power. To maintain their social prestige,the ‘‘people of quality’’ were expected to adhere to rigidstandards of court etiquette appropriate to their rank.

Indeed, court etiquette became a complex matter.Nobles and royal princes were arranged in an elaborateorder of seniority and expected to follow certain rules ofprecedence. Who could sit down and on what kindof chair was a subject of much debate. When Philip ofOrleans, the king’s brother, and his wife Charlotte soughtto visit their daughter, the duchess of Lorraine, they en-countered problems with Louis. Charlotte told why inone of her letters:

The difficulty is that the Duke of Lorraine claims that he isentitled to sit in an armchair in the presence of Philip and


Interior of Versailles: The Hallof Mirrors. Pictured here is theexquisite Hall of Mirrors atVersailles. Located on the secondfloor, the hall overlooks the parkbelow. Hundreds of mirrors wereplaced on the wall opposite thewindows in order to create anillusion of even greater width.Careful planning went into everydetail of the interior decoration.Even the doorknobs were speciallydesigned to reflect the magnificenceof Versailles.

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y XIV at Versailles set a standard that was soon followed byother European rulers. In 1660, Louis decided to convert

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y other European rulers. In 1660, Louis decided to converta hunting lodge at Versailles, not far from the capital city

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y a hunting lodge at Versailles, not far from the capital cityof Paris, into a chateau. Not until 1688, after untold sums

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y of Paris, into a chateau. Not until 1688, after untold sumsof money had been spent and tens of thousands of

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of money had been spent and tens of thousands ofworkers had labored incessantly, was construction com-Prop

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workers had labored incessantly, was construction com-pleted on the enormous palace.Prop

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pleted on the enormous palace.Versailles served many purposes. It was the residenceProp

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Versailles served many purposes. It was the residence

of treasury. At the same time, the burden of taxes fell in-

of treasury. At the same time, the burden of taxes fell in-creasingly on the peasants, who still constituted the

of creasingly on the peasants, who still constituted theoverwhelming majority of the French population.of overwhelming majority of the French population.

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e above all, Colbert’s economic policies, which were geared

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e above all, Colbert’s economic policies, which were gearedto making his king more powerful, were ultimately self-

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e to making his king more powerful, were ultimately self-defeating. The more revenue Colbert collected to enable

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e defeating. The more revenue Colbert collected to enablethe king to make war, the faster Louis depleted theCen

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the king to make war, the faster Louis depleted thetreasury. At the same time, the burden of taxes fell in-Cen

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treasury. At the same time, the burden of taxes fell in-creasingly on the peasants, who still constituted theCen

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creasingly on the peasants, who still constituted the

from real power while allowing them to share in the

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e from real power while allowing them to share in themystique of power as companions of the king.

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e mystique of power as companions of the king.Life at Versailles became a court ceremony with Louis

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e Life at Versailles became a court ceremony with LouisXIV at the center of it all. The king had little privacy; only

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e XIV at the center of it all. The king had little privacy; onlywhen he visited his wife or mother or mistress or met

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e when he visited his wife or mother or mistress or metwith ministers was he free of the noble courtiers who

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e with ministers was he free of the noble courtiers whoswarmed about the palace. Most daily ceremonies were

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e swarmed about the palace. Most daily ceremonies were

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from real power while allowing them to share in theLearn

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from real power while allowing them to share in themystique of power as companions of the king.Le

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mystique of power as companions of the king.Learn

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myself because the Emperor gives him an armchair. To thisthe King [Louis] replied that the Emperor’s ceremonial isone thing and the King’s another, and that, for example, theEmperor gives the cardinals armchairs, whereas here theymay never sit at all in the King’s presence.3

Louis refused to compromise; the duke of Lorraine wasonly entitled to a stool. The duke balked, and Philip andCharlotte canceled their visit.

Who could sit where at meals with the king was alsocarefully regulated. On one occasion, when the wife of aminister sat closer to the king than a duchess at dinner,Louis XIV became so angry that he did not eat for therest of the evening. Another time, Louis reproached histalkative brother for the sin of helping himself to a dishbefore Louis had touched it with the biting words: ‘‘Iperceive that you are no better able to control your handsthan your tongue.’’4

Daily life at Versailles also included numerous forms ofentertainment. Walks through the gardens, boating trips,performances of tragedies and comedies, ballets, and con-certs all provided sources of pleasure (see the box above).Three evenings a week, from seven to ten, Louis also heldan appartement where he was ‘‘at home’’ to his court. Theappartement was characterized by a formal informality.Relaxed rules of etiquette even allowed people to sit downin the presence of their superiors. The evening’s enter-tainment began with a concert, followed by games of bil-liards or cards, and ended with a sumptuous buffet.

The Wars of Louis XIV Both the increase in royalpower that Louis pursued and his desire for military

glory led the king to wage war. Under the secretary ofwar, Francois-Michel Le Tellier, the marquis of Louvois,France developed a professional army numbering 100,000men in peacetime and 400,000 in time of war. Louismade war an almost incessant activity of his reign. Toachieve the prestige and military glory befitting the SunKing as well as to ensure the domination of his Bourbondynasty over European affairs, Louis waged four warsbetween 1667 and 1713 (see Map 15.2).

In 1667, Louis began his first war by invading theSpanish Netherlands to his north and Franche-Comte tothe east. But the Triple Alliance of the Dutch, English, andSwedes forced Louis to sue for peace in 1668 and accept afew towns in the Spanish Netherlands for his efforts. Henever forgave the Dutch for arranging the Triple Alliance,and in 1672, after isolating the Dutch, France invaded theUnited Provinces with some initial success. But the Frenchvictories led Brandenburg, Spain, and the Holy RomanEmpire to form a new coalition that forced Louis to endthe Dutch War by making peace at Nimwegen in 1678.While Dutch territory remained intact, France receivedFranche-Comte from Spain, which served merely tostimulate Louis’s appetite for even more land.

This time, Louis moved eastward against the HolyRoman Empire, which he perceived from his previouswar as feeble and unable to resist. The gradual annex-ation of the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine was fol-lowed by the occupation of the city of Strasbourg, amove that led to widespread protest and the formationof a new coalition. The creation of this League ofAugsburg, consisting of Spain, the Holy Roman


Travels with the King

The duc de Saint-Simon was one of many noble cour-

tiers who lived at Versailles and had firsthand experi-

ence of court life there. In his Memoirs, he left a

controversial and critical account of Louis XIV and his

court. In this selection, Saint-Simon describes the price

court ladies paid for the ‘‘privilege’’ of riding with the

great king.

Duc de Saint-Simon, MemoirsThe King always traveled with his carriage full of women:His mistresses, his bastard daughters, his daughters-in-law,sometimes Madame [the wife of the king’s brother], and theother ladies of the court when there was room. This was thecase for hunts, and trips to Fontainebleau, Chantilly, Com-piegne, and the like. . . . In his carriage during these tripsthere was always an abundance and variety of things to eat:meats, pastries, and fruit. Before the carriage had gone aquarter league the King would ask who was hungry. Henever ate between meals, not even a fruit, but he enjoyedwatching others stuff themselves. It was mandatory to eat,with appetite and good grace, and to be gay; otherwise; heshowed his displeasure by telling the guilty party she was

putting on airs and trying to be coy. The same ladies orprincesses who had eaten that day at the King’s table wereobliged to eat again as though they were weak from hunger.What is more, the women were forbidden to mention theirpersonal needs, which in any case they could not haverelieved without embarrassment, since there were guardsand members of the King’s household in front and in backof the carriage, and officers and equerries riding alongsidethe doors. The dust they kicked up choked everyone in thecarriage, but the King, who loved fresh air, insisted that allthe windows remain open. He would have been extremelydispleased if one of the ladies had pulled a curtain to protectherself from the sun, the wind, or the cold.

He pretended not to notice his passengers’ discomfort,and always traveled very fast, with the usual number ofrelays. Sickness in the carriage was a demerit which ruledout further invitations. . . . When the king had to relievehimself he did not hesitate to stop the carriage and getout; but the ladies were not allowed to budge.

How would you describe the king’s personality?

Do you think this account might be biased? Why?


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y only entitled to a stool. The duke balked, and Philip and

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y only entitled to a stool. The duke balked, and Philip and

Who could sit where at meals with the king was also

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y Who could sit where at meals with the king was alsocarefully regulated. On one occasion, when the wife of a

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y carefully regulated. On one occasion, when the wife of aminister sat closer to the king than a duchess at dinner,

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y minister sat closer to the king than a duchess at dinner,Louis XIV became so angry that he did not eat for the

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y Louis XIV became so angry that he did not eat for therest of the evening. Another time, Louis reproached his

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before Louis had touched it with the biting words: ‘‘Iperceive that you are no better able to control your handsProp

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perceive that you are no better able to control your hands

of Louis refused to compromise; the duke of Lorraine was

of Louis refused to compromise; the duke of Lorraine wasonly entitled to a stool. The duke balked, and Philip andof only entitled to a stool. The duke balked, and Philip and

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e one thing and the King’s another, and that, for example, theEmperor gives the cardinals armchairs, whereas here they

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Louis refused to compromise; the duke of Lorraine was

glory led the king to wage war. Under the secretary of

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men in peacetime and 400,000 in time of war. Louismade war an almost incessant activity of his reign. ToCen

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made war an almost incessant activity of his reign. ToCenag

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herself from the sun, the wind, or the cold.

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ingherself from the sun, the wind, or the cold.

He pretended not to notice his passengers’ discomfort,

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ingHe pretended not to notice his passengers’ discomfort,

and always traveled very fast, with the usual number of

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ingand always traveled very fast, with the usual number ofrelays. Sickness in the carriage was a demerit which ruled

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ingrelays. Sickness in the carriage was a demerit which ruledWhen the king had to relieve

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ingWhen the king had to relieve

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inghimself he did not hesitate to stop the carriage and get

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inghimself he did not hesitate to stop the carriage and getout; but the ladies were not allowed to budge.

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ingout; but the ladies were not allowed to budge.

How would you describe the king’s personality?Learn

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How would you describe the king’s personality?

Do you think this account might be biased? Why?Learn

ing

Do you think this account might be biased? Why?

Empire, the United Provinces, Sweden, and England,led to Louis’s third war, the War of the League ofAugsburg (1689--1697). This bitterly contested eight-year struggle brought economic depression and famineto France. The Treaty of Ryswick ending the war forcedLouis to give up most of his conquests in the empire,although he was allowed to keep Strasbourg and part ofAlsace. The gains were hardly worth the bloodshed andthe misery he had caused the French people.

Louis’s fourth war, the War of the Spanish Succession(1702--1713), was over bigger stakes, the succession to theSpanish throne. Charles II, the sickly and childlessHabsburg ruler, left the throne of Spain in his will to agrandson of Louis XIV. When the latter became KingPhilip V of Spain after Charles’s death, the suspicion thatSpain and France would eventually be united in the samedynastic family caused the formation of a new coalition,determined to prevent a Bourbon hegemony that wouldmean the certain destruction of the European balance ofpower. This coalition of England, the United Provinces,Habsburg Austria, and German states opposed Franceand Spain in a war that dragged on in Europe and thecolonial empires in North America for eleven years. In anumber of battles, including the memorable defeat of theFrench forces at Blenheim in 1704 by allied troops led by

the English commander, John Churchill, duke of Marl-borough, the coalition wore down Louis’s forces. An endto the war finally came with the Peace of Utrecht in 1713and of Rastatt in 1714. Although these peace treatiesconfirmed Philip V as the Spanish ruler, initiating aSpanish Bourbon dynasty that would last into thetwentieth century, they also affirmed that the thrones ofSpain and France were to remain separated. The SpanishNetherlands, Milan, and Naples were given to Austria,and the emerging state of Brandenburg-Prussia gainedadditional territories. The real winner at Utrecht, how-ever, was England, which received Gibraltar as well as theFrench possessions in America of Newfoundland, Hud-son’s Bay Territory, and Nova Scotia. Though France, byits sheer size and position, remained a great power,England had emerged as a formidable naval force.

Only two years after the treaty, the Sun King was dead,leaving France impoverished and surrounded by enemies.On his deathbed, the seventy-six-year-old monarchseemed remorseful when he told his successor:

Soon you will be King of a great kingdom. I urge you not toforget your duty to God; remember that you owe everythingto Him. Try to remain at peace with your neighbors. I lovedwar too much. Do not follow me in that or in overspending.Take advice in everything; try to find the best course and


MAP 15.2 The Wars of LouisXIV. The Sun King instigated severalwars in his efforts to expand the power ofFrance and the Bourbon dynasty. Eachmilitary thrust was met by a coalition ofEuropean states that kept French gainsminimal compared to the amount of bloodspilled and capital spent.

Louis XIV made his territorialacquisitions primarily at the expense ofwhat countries? View an animated

version of this map or related maps at

www.thomsonedu.com/history/spielvogel

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follow it. Lighten your people’s burden as soon as possible,and do what I have had the misfortune not to do myself.5

Did Louis mean it? Did Louis ever realize how tar-nished the glory he had sought had become? Ten yearsbefore the end of his reign one of his subjects wrote:‘‘Even the people . . . who have so much loved you, andhave placed such trust in you, begin to lose their love,their trust, and even their respect. . . . They believe youhave no pity for their sorrows, that you are devoted onlyto your power and your glory.’’6 In any event, the adviceto his successor was probably not remembered; his great-grandson was only five years old.

The Decline of SpainAt the beginning of the seventeenth century, Spain pos-sessed the most populous empire in the world, control-ling almost all of South America and a number ofsettlements in Asia and Africa. To most Europeans, Spainstill seemed the greatest power of the age, but the realitywas quite different. The treasury was empty; Philip IIwent bankrupt in 1596 from excessive expenditures onwar, and his successor, Philip III, did the same in 1607 byspending a fortune on his court. The armed forces wereout-of-date, the government was inefficient, and thecommercial class was weak in the midst of a suppressedpeasantry, a luxury-loving class of nobles, and an over-supply of priests and monks. Spain continued to play therole of a great power, but appearances were deceiving.

During the reign of Philip III (1598--1621), many ofSpain’s weaknesses became apparent. Interested only incourt luxury or miracle-working relics, Philip III allowedhis first minister, the greedy duke of Lerma, to run thecountry. The aristocratic Lerma’s primary interest wasaccumulating power and wealth for himself and hisfamily. As important offices were filled with his relatives,crucial problems went unsolved.

Reign of Philip IV The reign of Philip IV (1621--1665)seemed to offer hope for a revival of Spain’s energies, es-pecially in the capable hands of his chief minister, Gasparde Guzman, the count of Olivares. This clever, hardwork-ing, and power-hungry statesman dominated the king’severy move and worked to revive the interests of themonarchy. A flurry of domestic reform decrees, aimed atcurtailing the power of the Catholic Church and the landedaristocracy, was soon followed by a political reform pro-gram whose purpose was to further centralize the govern-ment of all Spain and its possessions in monarchical hands.All of these efforts met with little real success, however,because both the number (estimated at one-fifth of thepopulation) and the power of the Spanish aristocrats madethem too strong to curtail in any significant fashion.

At the same time, most of the efforts of Olivares andPhilip were undermined by their desire to pursue Spain’simperial glory and by a series of internal revolts. Spain’sinvolvement in the Thirty Years’ War led to a series offrightfully expensive military campaigns that incited in-ternal revolts and years of civil war. Unfortunately forSpain, the campaigns also failed to produce victory. AsOlivares wrote to King Philip IV, ‘‘God wants us to makepeace; for He is depriving us visibly and absolutely of allthe means of war.’’7 At the Battle of Rocroi in 1643, muchof the Spanish army was destroyed.


CHART 15.1 A Simplified Look at the Bourbon Dynasty

Henry IV(1589–1610)

Marie de’ Medici

Louis XIII(1610–1643)

Louis XIV(1643–1715)

Louis(d. 1711)

Louis(d. 1712)

Louis XV(1715–1774)

Philip, duke of Anjoubecame Philip V, king of Spaine

(1700–1746)

PhilipMaria Theresaof Spain

Anne of Austria

CHRONOL0GY Absolutism in Western Europe

France

Louis XIII 1610–1643

Cardinal Richelieu as chief minister 1624–1642

Ministry of Cardinal Mazarin 1642–1661

First Fronde 1648–1649

Second Fronde 1650–1652

Louis XIV 1643–1715

First war (versus Triple Alliance) 1667–1668

Dutch War 1672–1678

Edict of Fontainebleau 1685

War of the League of Augsburg 1689–1697

War of the Spanish Succession 1702–1713

Spain

Philip III 1598–1621

Philip IV 1621–1665


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of nished the glory he had sought had become? Ten years

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who have so much loved you, andof who have so much loved you, andhave placed such trust in you, begin to lose their love,

of have placed such trust in you, begin to lose their love,

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nished the glory he had sought had become? Ten years

Spain’s weaknesses became apparent. Interested only in

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crucial problems went unsolved.

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During the reign of Philip III (1598--1621), many ofSpain’s weaknesses became apparent. Interested only inLe

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The defeats in Europe and the internal revolts of the1640s ended any illusions about Spain’s greatness. Theactual extent of Spain’s economic difficulties is still de-bated, but there is no question about its foreign losses.Dutch independence was formally recognized by thePeace of Westphalia in 1648, and the Peace of the Pyr-enees with France in 1659 meant the surrender of Artoisand the outlying defenses of the Spanish Netherlands aswell as certain border regions that went to France.

Absolutism in Central, Eastern,and Northern Europe

Focus Question: What developments enabledBrandenburg-Prussia, Austria, and Russia to emergeas major powers in the seventeenth century?

During the seventeenth century, a development of greatimportance for the modern Western world took place incentral and eastern Europe, as three new powers madetheir appearance: Prussia, Austria, and Russia.

The German StatesThe Peace of Westphalia, which officially ended theThirty Years’ War in 1648, left each of the states in theHoly Roman Empire virtually autonomous and sover-eign. Properly speaking, there was no longer a Germanstate but rather more than three hundred little Germa-nies. Of these, two emerged as great European powers inthe seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.

The Rise of Brandenburg-Prussia The evolution ofBrandenburg into a powerful state was largely the work ofthe Hohenzollern dynasty, which in 1415 had come to

rule the insignificant principality in northeastern Ger-many (see Map 15.3). In 1609, the Hohenzollerns in-herited some lands in the Rhine valley in westernGermany; nine years later, they received the duchy ofPrussia (East Prussia). By the seventeenth century, then,the dominions of the house of Hohenzollern, now calledBrandenburg-Prussia, consisted of three disconnectedmasses in western, central, and eastern Germany; only theperson of the Hohenzollern ruler connected them.

The foundation for the Prussian state was laid byFrederick William the Great Elector (1640--1688), whocame to power in the midst of the Thirty Years’ War.Realizing that Brandenburg-Prussia was a small, openterritory with no natural frontiers for defense, FrederickWilliam built a competent and efficient standing army.By 1678, he possessed a force of 40,000 men that ab-sorbed more than 50 percent of the state’s revenues. Tosustain the army and his own power, Frederick Williamestablished the General War Commissariat to levy taxesfor the army and oversee its growth and training. TheCommissariat soon evolved into an agency for civilgovernment as well. Directly responsible to the elector,the new bureaucratic machine became his chief instru-ment for governing the state. Many of its officials weremembers of the Prussian landed aristocracy, the Junkers,who also served as officers in the all-important army.

The nobles’ support for Frederick William’s policiesderived from the tacit agreement that he made withthem. In order to eliminate the power that the membersof the nobility could exercise in their provincial Estates-General, Frederick William made a deal with the nobles.In return for a free hand in running the government (inother words, for depriving the provincial Estates of theirpower), he gave the nobles almost unlimited power overtheir peasants, exempted the nobles from taxation, andawarded them the highest ranks in the army and theCommissariat with the understanding that they would


MAP 15.3 The Growth ofBrandenberg-Prussia. Frederick William theGreat Elector laid the foundation for a powerfulstate when he increased the size and efficiencyof the army, raised taxes and created an efficientbureaucracy to collect them, and gained thesupport of the landed aristocracy. Later rulersadded more territory.

Why were the acquisitions of Pomerania andWest Prussia important for the continued rise inpower of Brandenburg-Prussia? View an

animated version of this map or related maps at


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ABSOLUTISM IN CENTRAL, EASTERN, AND NORTHERN EUROPE 459

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y The Rise of Brandenburg-Prussia

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y The Rise of Brandenburg-Prussia The evolution of

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y The evolution ofBrandenburg into a powerful state was largely the work of

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y Brandenburg into a powerful state was largely the work ofthe Hohenzollern dynasty, which in 1415 had come to

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y the Hohenzollern dynasty, which in 1415 had come to

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Conquest of Silesia by 1748Prop

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f nies. Of these, two emerged as great European powers in

of nies. Of these, two emerged as great European powers inthe seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.

of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.

The evolution ofof The evolution of

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e Thirty Years’ War in 1648, left each of the states in the

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e Thirty Years’ War in 1648, left each of the states in theHoly Roman Empire virtually autonomous and sover-

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e Holy Roman Empire virtually autonomous and sover-eign. Properly speaking, there was no longer a German

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e eign. Properly speaking, there was no longer a Germanstate but rather more than three hundred little Germa-Cen

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state but rather more than three hundred little Germa-nies. Of these, two emerged as great European powers inCen

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nies. Of these, two emerged as great European powers in

ment for governing the state. Many of its officials were

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e ment for governing the state. Many of its officials weremembers of the Prussian landed aristocracy, the Junkers,

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e members of the Prussian landed aristocracy, the Junkers,who also served as officers in the all-important army.

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e who also served as officers in the all-important army.The nobles’ support for Frederick William’s policies

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e The nobles’ support for Frederick William’s policiesderived from the tacit agreement that he made with

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e derived from the tacit agreement that he made withthem. In order to eliminate the power that the members

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e them. In order to eliminate the power that the membersof the nobility could exercise in their provincial Estates-

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e of the nobility could exercise in their provincial Estates-

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ingWilliam built a competent and efficient standing army.

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ingWilliam built a competent and efficient standing army.By 1678, he possessed a force of 40,000 men that ab-

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ingBy 1678, he possessed a force of 40,000 men that ab-sorbed more than 50 percent of the state’s revenues. To

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ingsorbed more than 50 percent of the state’s revenues. Tosustain the army and his own power, Frederick William

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ingsustain the army and his own power, Frederick Williamestablished the General War Commissariat to levy taxes

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ingestablished the General War Commissariat to levy taxesfor the army and oversee its growth and training. The

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ingfor the army and oversee its growth and training. TheCommissariat soon evolved into an agency for civil

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ingCommissariat soon evolved into an agency for civilgovernment as well. Directly responsible to the elector,

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inggovernment as well. Directly responsible to the elector,the new bureaucratic machine became his chief instru-Le

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the new bureaucratic machine became his chief instru-ment for governing the state. Many of its officials wereLe

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ment for governing the state. Many of its officials weremembers of the Prussian landed aristocracy, the Junkers,Le

arning

members of the Prussian landed aristocracy, the Junkers,

not challenge his political control. As for the peasants, thenobles were allowed to appropriate their land and bindthem to the soil as serfs. Serfdom was not new to Bran-denburg-Prussia, but Frederick William reinforced itthrough his concessions to the nobles.

To build Brandenburg-Prussia’s economy, FrederickWilliam followed the fashionable mercantilist policies,constructing roads and canals and using high tariffs,subsidies, and monopolies for manufacturers to stimulatedomestic industry. At the same time, however, he con-tinued to favor the interests of the nobility at the expenseof the commercial and industrial middle classes in thetowns.

Frederick William laid the groundwork for the Prus-sian state; his son Frederick III (1688--1713) made onefurther significant contribution: in return for aidingthe Holy Roman Emperor in the War of the SpanishSuccession, he was officially granted the title of king-in-Prussia. Thus was Elector Frederick III transformed intoKing Frederick I, ruler of an important new player on theEuropean stage.

The Emergence of Austria The Austrian Habsburgs hadlong played a significant role in European politics as HolyRoman Emperors, but by the end of the Thirty Years’War, the Habsburg hopes of creating an empire in

Germany had been dashed. In the seventeenth century,the house of Austria made an important transition; theGerman empire was lost, but a new empire was created ineastern and southeastern Europe.

The nucleus of the new Austrian Empire remainedthe traditional Austrian hereditary possessions: Lowerand Upper Austria, Carinthia, Carniola, Styria, and Tyrol(see Map 15.4). To these had been added the kingdom ofBohemia and parts of northwestern Hungary in the six-teenth century.

In the seventeenth century, Leopold I (1658--1705)encouraged the eastward movement of the AustrianEmpire, but he was sorely challenged by the revival ofOttoman power in the seventeenth century. Havingmoved into Transylvania, the Ottomans eventuallypushed westward and laid siege to Vienna in 1683. AEuropean army, led by the Austrians, counterattackedand decisively defeated the Ottomans in 1687. By theTreaty of Karlowitz in 1699, Austria took control ofHungary, Transylvania, Croatia, and Slovenia, thus es-tablishing an Austrian Empire in southeastern Europe. Atthe end of the War of the Spanish Succession, Austriagained possession of the Spanish Netherlands and re-ceived formal recognition of its occupation of theSpanish possessions in Italy, namely, Milan, Mantua,Sardinia, and Naples. By the beginning of the eighteenth


OTTOMAN EMPIRE

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Battle sites

MAP 15.4 The Growth of the Austrian Empire. The Habsburgs had hoped toestablish an empire of Germans, but the results of the Thirty Years’ War crushed that dream.So Austria expanded to the east and the south, primarily at the expense of the OttomanEmpire, and also gained the Spanish Netherlands and former Spanish territories in Italy.

In which areas did the Austrian Empire have access to the Mediterranean Sea, and whywould that potentially be important? View an animated version of this map or related maps at



Propert

y them to the soil as serfs. Serfdom was not new to Bran-

Propert

y them to the soil as serfs. Serfdom was not new to Bran-denburg-Prussia, but Frederick William reinforced it

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y denburg-Prussia, but Frederick William reinforced itthrough his concessions to the nobles.

Propert

y through his concessions to the nobles.To build Brandenburg-Prussia’s economy, Frederick

Propert

y To build Brandenburg-Prussia’s economy, Frederick

William followed the fashionable mercantilist policies,

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y William followed the fashionable mercantilist policies,constructing roads and canals and using high tariffs,

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y constructing roads and canals and using high tariffs,subsidies, and monopolies for manufacturers to stimulate

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subsidies, and monopolies for manufacturers to stimulatedomestic industry. At the same time, however, he con-Prop

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domestic industry. At the same time, however, he con-tinued to favor the interests of the nobility at the expenseProp

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tinued to favor the interests of the nobility at the expenseof the commercial and industrial middle classes in theProp

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of the commercial and industrial middle classes in the

of not challenge his political control. As for the peasants, the

of not challenge his political control. As for the peasants, thenobles were allowed to appropriate their land and bindof nobles were allowed to appropriate their land and bindthem to the soil as serfs. Serfdom was not new to Bran-of them to the soil as serfs. Serfdom was not new to Bran-

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not challenge his political control. As for the peasants, theCenag

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not challenge his political control. As for the peasants, the

The Habsburgs had hoped to

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e The Habsburgs had hoped to

establish an empire of Germans, but the results of the Thirty Years’ War crushed that dream.

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e establish an empire of Germans, but the results of the Thirty Years’ War crushed that dream.So Austria expanded to the east and the south, primarily at the expense of the Ottoman

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e So Austria expanded to the east and the south, primarily at the expense of the OttomanEmpire, and also gained the Spanish Netherlands and former Spanish territories in Italy.

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e Empire, and also gained the Spanish Netherlands and former Spanish territories in Italy.In which areas did the Austrian Empire have access to the Mediterranean Sea, and why

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e In which areas did the Austrian Empire have access to the Mediterranean Sea, and why

View an animated version of this map or related maps at

Cenag

e View an animated version of this map or related maps at

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The Habsburgs had hoped toestablish an empire of Germans, but the results of the Thirty Years’ War crushed that dream.Le

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establish an empire of Germans, but the results of the Thirty Years’ War crushed that dream.

century, the house of Austria had acquired an empire ofconsiderable size.

The Austrian monarchy, however, never became ahighly centralized, absolutist state, primarily because itincluded so many different national groups. The AustrianEmpire remained a collection of territories held togetherby a personal union. The Habsburg emperor was arch-duke of Austria, king of Bohemia, and king of Hungary.Each of these areas had its own laws, Estates-General, andpolitical life. The landed aristocrats throughout the em-pire were connected by a common bond of service to thehouse of Habsburg, as military officers or governmentbureaucrats, but no other common sentiment tied theregions together. Nevertheless, by the beginning of theeighteenth century, Austria was a populous empire incentral Europe of great potential military strength.

Italy: From Spanish to Austrian RuleBy 1530, Emperor Charles V had managed to defeat theFrench armies in Italy and become the arbiter of Italy (seeChapter 13). Initially, he was content to establish closeties with many native Italian rulers and allowed them torule, provided that they recognized his dominant role.But in 1540, he gave the duchy of Milan to his son PhilipII and transferred all imperial rights over Italy to theSpanish monarchy.

From the beginning of Philip II’s reign in 1556 until1713, the Spanish presence was felt everywhere in Italy.Only Florence, the Papal States, and Venice managed tomaintain relatively independent policies. At the same time,the influence of the papacy became oppressive in Italy asthe machinery of the Catholic Counter-Reformation---theInquisition, the Index, and the Jesuits---was used to stifle allresistance to the Catholic orthodoxy created by the Councilof Trent (see Chapter 13).

At the beginning of the eighteenth century, Italysuffered further from the struggles between France andSpain. But it was Austria, not France, that benefited themost from the War of the Spanish Succession. By gainingMilan, Mantua, Sardinia, and Naples, Austria supplantedSpain as the dominant power in Italy.

Russia: From Fledgling Principalityto Major PowerA new Russian state had emerged in the fifteenth centuryunder the leadership of the principality of Moscow andits grand dukes (see Chapter 12). In the sixteenth century,Ivan IV the Terrible (1533--1584), who was the first rulerto take the title of tsar (‘‘Caesar’’), expanded the terri-tories of Russia eastward after finding westward ex-pansion blocked by the powerful Swedish and Polishstates. Ivan also extended the autocracy of the tsar bycrushing the power of the Russian nobility, known as theboyars. Ivan’s dynasty came to an end in 1598 and wasfollowed by a resurgence of aristocratic power in a period

of anarchy known as the Time of Troubles. It did not enduntil the Zemsky Sobor, or national assembly, choseMichael Romanov (1613--1645) as the new tsar, begin-ning a dynasty that lasted until 1917.

In the seventeenth century, Muscovite society washighly stratified. At the top was the tsar, who claimed tobe a divinely ordained autocratic ruler. Russian societywas dominated by an upper class of landed aristocratswho, in the course of the seventeenth century, managedto bind their peasants to the land. An abundance of landand a shortage of peasants made serfdom desirable to thelandowners. Townspeople were also controlled. Manymerchants were not allowed to move from their citieswithout government permission or to sell their businessesto anyone outside their class. In the seventeenth century,merchant and peasant revolts as well as a schism in theRussian Orthodox Church created very unsettled con-ditions. In the midst of these political and religious up-heavals, seventeenth-century Moscow was experiencingmore frequent contacts with the West, and Western ideaswere beginning to penetrate a few Russian circles. At theend of the seventeenth century, Peter the Great noticeablyaccelerated this westernizing process.

The Reign of Peter the Great (1689–1725) Peter theGreat was an unusual character. A strong man, towering6 feet 9 inches tall, Peter was coarse in his tastes and rude


Peter the Great. Peter the Great wished to westernizeRussia, especially in the realm of technical skills. His foremostgoal was the creation of a strong army and navy in order tomake Russia a great power. Jean Marc Nattier, a French artist,painted this portrait of the armored tsar in 1717.

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y resistance to the Catholic orthodoxy created by the Council

At the beginning of the eighteenth century, Italy

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y At the beginning of the eighteenth century, Italy

suffered further from the struggles between France and

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y suffered further from the struggles between France andSpain. But it was Austria, not France, that benefited the

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Spain as the dominant power in Italy.

of the influence of the papacy became oppressive in Italy as

of the influence of the papacy became oppressive in Italy asthe machinery of the Catholic Counter-Reformation---theof the machinery of the Catholic Counter-Reformation---theInquisition, the Index, and the Jesuits---was used to stifle allof Inquisition, the Index, and the Jesuits---was used to stifle allresistance to the Catholic orthodoxy created by the Councilof resistance to the Catholic orthodoxy created by the Council

Cenag

e The Reign of Peter the Great (1689–1725)

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e The Reign of Peter the Great (1689–1725)

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e From the beginning of Philip II’s reign in 1556 until

1713, the Spanish presence was felt everywhere in Italy.

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Great was an unusual character. A strong man, towering

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to anyone outside their class. In the seventeenth century,

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ingto anyone outside their class. In the seventeenth century,merchant and peasant revolts as well as a schism in the

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ingmerchant and peasant revolts as well as a schism in the

Learn

ingRussian Orthodox Church created very unsettled con-

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ingRussian Orthodox Church created very unsettled con-ditions. In the midst of these political and religious up-

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ingditions. In the midst of these political and religious up-heavals, seventeenth-century Moscow was experiencing

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ingheavals, seventeenth-century Moscow was experiencingmore frequent contacts with the West, and Western ideas

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ingmore frequent contacts with the West, and Western ideaswere beginning to penetrate a few Russian circles. At the

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ingwere beginning to penetrate a few Russian circles. At theend of the seventeenth century, Peter the Great noticeably

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ingend of the seventeenth century, Peter the Great noticeablyaccelerated this westernizing process.Le

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accelerated this westernizing process.

The Reign of Peter the Great (1689–1725)Learn

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The Reign of Peter the Great (1689–1725)

in his behavior. He enjoyed a low kind of humor---belching contests, crude jokes, comical funerals---and vi-cious punishments including floggings, impalings,roastings, and beard burnings (see the box above). Petergained a firsthand view of the West when he made a tripthere in 1697--1698 and returned to Russia with a firmdetermination to westernize or Europeanize his realm.Perhaps too much has been made of Peter’s desire towesternize his ‘‘backward country.’’ Peter’s policy of Eu-ropeanization was largely technical. He admired Euro-pean technology and gadgets and desired to transplantthese to Russia. Only this kind of modernization couldgive him the army and navy he needed to make Russia agreat power.

As could be expected, one of his first priorities wasthe reorganization of the army and the creation of a navy.Employing both Russians and Europeans as officers, heconscripted peasants for twenty-five-year stints of serviceto build a standing army of 210,000 men. Peter has alsobeen given credit for forming the first Russian navy.

Peter also reorganized the central government, partlyalong Western lines. In 1711, he created the Senate tosupervise the administrative machinery of the state whilehe was away on military campaigns. In time, the Senate

became something like a ruling council, but its in-effectiveness caused Peter to borrow the Western in-stitution of ‘‘colleges,’’ or boards of administratorsentrusted with specific functions, such as foreign affairs,war, and justice. To impose the rule of the central gov-ernment more effectively throughout the land, Peterdivided Russia into eight provinces and later, in 1719,into fifty. Although he hoped to create a ‘‘police state,’’ bywhich he meant a well-ordered community governed inaccordance with law, few of his bureaucrats shared hisconcept of honest service and duty to the state. Peterhoped for a sense of civic duty, but his own forcefulpersonality created an atmosphere of fear that preventedit. He wrote to one administrator, ‘‘According to theseorders act, act, act. I won’t write more, but you will paywith your head if you interpret orders again.’’8

To further his administrative aims, Peter demandedthat all members of the landholding class serve in eithermilitary or civil offices. Moreover, in 1722, Peter in-stituted the Table of Ranks to create opportunities fornonnobles to serve the state and join the nobility. All civiloffices were ranked according to fourteen levels; a parallellist of fourteen grades was also created for all militaryoffices. Every official was then required to begin at level


Peter the Great Deals with a Rebellion

During his first visit to the West in 1697–1698, Peter

received word that the Streltsy, an elite military unit

stationed in Moscow, had revolted against his author-

ity. Peter hurried home and crushed the revolt in a

very savage fashion. This selection is taken from an

Austrian account of how Peter dealt with the rebels.

Peter and the StreltsyHow sharp was the pain, how great the indignation, towhich the tsar’s Majesty was mightily moved, when heknew of the rebellion of the Streltsy, betraying openly amind panting for vengeance! He was still tarrying at Vienna,quite full of the desire of setting out for Italy; but, fervid aswas his curiosity of rambling abroad, it was, nevertheless,speedily extinguished on the announcement of the troublesthat had broken out in the bowels of his realm. Goingimmediately to Lefort . . . , he thus indignantly broke out:‘‘Tell me, Francis, how I can reach Moscow by the shortestway, in a brief space, so that I may wreak vengeance on thisgreat perfidy of my people, with punishments worthy oftheir abominable crime. Not one of them shall escape withimpunity. Around my royal city, which, with their impiousefforts, they planned to destroy, I will have gibbets and gal-lows set upon the walls and ramparts, and each and everyone of them will I put to a direful death.’’ Nor did he longdelay the plan for his justly excited wrath; he took thequick post, as his ambassador suggested, and in four weeks’time he had got over about 300 miles without accident, and

arrived the 4th of September, 1698—a monarch for the welldeposed, but an avenger for the wicked.

His first anxiety after his arrival was about the rebel-lion—in what it consisted, what the insurgents meant, whodared to instigate such a crime. And as nobody couldanswer accurately upon all points, and some pleaded theirown ignorance, others the obstinacy of the Streltsy, hebegan to have suspicions of everybody’s loyalty. . . . No day,holy or profane, were the inquisitors idle; every day wasdeemed fit and lawful for torturing. There was as manyscourges as there were accused, and every inquisitor was abutcher . . . . The whole month of October was spent in lac-erating the backs of culprits with the knout and withflames; no day were those that were left alive exempt fromscourging or scorching; or else they were broken upon thewheel, or driven to the gibbet, or slain with the ax. . . .

To prove to all people how holy and inviolable arethose walls of the city which the Streltsy rashly meditatedscaling in a sudden assault, beams were run out from allthe embrasures in the walls near the gates, in each ofwhich two rebels were hanged. This day beheld about twohundred and fifty die that death. There are few cities forti-fied with as many palisades as Moscow has given gibbetsto her guardian Streltsy.

How did Peter deal with the revolt of the Streltsy?

What does his approach to this problem tell us about the

tsar?


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y in his behavior. He enjoyed a low kind of humor---

Propert

y in his behavior. He enjoyed a low kind of humor---belching contests, crude jokes, comical funerals---and vi-

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y belching contests, crude jokes, comical funerals---and vi-cious punishments including floggings, impalings,

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y cious punishments including floggings, impalings,roastings, and beard burnings (see the box above). Peter

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y gained a firsthand view of the West when he made a tripthere in 1697--1698 and returned to Russia with a firm

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y there in 1697--1698 and returned to Russia with a firmdetermination to westernize or Europeanize his realm.

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erty

Perhaps too much has been made of Peter’s desire towesternize his ‘‘backward country.’’ Peter’s policy of Eu-Prop

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westernize his ‘‘backward country.’’ Peter’s policy of Eu-ropeanization was largely technical. He admired Euro-Prop

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ropeanization was largely technical. He admired Euro-

of in his behavior. He enjoyed a low kind of humor---of in his behavior. He enjoyed a low kind of humor---

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hundred and fifty die that death. There are few cities forti-

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e fied with as many palisades as Moscow has given gibbetsto her guardian Streltsy.

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e to her guardian Streltsy.

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e

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e How did Peter deal with the revolt of the Streltsy?

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e How did Peter deal with the revolt of the Streltsy?

What does his approach to this problem tell us about the

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ingerating the backs of culprits with the knout and with

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ingerating the backs of culprits with the knout and withflames; no day were those that were left alive exempt from

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ingflames; no day were those that were left alive exempt fromscourging or scorching; or else they were broken upon the

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ingscourging or scorching; or else they were broken upon thewheel, or driven to the gibbet, or slain with the ax.

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ingwheel, or driven to the gibbet, or slain with the ax.To prove to all people how holy and inviolable are

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ingTo prove to all people how holy and inviolable arethose walls of the city which the Streltsy rashly meditated

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ingthose walls of the city which the Streltsy rashly meditatedscaling in a sudden assault, beams were run out from all

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ingscaling in a sudden assault, beams were run out from allthe embrasures in the walls near the gates, in each of

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ingthe embrasures in the walls near the gates, in each ofwhich two rebels were hanged. This day beheld about twoLe

arning

which two rebels were hanged. This day beheld about twohundred and fifty die that death. There are few cities forti-Le

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hundred and fifty die that death. There are few cities forti-fied with as many palisades as Moscow has given gibbetsLe

arning

fied with as many palisades as Moscow has given gibbets

one and work his way up the ranks. When a nonnoblereached the eighth rank, he acquired noble status. Thisattempt by Peter to create a new nobility based on meritwas not carried on by his successors.

To obtain the enormous amount of money neededfor an army and navy that absorbed as much as four-fifthsof the state revenue, Peter adopted Western mercantilisticpolicies to stimulate economic growth. He tried to in-crease exports and develop new industries while exploit-ing domestic resources like the iron mines in the Urals.But his military needs were endless, and he came to relyon the old expedient of simply raising taxes, imposingadditional burdens on the hapless peasants, who werebecoming ever more oppressed in Peter’s Russia.

Peter also sought to gain state control of the RussianOrthodox Church. In 1721, he abolished the position ofpatriarch and created a body called the Holy Synod to makedecisions for the church. At its head stood a procurator,a layman who represented the interests of the tsar and as-sured Peter of effective domination of the church.

Shortly after his return from the West in 1698, Peterhad begun to introduce Western customs, practices, andmanners into Russia. He ordered the preparation of thefirst Russian book of etiquette to teach Western manners.Among other things, it pointed out that it was not politeto spit on the floor or to scratch oneself at dinner. Be-cause Europeans at that time did not wear beards ortraditional longskirted coats, Russian beards had to beshaved and coats shortened, a reform Peter personallyenforced at court by shaving off his nobles’ beards andcutting their coats at the knees with his own hands.Outside the court, barbers and tailors planted at towngates enforced the edicts by cutting the beards and cloaksof those who entered or left. Anyone who failed to con-form was to be ‘‘beaten without mercy.’’

One group of Russians benefited greatly from Peter’scultural reforms---women. Having watched women mixingfreely with men in Western courts, Peter shattered the se-clusion of upper-class Russian women and demanded thatthey remove the traditional veils that covered their faces.Peter also decreed that social gatherings be held three timesa week in the large houses of Saint Petersburg where menand women could mix for conversation, card games, anddancing, which Peter had learned in the West. The tsar alsonow insisted that women could marry of their own free will.

Russia as a Military Power The object of Peter’s do-mestic reforms was to make Russia into a great state anda military power. His primary goal was to ‘‘open a win-dow to the West,’’ meaning a port easily accessible toEurope. This could only be achieved on the Baltic, but atthat time the Baltic coast was controlled by Sweden, themost important power in northern Europe. Desirous ofthese lands, Peter, with the support of Poland and Den-mark, attacked Sweden in the summer of 1700 believingthat the young king of Sweden, Charles XII, could easilybe defeated. Charles, however, proved to be a brilliantgeneral. He smashed the Danes, flattened the Poles, and

with a well-disciplined force of only 8,000 men, routedthe Russian army of 40,000 at the Battle of Narva (1700).The Great Northern War (1701--1721) soon ensued.

But Peter fought back. He reorganized his army alongWestern lines and at the Battle of Poltava in 1709 defeatedCharles’s army decisively. Although the war dragged on foranother twelve years, the Peace of Nystadt in 1721 gaveformal recognition to what Peter had already achieved: theacquisition of Estonia, Livonia, and Karelia (see Map 15.5).Sweden had become a second-rate power, and Russia wasnow the great European state Peter had wanted. And hewas building it a fine capital. Early in the war, in thenorthern marshlands along the Baltic, Peter had begun toconstruct a new city, Saint Petersburg, his window on theWest and a symbol that Russia was looking westward toEurope. Though its construction cost the lives of thousandsof peasants, the city was completed during Peter’s lifetime.It remained the Russian capital until 1917.

Peter modernized and westernized Russia to the ex-tent that it became a great military power and, by hisdeath in 1725, an important member of the Europeanstate system. But his policies were also detrimental toRussia. Westernization was a bit of a sham, becauseWestern culture reached only the upper classes, and thereal object of the reforms, the creation of a strong mili-tary, only added more burdens to the masses of theRussian people. The forceful way in which Peter the Greatimposed westernization led his people not to embraceEurope and Western civilization but to distrust it.

The Great Northern StatesAs the economic thoroughfare for the products of easternEurope and the West, the Baltic Sea bestowed special im-portance on the lands surrounding it. In the sixteenthcentury, Sweden had broken its ties with Denmark andemerged as an independent state (see Chapter 13). Despitetheir common Lutheran religion, Denmark’s and Sweden’sterritorial ambitions in northern Europe kept them in al-most constant rivalry in the seventeenth century.

Denmark Under Christian IV (1588--1648), Denmarkseemed a likely candidate for expansion, but it met withlittle success. The system of electing monarchs forced thekings to share their power with the Danish nobility, whoexercised strict control over the peasants who workedtheir lands. Danish ambitions for ruling the Baltic wereseverely curtailed by the losses they sustained in theThirty Years’ War and later in the so-called Northern War(1655--1660) with Sweden.

Danish military losses led to a constitutional crisisin which a meeting of Denmark’s Estates brought topass a bloodless revolution in 1660. The power of thenobility was curtailed, a hereditary monarchy was re-established, and a new absolutist constitution wasproclaimed in 1665. Under Christian V (1670--1699), acentralized administration was instituted with the nobilityas the chief officeholders.



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y form was to be ‘‘beaten without mercy.’’

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y form was to be ‘‘beaten without mercy.’’One group of Russians benefited greatly from Peter’s

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ingWest and a symbol that Russia was looking westward to

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ingWest and a symbol that Russia was looking westward toEurope. Though its construction cost the lives of thousands

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ingEurope. Though its construction cost the lives of thousandsof peasants, the city was completed during Peter’s lifetime.

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ingof peasants, the city was completed during Peter’s lifetime.It remained the Russian capital until 1917.

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ingIt remained the Russian capital until 1917.Peter modernized and westernized Russia to the ex-

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ingPeter modernized and westernized Russia to the ex-tent that it became a great military power and, by his

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ingtent that it became a great military power and, by hisdeath in 1725, an important member of the European

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ingdeath in 1725, an important member of the Europeanstate system. But his policies were also detrimental to

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ingstate system. But his policies were also detrimental toRussia. Westernization was a bit of a sham, becauseLe

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real object of the reforms, the creation of a strong mili-

Sweden Compared to Denmark, Sweden seemed a rel-atively poor country, and historians have had difficultyexplaining why it played such a large role in Europeanaffairs in the seventeenth century. Sweden’s economy wasweak, and the monarchy was still locked in conflict withthe powerful Swedish nobility. During the reign of Gus-tavus Adolphus (1611--1632), his wise and dedicated chiefminister, Axel Oxenstierna, persuaded the king to adopt anew policy in which the nobility formed a ‘‘First Estate’’occupying the bureaucratic positions of an expandedcentral government. This created a stable monarchy andfreed the king to raise a formidable army and participatein the Thirty Years’ War, only to be killed in battle in 1632.

Sweden entered a period of severe political crisis afterthe death of Gustavus Adolphus. His daughter Christina(1633--1654) proved to be far more interested in philosophyand religion than ruling. Her tendency to favor the interestsof the nobility caused the other estates of the Riksdag,Sweden’s parliament---the burghers, clergy, and peasants---toprotest. In 1654, tired of ruling and wishing to become aCatholic, which was forbidden in Sweden, Christina abdi-cated in favor of her cousin, who became King Charles X(1654--1660). His accession to the throne defused a po-tentially explosive peasant revolt against the nobility.

Charles X reestablished domestic order, but it washis successor, Charles XI (1660--1697), who did the

painstaking work of building the Swedish monarchyalong the lines of an absolute monarchy. By resumingcontrol of the crown lands and the revenues attached tothem from the nobility, Charles managed to weaken theindependent power of the nobility. He built up a bu-reaucracy, subdued both the Riksdag and the church,improved the army and navy, and left to his son,Charles XII (1697--1718), a well-organized Swedishstate that dominated northern Europe. In 1693, he andhis heirs were acclaimed as ‘‘absolute, sovereign kings,responsible for their actions to no man on earth.’’

Charles XII was primarily interested in military affairs.Energetic and regarded as a brilliant general, his grandioseplans and strategies, which involved Sweden in conflictswith Poland, Denmark, and Russia, proved to be Sweden’sundoing. By the time he died in 1718, Charles XII had lostmuch of Sweden’s northern empire to Russia, and Sweden’sstatus as a first-class northern power had ended.

The Ottoman EmpireAfter their conquest of Constantinople in 1453, the Otto-man Turks tried to complete their conquest of the Balkans,where they had been established since the fourteenth cen-tury (see Map 15.6). Although they were successful intaking the Romanian territory of Wallachia in 1476, the


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MAP 15.5 Russia: From Principality to Nation-State. Russia had swelled in sizesince its emergence in the fifteenth century. Peter the Great, however, modernized the country,instituting bureaucratic and taxation reforms and building up the military. He won territory onthe Baltic from Sweden, giving Russia a port at Saint Petersburg.

Why would the westward expansion of Russia during Peter’s reign affect the internationalbalance of power in Europe? View an animated version of this map or related maps at



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resistance of the Hungarians kept them from advancing upthe Danube valley. From 1480 to 1520, internal problemsand the need to consolidate their eastern frontiers kept theTurks from any further attacks on Europe.

The reign of Sultan Suleiman I the Magnificent(1520--1566), however, brought the Turks back to Eu-rope’s attention. Advancing up the Danube, the Turksseized Belgrade in 1521 and Hungary by 1526, althoughtheir attempts to conquer Vienna in 1529 were repulsed.At the same time, the Turks extended their power into thewestern Mediterranean, threatening to turn it into aTurkish lake until a large Turkish fleet was destroyed bythe Spanish at Lepanto (in modern-day Greece) in 1571.Despite the defeat, the Turks continued to hold nominalcontrol over the southern shores along the Mediterranean.

Although Europeans frequently spoke of new Chris-tian Crusades against the ‘‘infidel’’ Turks, by the beginningof the seventeenth century the Ottoman Empire was being

treated like just another European power by Europeanrulers seeking alliances and trade concessions. The Otto-man Empire possessed a highly effective governmentalsystem, especially when it was led by strong sultans orpowerful grand viziers (prime ministers). The splendidcapital, Constantinople, possessed a population far largerthan that of any European city. Nevertheless, Ottomanpolitics periodically degenerated into bloody intrigues asfactions fought each other for influence and the throne. Inone particularly gruesome practice, a ruling sultan wouldmurder his brothers to avoid challenges to his rule. De-spite the periodic bouts of civil chaos, a well-trained bu-reaucracy of civil servants continued to administer stateaffairs efficiently.


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Russian gains from Sweden by Treaty ofNystadt, 1721

Swedish campaigns

Russian campaigns under Peter the Great

Trade routes

Frontiers, 1658

Sweden in the Seventeenth Century

CHRONOL0GY Absolutism in Central, Eastern,and Northern Europe

Brandenburg-Prussia

Hohenzollerns established in Brandenburg 1415

Hohenzollerns acquire lands along the Rhine 1609

Hohenzollerns acquire East Prussia 1618

Frederick William the Great Elector 1640–1688

Elector Frederick III (King Frederick I) 1688–1713

Austrian Empire

Leopold I 1658–1705

Turkish siege of Vienna 1683

Treaty of Karlowitz 1699

Russia

Ivan IV the Terrible 1533–1584

Time of Troubles 1598–1613

Michael Romanov 1613–1645

Peter the Great 1689–1725

First trip to the West 1697–1698

Great Northern War 1701–1721

Construction of Saint Petersburg begins 1703

Battle of Poltava 1709

Denmark

Christian IV 1588–1648

‘‘Bloodless Revolution’’ 1660

Christian V 1670–1699

Sweden

Gustavus Adolphus 1611–1632

Christina 1633–1654

Charles X 1654–1660

Charles XI 1660–1697

Charles XII 1697–1718

Ottoman Empire

Suleiman I the Magnificent 1520–1566

Battle of Lepanto 1571

Turkish defeat at Vienna 1683


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A well-organized military system also added to thestrength of the Ottoman Empire. Especially outstandingwere the Janissaries, composed of Christian boys whohad been taken from their parents, converted to theMuslim faith, and subjected to rigid military discipline toform an elite core of 8,000 troops personally loyal to thesultan.

In the first half of the seventeenth century, the Ot-toman Empire was a ‘‘sleeping giant.’’ Occupied by do-mestic bloodletting and severely threatened by a challengefrom Persia, the Ottomans were content with the statusquo in eastern Europe. But under a new line of grandviziers in the second half of the seventeenth century, the

Ottoman Empire again took the offensive. By 1683, theOttomans had marched through the Hungarian plain andlaid siege to Vienna. Repulsed by a mixed army of Aus-trians, Poles, Bavarians, and Saxons, the Turks retreatedand were pushed out of Hungary by a new Europeancoalition. Although they retained the core of their em-pire, the Ottoman Turks would never again be a threat toEurope.

The Limits of AbsolutismIn recent decades, historical studies of local institutionshave challenged the traditional picture of absolute


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MAP 15.6 The Ottoman Empire. In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, theOttoman Empire possessed an effective bureaucracy and military. During this period, itconquered much of the Balkans and made inroads into eastern Europe; by 1699, however, ithad lost the farthest reaches of its European territory and would never again pose a seriousthreat to Europe

In what region did the Ottomans make the greatest territorial gains in the sixteenthcentury? View an animated version of this map or related maps at



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monarchs. We now recognize that their power was farfrom absolute, and it is misleading to think that theyactually controlled the lives of their subjects. In 1700,government for most people still meant the local in-stitutions that affected their lives: local courts, local taxcollectors, and local organizers of armed forces. Kingsand ministers might determine policies and issueguidelines, but they still had to function through localagents and had no guarantee that their wishes would becarried out. A mass of urban and provincial privileges,liberties, and exemptions (including from taxation) anda whole host of corporate bodies and interest groups---provincial and national Estates, clerical officials, of-ficeholders who had bought or inherited their posi-tions, and provincial nobles---limited what monarchscould achieve. The most successful rulers were notthose who tried to destroy the old system but ratherthose like Louis XIV, who knew how to use the oldsystem to their advantage. Above all other consid-erations stood the landholding nobility. Everywhere inthe seventeenth century, the landed aristocracy playedan important role in the European monarchical system.As military officers, judges, officeholders, and land-owners in control of vast, untaxed estates, their powerremained immense. In some places, their strength putsevere limits on how effectively even absolute monarchscould rule.

Limited Monarchyand Republics

Focus Question: What were the main issues in thestruggle between king and Parliament in seventeenth-century England, and how were they resolved?

Almost everywhere in Europe in the seventeenth century,kings and their ministers were in control of central gov-ernments that sought to impose order by strengtheningtheir powers. But not all European states followed thepattern of absolute monarchy. In eastern Europe, thePolish aristocracy controlled a virtually powerless king. Inwestern Europe, two great states---the Dutch Republic andEngland---successfully resisted the power of hereditarymonarchs.

The Weakness of the Polish MonarchyMuch of Polish history revolved around the bitterstruggle between the crown and the landed nobility.The dynastic union of Jagiello, grand prince of Lith-uania, with the Polish queen Jadwiga resulted in a largeLithuanian-Polish state in 1386, although it was notuntil 1569 that a formal merger occurred between thetwo crowns. The union of Poland and Lithuania underthe Jagiello dynasty had created the largest kingdom in

Christendom at the beginning of the fifteenth century.As a result, Poland-Lithuania played a major role ineastern Europe in the fifteenth century and also ruledmuch of the Ukraine by the end of the sixteenth cen-tury. Poland-Lithuania had a rather unique gov-ernmental system in that assemblies of nobles electedthe king and carefully limited royal power. The powerof the nobles also enabled them to keep the Polishpeasantry in a state of serfdom.

In 1572, when the Jagiello dynasty came to an end,a new practice arose of choosing outsiders as kings,with the idea thatthey would bringin new alliances.When the thronewas awarded to theSwede SigismundIII (1587--1631), thenew king dreamedof creating a vastPolish empire thatwould include Rus-sia and possiblyFinland and Swe-den. Poland not onlyfailed to achieve thisgoal but by the endof the seventeenth century had become a weak, decentralizedstate.

It was the elective nature of the Polish monarchy thatreduced it to impotence. The Sejm, or Polish diet, was atwo-chamber assembly in which landowners completelydominated the few townspeople and lawyers who werealso members. To be elected to the kingship, prospectivemonarchs had to agree to share power with the Sejm (ineffect with the nobles) in matters of taxation, foreign andmilitary policy, and the appointment of state officials andjudges. The power of the Sejm had disastrous results forcentral monarchical authority, for the real aim of most ofits members was to ensure that central authority wouldnot affect their local interests. The acceptance of the lib-erum veto in 1652, whereby the meetings of the Sejmcould be stopped by a single dissenting member, reducedgovernment to virtual chaos.

Poland, then, was basically a confederation of semi-independent estates of landed nobles. By the late sev-enteenth century, it had also become a battleground forforeign powers, who found the nation easy to invade butdifficult to rule.

The Golden Age of the Dutch RepublicThe seventeenth century has often been called theGolden Age of the Dutch Republic as the UnitedProvinces held center stage as one of Europe’s greatpowers. Like France and England, the United Provinceswas an Atlantic power, underlining the importance of


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the shift of political and economic power from theMediterranean basin to the countries on the Atlanticseaboard. As a result of the sixteenth-century revolt ofthe Netherlands, the seven northern provinces, whichbegan to call themselves the United Provinces of theNetherlands in 1581, became the core of the modernDutch state. The new state was officially recognized bythe Peace of Westphalia in 1648.

With independence came internal dissension. Therewere two chief centers of political power in the new state.Each province had an official known as a stadholder whowas responsible for leading the army and maintainingorder. Beginning with William of Orange and his heirs,the house of Orange occupied the stadholderate in mostof the seven provinces and favored the development of acentralized government with themselves as hereditarymonarchs. The States General, an assembly of repre-sentatives from every province, opposed the Orangistambitions and advocated a decentralized or republicanform of government. For much of the seventeenth cen-tury, the republican forces were in control. But in 1672,burdened with war against both France and England, theUnited Provinces turned to William III (1672--1702) ofthe house of Orange to establish a monarchical regime.But his death in 1702 without a direct heir enabled therepublican forces to gain control once more, although thestruggle lasted throughout the eighteenth century.

Underlying Dutch prominence in the seventeenthcentury was economic prosperity, fueled by the role ofthe Dutch as carriers of European trade. But warfareproved disastrous to the Dutch Republic. Wars with Franceand England placed heavy burdens on Dutch financesand manpower. English shipping began to challenge whathad been Dutch commercial supremacy, and by 1715, theDutch were experiencing a serious economic decline.

Life in Seventeenth-Century Amsterdam By the be-ginning of the seventeenth century, Amsterdam hadreplaced Antwerp as the financial and commercial capitalof Europe. In 1570, Amsterdam had 30,000 inhabitants;by 1610, that number had doubled as refugees poured in,especially from the Spanish Netherlands. In 1613, thisrapid growth caused the city government to approve an‘‘urban expansion plan’’ that increased the city’s territoryfrom 500 to 1,800 acres through the construction of threelarge concentric canals. Builders prepared plots for thetall, narrow-fronted houses that were characteristic of thecity by hammering wooden columns through the mud tothe firm sand underneath. The canals in turn made itpossible for merchants and artisans to use the upperstories of their houses as storerooms for their goods.Wares carried by small boats were hoisted to the topwindows of these dwellings by block and tackle beamsfastened to the gables of the roofs. Amsterdam’s physicalexpansion was soon matched by its population as the citygrew to 200,000 by 1660.

The exuberant expansion of Amsterdam in the sev-enteenth century owed much to the city’s role as the

commercial and financial center of Europe. But what hadmade this possible? For one thing, Amsterdam merchantspossessed vast fleets of ships, many of which were usedfor the lucrative North Sea herring catch. Amsterdam-based ships were also important carriers for the productsof other countries. The Dutch invention of the fluyt, ashallow-draft ship of large capacity, enabled the transportof enormous quantities of cereals, timber, and iron.

Amsterdam merchants unloaded their cargoes atDam Square, where all goods weighing more than50 pounds were recorded and tested for quality. Thequantity of goods brought to Amsterdam soon made thecity a crossroads for many of Europe’s chief products.Amsterdam was also, of course, the chief port for theDutch West Indian and East Indian trading companies.Moreover, city industries turned imported raw materialsinto finished goods, making Amsterdam an importantproducer of woolen cloth, refined sugar and tobaccoproducts, glass, beer, paper, books, jewelry, and leathergoods. Some of the city’s great wealth came from warprofits: by 1700, Amsterdam was the principal supplier ofmilitary goods in Europe; its gun foundries had cus-tomers throughout the Continent.

Another factor in Amsterdam’s prosperity was itsimportance as a financial center. Trading profits providedlarge quantities of capital for investment. The city’s fi-nancial role was greatly facilitated by the foundation in1609 of the Exchange Bank of Amsterdam, long thegreatest public bank in northern Europe. The city alsofounded the Amsterdam Stock Exchange for speculatingin commodities.

At the very top of Amsterdam’s society stood a selectnumber of very prosperous manufacturers, shipyardowners, and merchants, whose wealth enabled them tocontrol the city government of Amsterdam as well as theDutch Republic’s States General. In the first half ofthe seventeenth century, the Calvinist background of thewealthy Amsterdam burghers led them to adopt a simplelifestyle. They wore dark clothes and lived in substantialbut simply furnished houses known for their steep, narrowstairways. The oft-quoted phrase that ‘‘cleanliness is nextto godliness’’ was literally true for these self-confidentDutch burghers. Their houses were clean and orderly;foreigners often commented that Dutch housewives alwaysseemed to be scrubbing. But in the second half of theseventeenth century, the wealthy burghers began to rejecttheir Calvinist heritage, a transformation that is especiallyevident in their more elaborate and colorful clothes.

England and the Emergenceof Constitutional MonarchyOne of the most prominent examples of resistance toabsolute monarchy came in seventeenth-century England,where king and Parliament struggled to determine the roleeach should play in governing the nation. But the struggleover this political issue was complicated by a deep and



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importance as a financial center. Trading profits provided

profound religious controversy. With the victory of Par-liament came the foundation for constitutional monarchyby the end of the seventeenth century.

King James I and Parliament Upon the death of QueenElizabeth in 1603, the Tudor dynasty became extinct, andthe Stuart line of rulers was inaugurated with the ac-cession to the throne of Elizabeth’s cousin, King James VIof Scotland (son of Mary, queen of Scots), who became

James I (1603--1625) of England. Although used to royalpower as king of Scotland, James understood little aboutthe laws, institutions, and customs of the English. Heespoused the divine right of kings, the belief that kingsreceive their power directly from God and are responsibleto no one except God. This viewpoint alienated Parlia-ment, which had grown accustomed under the Tudors toact on the premise that monarch and Parliament togetherruled England as a ‘‘balanced polity.’’ Parliament expressed


IMAGES OF EVERYDAY LIFE

Dutch Domesticity. During the Golden Age of the DutchRepublic, Dutch painters delighted in painting scenes ofdomestic life, especially the lives of the wealthy burgherswho prospered from trade, finance, and manufacturing. TheDutch painter Pieter de Hooch specialized in painting pic-tures of Dutch interiors, as can be seen in three of his paint-ings. In The Mother (below left), de Hooch portrays atranquil scene of a mother with her infant and small daugh-ter. The spotless, polished floors reflect the sunlight stream-ing in through the open door. The rooms are both cleanand in good order. Household manuals, such as The Experi-enced and Knowledgeable Hollands Householder, provideddetailed outlines of the cleaning tasks that should be per-formed each day of the week. In The Linen Cupboard(below right), a Dutch mother, assisted by her daughter, isshown storing her clean sheets in an elegant cupboard inanother well-polished Dutch room. The Chinese porcelainon top of the cupboard and the antique statue indicate thatthis is the residence of a wealthy family. In Two WomenTeach a Child to Walk (at right), the artist again shows awell-furnished and spotless interior. A small girl is learningto walk, assisted by a servant holding straps attached to aband around the girl’s head to keep her from falling.

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its displeasure with James’s claims by refusing his requestsfor additional monies needed by the king to meet theincreased cost of government. Parliament’s power of thepurse proved to be its trump card in its relationship withthe king.

Some members of Parliament were also alienated byJames’s religious policy. The Puritans---Protestants in theAnglican Church inspired by Calvinist theology---wantedJames to eliminate the episcopal system of church or-ganization used in the Church of England (in which thebishop or episcopos played the major administrative role)in favor of a Presbyterian model (used in Scotland andpatterned after Calvin’s church organization in Geneva,where ministers and elders---also called presbyters---played an important governing role). James refused be-cause he realized that the Anglican Church, with itsbishops appointed by the crown, was a major support ofmonarchical authority. But the Puritans were not easilycowed and added to the rising chorus of opposition tothe king. Many of England’s gentry, mostly well-to-dolandowners below the level of the nobility, had becomePuritans, and these Puritan gentry not only formed animportant and substantial part of the House of Com-mons, the lower house of Parliament, but also held im-portant positions locally as justices of the peace andsheriffs. It was not wise to alienate them.

Charles I and the Move Toward Revolution The con-flict that had begun during the reign of James came to ahead during the reign of his son, Charles I (1625--1649).In 1628, Parliament passed the Petition of Right, whichthe king was supposed to accept before being granted anytax revenues. This petition prohibited taxation withoutParliament’s consent, arbitrary imprisonment, the quar-tering of soldiers in private houses, and the declaration ofmartial law in peacetime. Although he initially acceptedit, Charles later reneged on the agreement because of itslimitations on royal power. In 1629, Charles decided thatsince he could not work with Parliament, he would notsummon it to meet. From 1629 to 1640, Charles pursueda course of personal rule, which forced him to find waysto collect taxes without the cooperation of Parliament.One expedient was a tax called ship money, a levy onseacoast towns to pay for coastal defense, which was nowcollected annually by the king’s officials throughoutEngland and used to finance other government oper-ations besides defense. This use of ship money arousedopposition from middle-class merchants and landedgentry, who objected to the king’s attempts to tax withoutParliament’s consent.

The king’s religious policy also proved disastrous.His marriage to Henrietta Maria, the Catholic sister ofKing Louis XIII of France, aroused suspicions about theking’s own religious inclinations. Even more important,however, the efforts of Charles and William Laud, thearchbishop of Canterbury, to introduce more ritual intothe Anglican Church struck the Puritans as a return toCatholic popery. Grievances mounted. Charles might

have survived unscathed if he could have avoided callingParliament, which alone could provide a focus for themany cries of discontent throughout the land. But whenthe king and Archbishop Laud attempted to impose theAnglican Book of Common Prayer on the ScottishPresbyterian Church, the Scots rose up in rebellionagainst the king. Financially strapped and unable to raisetroops to defend against the Scots, the king was forced tocall Parliament into session. Eleven years of frustrationwelled up to create a Parliament determined to deal theking his due.

In its first session, from November 1640 to Sep-tember 1641, the so-called Long Parliament (because itlasted in one form or another from 1640 to 1660) took aseries of steps that placed severe limitations on royalauthority. These included the abolition of arbitrarycourts; the abolition of taxes that the king had collectedwithout Parliament’s consent, such as ship money; andthe passage of the revolutionary Triennial Act, whichspecified that Parliament must meet at least once everythree years, with or without the king’s consent. By theend of 1641, one group in Parliament was prepared to gono further, but a group of more radical parliamentarianspushed for more change, including the elimination ofbishops in the Anglican Church. When the king tried totake advantage of the split by arresting some members ofthe more radical faction in Parliament, a large group inParliament led by John Pym and his fellow Puritans de-cided that the king had gone too far. England slipped intocivil war.

Civil War in England Parliament proved victorious inthe first phase of the English Civil War (1642--1646).Most important to Par-liament’s success was thecreation of the New ModelArmy, which was com-posed primarily of moreextreme Puritans knownas the Independents,who believed they weredoing battle for theLord. It is striking toread in the military re-ports of Oliver Crom-well, one of the group’sleaders, such statementsas ‘‘Sir, this is none otherbut the hand of God;and to Him alone be-longs the glory.’’ We might also attribute some of thecredit to Cromwell himself, since his crusaders werewell disciplined and trained in the latest militarytactics. Supported by the New Model Army, Parlia-ment ended the first phase of the civil war with thecapture of King Charles I in 1646.

A split now occurred in the parliamentary forces. APresbyterian majority wanted to disband the army and


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restore Charles I with a Presbyterian state church. Thearmy, composed mostly of the more radical In-dependents, who opposed an established Presbyterianchurch, marched on London in 1647 and began nego-tiations with the king. Charles took advantage of thisdivision to flee and seek help from the Scots. Enraged bythe king’s treachery, Cromwell and the army engaged in asecond civil war (1648) that ended with Cromwell’s vic-tory and the capture of the king. This time, Cromwell wasdetermined to achieve a victory for the army’s point ofview. The Presbyterian members of Parliament werepurged, leaving a Rump Parliament of fifty-three mem-bers of the House of Commons who then tried andcondemned the king on a charge of treason and adjudgedthat ‘‘he, the said Charles Stuart, as a tyrant, traitor,murderer, and public enemy to the good people of thisnation, shall be put to death by the severing of his headfrom his body.’’ On January 30, 1649, Charles was be-headed, a most uncommon act in the seventeenth cen-tury. The revolution had triumphed, and the monarchyin England had been destroyed, at least for the moment.

Cromwell and New Governments After the death ofthe king, the Rump Parliament abolished the monarchyand the House of Lords and proclaimed England a re-public or commonwealth (1649--1653). This was not aneasy period for Cromwell. As commander in chief of thearmy, he had to crush a Catholic uprising in Ireland,which he accomplished with a brutality that earned himthe eternal enmity of the Irish people, as well as an up-rising in Scotland on behalf of the son of Charles I.

Cromwell also faced opposition at home, especiallyfrom more radically minded groups who took advantageof the upheaval in England to push their agendas. TheLevellers, for example, advocated such advanced ideas asfreedom of speech, religious toleration, and a democraticrepublic, arguing for the right to vote for all malehouseholders over the age of twenty-one. The Levellersalso called for annual Parliaments, women’s equality withmen, and government programs to care for the poor. Asone Leveller said, ‘‘The poorest he that is in England has alife to live as the greatest he.’’ To Cromwell, a countrygentleman, only people of property had the right toparticipate in the affairs of state, and he warned in a fit ofrage: ‘‘I tell you . . . you have no other way to deal withthese men but to break them or they will break you;-and make void all that work that, with so many years’industry, toil, and pains, you have done . . . . I tell youagain, you are necessitated to break them.’’9 And breakthem he did; Cromwell smashed the radicals by force.More than a century would pass before their ideas ofdemocracy and equality became fashionable.

At the same time that Cromwell was dealing withthe Levellers, he also found it difficult to work with theRump Parliament and finally dispersed it by force. Asthe members of Parliament departed (in April 1653),he shouted after them, ‘‘It’s you that have forced me todo this, for I have sought the Lord night and day that

He would slay me rather than put upon me the doingof this work.’’ With the certainty of one who is con-vinced he is right, Cromwell had destroyed both kingand Parliament.

The army provided a new government when it drewup the Instrument of Government, England’s first andonly written constitution. Executive power was vested inthe Lord Protector (a position held by Cromwell) andlegislative power in a reconstituted Parliament. But thenew system failed to work. Cromwell found it difficult towork with Parliament, especially when its members de-bated his authority and advocated once again the creationof a Presbyterian state church. In 1655, Cromwell dis-solved Parliament and divided the country into elevenregions, each ruled by a major general who served vir-tually as a military governor. To meet the cost of militarygovernment, Cromwell levied a 10 percent land tax on allformer Royalists. Unable to establish a constitutional basisfor a working government, Cromwell had resorted tomilitary force to maintain the rule of the Independents,ironically using even more arbitrary policies than those ofCharles I.

Oliver Cromwell died in 1658. After floundering foreighteen months, the military establishment decided thatarbitrary rule by the army was no longer feasible and


Oliver Cromwell. Oliver Cromwell was a dedicated Puritanwho helped form the New Model Army and defeat the forcessupporting King Charles I. Unable to work with Parliament, hecame to rely on military force to rule England. Cromwell ispictured here in 1649, on the eve of his military campaign inIreland.

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reestablished the monarchy in the person of Charles II,the eldest son of Charles I. The restoration of the Stuartmonarchy ended England’s time of troubles, but it wasnot long before yet another constitutional crisis arose.

Restoration of the Monarchy After eleven years of exile,Charles II (1660--1685) returned to England. As he en-tered London amid the acclaim of the people, he re-marked sardonically, ‘‘I never knew that I was so popularin England.’’ The restoration of the monarchy and theHouse of Lords did not mean, however, that the work ofthe English Revolution was undone. Parliament keptmuch of the power it had won: its role in government wasacknowledged, the necessity for its consent to taxationwas accepted, and arbitrary courts were still abolished.Yet Charles continued to push his own ideas, some ofwhich were clearly out of step with many of the Englishpeople.

A serious religious problem disturbed the tranquilityof Charles II’s reign. After the restoration of the mon-archy, a new Parliament (the Cavalier Parliament) met in1661 and restored the Anglican Church as the officialchurch of England. In addition, laws were passed to forceeveryone, particularly Catholics and Puritan Dissenters,to conform to the Anglican Church. Charles, however,was sympathetic to and perhaps even inclined towardCatholicism. Moreover, Charles’s brother James, heir tothe throne, did not hide the fact that he was a Catholic.Parliament’s suspicions were therefore aroused in 1672

when Charles took the audacious step of issuing theDeclaration of Indulgence, which suspended the laws thatParliament had passed against Catholics and Puritans.Parliament would have none of it and induced the king tosuspend the declaration. Propelled by a strong anti-Catholic sentiment, Parliament then passed the Test Actof 1673, specifying that only Anglicans could hold mili-tary and civil offices.

A purported Catholic plot to assassinate KingCharles and place his brother James on the throne,though soon exposed as imaginary, inflamed Parliamentto attempt to pass a bill that would have barred Jamesfrom the throne as a professed Catholic. Although theseattempts failed, the debate over the bill created two po-litical groupings: the Whigs, who wanted to excludeJames and establish a Protestant king with toleration ofDissenters, and the Tories, who supported the king, de-spite their dislike of James as a Catholic, because theybelieved that Parliament should not tamper with thelawful succession to the throne. To foil these efforts,Charles dismissed Parliament in 1681, relying on Frenchsubsidies to rule alone. When he died in 1685, hisCatholic brother came to the throne.

The accession of James II (1685--1688) virtuallyguaranteed a new constitutional crisis for England. Anopen and devout Catholic, his attempt to further Cath-olic interests made religion once more a primary cause ofconflict between king and Parliament. Contrary to theTest Act, James named Catholics to high positions in the


CHART 15.2 A Simplified Look at the Stuart Dynasty

James I(1603–1625)

Charles I(1625–1649)

George I(1714–1727)

first king of Hanoverian dynasty

Charles II(1660–1685)

James II(1685–1688)

William III of Orange and England(1689–1702)

Mary II(1689–1694)

Anne(1702–1714)

Anne HydeMary William II of Orange

Frederick Vof the Palatinate

Elizabeth

Sophia Ernst of Hanover

Henrietta Maria

Anne of Denmark


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government, army, navy, and universities. In 1687, heissued a new Declaration of Indulgence, which suspendedall laws barring Catholics and Dissenters from office.Parliamentary outcries against James’s policies stoppedshort of rebellion because members knew that he was anold man and that his successors were his Protestantdaughters Mary and Anne, born to his first wife. But onJune 10, 1688, a son was born to James II’s second wife,also a Catholic. Suddenly, the specter of a Catholic he-reditary monarchy loomed large.

A Glorious Revolution A group of seven prominentEnglish noblemen invited William of Orange, husband ofJames’s daughter Mary, to invade England. An inveteratefoe of Louis XIV, William welcomed this opportunity tofight France with England’s resources. William and Maryraised an army and invaded England while James, hiswife, and their infant son fled to France. With almost nobloodshed, England had embarked on a ‘‘Glorious Rev-olution,’’ not over the issue of whether there would be amonarchy but rather over who would be monarch.

The events of late 1688 set the Glorious Revolutionin motion. The far more important part was the Revo-lution Settlement, which confirmed William and Mary asmonarchs. In January 1689, the Convention Parliamentasserted that James had tried to subvert the constitution‘‘by breaking the original contract between king andpeople’’ and declared the throne of England vacant. Itthen offered the throne to William and Mary, who ac-cepted it along with the provisions of a declaration ofrights, later enacted into law as the Bill of Rights in 1689(see the box on p. 474). The Bill of Rights affirmedParliament’s right to make laws and levy taxes and madeit impossible for kings to oppose or do without Parlia-ment by stipulating that standing armies could be raisedonly with the consent of Parliament. Both elections anddebates of Parliament had to be free, meaning that theking could not interfere. The rights of citizens to petitionthe sovereign, keep arms, have a jury trial, and not besubject to excessive bail were also confirmed. The Bill ofRights helped fashion a system of government based onthe rule of law and a freely elected Parliament, thus layingthe foundation for a constitutional monarchy.

The Bill of Rights did not settle the religious ques-tions that had played such a large role in England’stroubles in the seventeenth century. The Toleration Act of1689 granted Puritan Dissenters the right of free publicworship (Catholics were still excluded), although they didnot yet have full civil and political equality since the TestAct was not repealed. Although the Toleration Act didnot mean complete religious freedom and equality, itmarked a departure in English history: few people wouldever again be persecuted for religious reasons.

Many historians have viewed the Glorious Revolutionas the end of the seventeenth-century struggle between kingand Parliament. By deposing one king and establishinganother, Parliament had demolished the divine-righttheory of kingship (William was, after all, king by grace of

Parliament, not God) and confirmed its right to participatein the government. Parliament did not have completecontrol of the government, but it now had an unquestionedrole in affairs of state. Over the next century, it wouldgradually prove to be the real authority in the Englishsystem of constitutional monarchy.

Responses to Revolution The English revolutions of theseventeenth century prompted very different responsesfrom two English political thinkers---Thomas Hobbes andJohn Locke. Thomas Hobbes (1588--1679), who livedduring the English Civil War, was alarmed by the revolu-tionary upheavals in his contemporary England. Hobbes’sname has since been associated with the state’s claim toabsolute authority over its subjects, a topic that he elab-orated in his major treatise on political thought known asthe Leviathan, published in 1651.

Hobbes claimed that in the state of nature, beforesociety was organized, human life was ‘‘solitary, poor,nasty, brutish, and short.’’ Humans were guided not byreason and moral ideals but by animalistic instincts and aruthless struggle for self-preservation. To save themselvesfrom destroying each other (the ‘‘war of every man


CHRONOL0GY Limited Monarchy and Republics

Poland

Merger of Poland and Lithuania 1569

Sigismund III 1587–1631

Beginning of liberum veto 1652

United Provinces

Official recognition of United Provinces 1648

House of Orange

William III 1672–1702

England

James I 1603–1625

Charles I 1625–1649

Petition of Right 1628

First Civil War 1642–1646

Second Civil War 1648

Execution of Charles I 1649

Commonwealth 1649–1653

Death of Cromwell 1658

Restoration of monarchy 1660

Charles II 1660–1685

Cavalier Parliament 1661

Declaration of Indulgence 1672

Test Act 1673

James II 1685–1688

Declaration of Indulgence 1687

Glorious Revolution 1688

Bill of Rights 1689


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y ment by stipulating that standing armies could be raised

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y ment by stipulating that standing armies could be raisedonly with the consent of Parliament. Both elections and

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y only with the consent of Parliament. Both elections anddebates of Parliament had to be free, meaning that the

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y debates of Parliament had to be free, meaning that theking could not interfere. The rights of citizens to petition

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y king could not interfere. The rights of citizens to petitionthe sovereign, keep arms, have a jury trial, and not be

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y the sovereign, keep arms, have a jury trial, and not besubject to excessive bail were also confirmed. The Bill of

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y subject to excessive bail were also confirmed. The Bill ofRights helped fashion a system of government based on

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Rights helped fashion a system of government based onthe rule of law and a freely elected Parliament, thus layingProp

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the rule of law and a freely elected Parliament, thus layingthe foundation for a constitutional monarchy.Prop

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the foundation for a constitutional monarchy.The Bill of Rights did not settle the religious ques-Prop

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The Bill of Rights did not settle the religious ques-

of (see the box on p. 474). The Bill of Rights affirmed

of (see the box on p. 474). The Bill of Rights affirmedParliament’s right to make laws and levy taxes and made

of Parliament’s right to make laws and levy taxes and madeit impossible for kings to oppose or do without Parlia-of it impossible for kings to oppose or do without Parlia-ment by stipulating that standing armies could be raisedof ment by stipulating that standing armies could be raised

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e people’’ and declared the throne of England vacant. It

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e people’’ and declared the throne of England vacant. Itthen offered the throne to William and Mary, who ac-

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e then offered the throne to William and Mary, who ac-cepted it along with the provisions of a declaration of

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e cepted it along with the provisions of a declaration ofrights, later enacted into law as the Bill of Rights in 1689Cen

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rights, later enacted into law as the Bill of Rights in 1689(see the box on p. 474). The Bill of Rights affirmedCen

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(see the box on p. 474). The Bill of Rights affirmedParliament’s right to make laws and levy taxes and madeCen

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Parliament’s right to make laws and levy taxes and madeCenag

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Cavalier Parliament

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Declaration of Indulgence

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Test Act

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e Test Act

James II

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e James II

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ingExecution of Charles I

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ingExecution of Charles I

Commonwealth

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ingCommonwealth

Death of Cromwell

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ingDeath of Cromwell

Restoration of monarchyLearn

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Restoration of monarchy

against every man’’), people contracted to form a com-monwealth, which Hobbes called ‘‘that great Leviathan(or rather, to speak more reverently, that mortal god) towhich we owe our peace and defense.’’ This common-wealth placed its collective power into the hands of asovereign authority, preferably a single ruler, who servedas executor, legislator, and judge. This absolute rulerpossessed unlimited power. In Hobbes’s view, subjectsmay not rebel; if they do, they must be suppressed.

John Locke (1632--1704) viewed the exercise of po-litical power quite differently from Hobbes and argued

against the absolute rule of one man. Locke’s experienceof English politics during the Glorious Revolution wasincorporated into a political work called Two Treatises ofGovernment. Like Hobbes, Locke began with the state ofnature before human existence became organized socially.But unlike Hobbes, Locke believed that humans livedthen in a state of equality and freedom rather than a stateof war. In this state of nature, humans had certain in-alienable natural rights---to life, liberty, and property.Like Hobbes, Locke did not believe all was well in thestate of nature. Since there was no impartial judge in


The Bill of Rights

In 1688, the English experienced yet another revolution,

a bloodless one in which the Stuart king James II was

replaced by Mary, James’s daughter, and her husband,

William of Orange. After William and Mary had assumed

power, Parliament passed the Bill of Rights, which

specified the rights of Parliament and laid the founda-

tion for a constitutional monarchy.

The Bill of RightsWhereas the said late King James II having abdicated thegovernment, and the throne being thereby vacant, hisHighness the prince of Orange (whom it has pleasedAlmighty God to make the glorious instrument of deliver-ing this kingdom from popery and arbitrary power) did(by the device of the lords spiritual and temporal, anddiverse principal persons of the Commons) cause lettersto be written to the lords spiritual and temporal, beingProtestants, and other letters to the several counties,cities, universities, boroughs, and Cinque Ports, for thechoosing of such persons to represent them, as were ofright to be sent to parliament, to meet and sit at Westmin-ster upon the two and twentieth day of January, in thisyear 1689, in order to such an establishment as that theirreligion, laws, and liberties might not again be in dangerof being subverted; upon which letters elections havebeen accordingly made.

And thereupon the said lords spiritual and temporaland Commons, pursuant to their respective letters andelections, being now assembled in a full and free represen-tation of this nation, taking into their most serious consid-eration the best means for attaining the ends aforesaid, doin the first place (as their ancestors in like case have usu-ally done), for the vindication and assertion of their ancientrights and liberties, declare:

1. That the pretended power of suspending laws, or theexecution of laws, by regal authority, without consentof parliament is illegal.

2. That the pretended power of dispensing with the laws,or the execution of law by regal authority, as it hasbeen assumed and exercised of late, is illegal.

3. That the commission for erecting the late court ofcommissioners for ecclesiastical causes, and all othercommissions and courts of like nature, are illegal andpernicious.

4. That levying money for or to the use of the crown bypretense of prerogative, without grant of parliament,for longer time or in other manner than the same is orshall be granted, is illegal.

5. That it is the right of the subjects to petition the king,and all commitments and prosecutions for such peti-tioning are illegal.

6. That the raising or keeping a standing army within thekingdom in time of peace, unless it be with consent ofparliament, is against law.

7. That the subjects which are Protestants may havearms for their defense suitable to their conditions, andas allowed by law.

8. That election of members of parliament ought to befree.

9. That the freedom of speech, and debates or proceed-ings in parliament, ought not to be impeached or ques-tioned in any court or place out of parliament.

10. That excessive bail ought not to be required, norexcessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punish-ments inflicted.

11. That jurors ought to be duly impaneled and returned,and jurors which pass upon men in trials for high trea-son ought to be freeholders.

12. That all grants and promises of fines and forfeitures ofparticular persons before conviction are illegal andvoid.

13. And that for redress of all grievances, and for theamending, strengthening, and preserving of the laws,parliament ought to be held frequently.

How did the Bill of Rights lay the foundation for a

constitutional monarchy? What key aspects of this

document testify to the exceptional nature of English

state politics in the seventeenth century?


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1. That the pretended power of suspending laws, or the

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y 1. That the pretended power of suspending laws, or the

execution of laws, by regal authority, without consent

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2. That the pretended power of dispensing with the laws,

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or the execution of law by regal authority, as it has

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or the execution of law by regal authority, as it hasbeen assumed and exercised of late, is illegal.Prop

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been assumed and exercised of late, is illegal.

of tation of this nation, taking into their most serious consid-

of tation of this nation, taking into their most serious consid-eration the best means for attaining the ends aforesaid, doof eration the best means for attaining the ends aforesaid, doin the first place (as their ancestors in like case have usu-of in the first place (as their ancestors in like case have usu-ally done), for the vindication and assertion of their ancientof ally done), for the vindication and assertion of their ancient

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e tioned in any court or place out of parliament.

10. That excessive bail ought not to be required, nor

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e 10. That excessive bail ought not to be required, norexcessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punish-

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e excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punish-ments inflicted.

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elections, being now assembled in a full and free represen-Cenag

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elections, being now assembled in a full and free represen-tation of this nation, taking into their most serious consid-Cen

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tation of this nation, taking into their most serious consid-

11. That jurors ought to be duly impaneled and returned,

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e 11. That jurors ought to be duly impaneled and returned,

and jurors which pass upon men in trials for high trea-

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e and jurors which pass upon men in trials for high trea-son ought to be freeholders.

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e son ought to be freeholders.

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12. That all grants and promises of fines and forfeitures of

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ingkingdom in time of peace, unless it be with consent of

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ingkingdom in time of peace, unless it be with consent of

7. That the subjects which are Protestants may have

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ing7. That the subjects which are Protestants may have

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ingarms for their defense suitable to their conditions, and

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ingarms for their defense suitable to their conditions, and

8. That election of members of parliament ought to be

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ing8. That election of members of parliament ought to be

9. That the freedom of speech, and debates or proceed-

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ing9. That the freedom of speech, and debates or proceed-

ings in parliament, ought not to be impeached or ques-Learn

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ings in parliament, ought not to be impeached or ques-tioned in any court or place out of parliament.Le

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tioned in any court or place out of parliament.10. That excessive bail ought not to be required, norLe

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10. That excessive bail ought not to be required, nor

the state of nature, people found it difficult to protectthese rights. So they mutually agreed to establish a gov-ernment to ensure the protection of their rights. Thisagreement established mutual obligations: governmentwould protect the rights of the people while the peoplewould act reasonably toward government. But if a gov-ernment broke this agreement---for example, if a mon-arch failed to live up to his obligation to protect thepeople’s rights or claimed absolute authority and madelaws without the consent of the community---the peo-ple might form a new government. For Locke, however,the community of people was primarily the landholdingaristocracy who were represented in Parliament, not thelandless masses. Locke was hardly an advocate of politicaldemocracy, but his ideas proved important to both theAmericans and the French in the eighteenth century andwere used to support demands for constitutional gov-ernment, the rule of law, and the protection of rights.

The Flourishing of EuropeanCulture

Focus Question: How did the artistic and literaryachievements of this era reflect the political andeconomic developments of the period?

In the midst of religious wars and the growth of absolut-ism, European culture continued to flourish. The era wasblessed with a number of prominent artists and writers.

The Changing Faces of ArtAfter the Renaissance, European art passed through anumber of stylistic stages. The artistic Renaissance cameto an end when a new movement called Mannerismemerged in Italy in the 1520s and 1530s.

Mannerism The Reformation’s revival of religious val-ues brought much political turmoil. Especially in Italy,the worldly enthusiasm of the Renaissance gave way toanxiety, uncertainty, suffering, and a yearning for spiri-tual experience. Mannerism reflected this environment inits deliberate attempt to break down the High Renais-sance principles of balance, harmony, and moderation(the term Mannerism derives from critics who consideredtheir contemporary artists to be second-rate imitators,painting ‘‘in the manner of’’ Michelangelo’s late style).Italian Mannerist painters deliberately distorted the rulesof proportion by portraying elongated figures that con-veyed a sense of suffering and a strong emotional at-mosphere filled with anxiety and confusion.

Mannerism spread from Italy to other parts of Eu-rope and perhaps reached its apogee in the work of ElGreco (1541--1614). Domenikos Theotocopoulos (called‘‘the Greek’’---El Greco) was from Crete, but after study-ing in Venice and Rome, he moved in the 1570s to Spain,where he became a church painter in Toledo. El Greco’selongated and contorted figures, portrayed in unusualshades of yellow and green against an eerie background ofturbulent grays, reflect the artist’s desire to create a worldof intense emotion.


El Greco, Laocoon.Mannerism reached its heightof expression in the work ofEl Greco. Born in Crete,trained in Venice and Rome,and settling finally in Spain,El Greco worked as a churchpainter in Toledo. Picturedhere is his version of theLaocoon, a Hellenisticsculpture discovered in Romein 1506. The elongated,contorted bodies project aworld of suffering while thesomber background scene ofthe city of Toledo and thethreatening sky add a senseof terror and doom.

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THE FLOURISHING OF EUROPEAN CULTURE 475

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blessed with a number of prominent artists and writers.

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e ing in Venice and Rome, he moved in the 1570s to Spain,where he became a church painter in Toledo. El Greco’s

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e where he became a church painter in Toledo. El Greco’selongated and contorted figures, portrayed in unusual

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e shades of yellow and green against an eerie background ofturbulent grays, reflect the artist’s desire to create a world

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their contemporary artists to be second-rate imitators,

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ingtheir contemporary artists to be second-rate imitators,painting ‘‘in the manner of’’ Michelangelo’s late style).

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ingpainting ‘‘in the manner of’’ Michelangelo’s late style).Italian Mannerist painters deliberately distorted the rules

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ingItalian Mannerist painters deliberately distorted the rulesof proportion by portraying elongated figures that con-

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ingof proportion by portraying elongated figures that con-veyed a sense of suffering and a strong emotional at-

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ingveyed a sense of suffering and a strong emotional at-mosphere filled with anxiety and confusion.

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ingmosphere filled with anxiety and confusion.

Mannerism spread from Italy to other parts of Eu-

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rope and perhaps reached its apogee in the work of El

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ing in Venice and Rome, he moved in the 1570s to Spain,

The Baroque Period Mannerism was eventually replacedby a new movement---the Baroque---that began in Italy inthe last quarter of the sixteenth century and spread to therest of Europe. The style was most wholeheartedly embracedby the Catholic reform movement, as is evident at theCatholic courts, especially those of the Habsburgs in Ma-drid, Prague, Vienna, and Brussels. Although it was resistedin France, England, and the Netherlands, eventually theBaroque style spread to all of Europe and to Latin America.

Baroque artists sought to bring together the classicalideals of Renaissance art with the spiritual feelings of thesixteenth-century religious revival. The Baroque paintingstyle was known for its use of dramatic effects to arousethe emotions. In large part, though, Baroque art andarchitecture reflected the search for power that was such alarge part of the seventeenth-century ethos. Baroquechurches and palaces were magnificent and richly de-tailed. Kings and princes wanted other kings and princesas well as their subjects to be in awe of their power.

Baroque painting was known for its use of dramaticeffects to heighten emotional intensity. This style wasespecially evident in the works of the Flemish master Peter

Paul Rubens (1577--1640), a prolific artist and an im-portant figure in the spread of the Baroque from Italy toother parts of Europe. In his artistic masterpieces, bodiesin violent motion, heavily fleshed nudes, a dramatic use oflight and shadow, and rich, sensuous pigments convergeto express intense emotions. The restless forms and con-stant movement blend together into a dynamic unity.

Perhaps the greatest figure of the Baroque was theItalian architect and sculptor Gian Lorenzo Bernini(1598--1680), who completed Saint Peter’s Basilica at theVatican and designed the vast colonnade enclosing thepiazza in front of it. Action, exuberance, profusion, anddramatic effects mark the work of Bernini in the interiorof Saint Peter’s, where his Throne of Saint Peter hovers inmidair, held by the hands of the four great doctors of theCatholic Church. Above the chair, rays of golden lightdrive a mass of clouds and angels toward the spectator. Inhis most striking sculptural work, the Ecstasy of SaintTheresa, Bernini depicts a moment of mystical experiencein the life of the sixteenth-century Spanish saint. Theelegant draperies and the expression on her face create asensuously real portrayal of physical ecstasy.


Peter Paul Rubens, The Landing of Marie de’ Medici atMarseilles. Peter Paul Rubens played a key role inspreading the Baroque style from Italy to other parts ofEurope. In The Landing of Marie de’ Medici at Marseilles,Rubens made a dramatic use of light and color, bodies inmotion, and luxurious nudes to heighten the emotionalintensity of the scene. This was one of a cycle of twenty-onepaintings dedicated to the queen mother of France.

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Gian Lorenzo Bernini, Ecstasy of Saint Theresa. Oneof the great artists of the Baroque period was the Italian sculptorand architect Gian Lorenzo Bernini. The Ecstasy of Saint Theresa,created for the Cornaro Chapel in the Church of Santa Mariadella Vittoria in Rome, was one of Bernini’s most famous piecesof sculpture. Bernini sought to convey visually Theresa’s owndescription of the mystical experience when an angel supposedlypierced her heart repeatedly with a golden arrow.

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Less well known than the male artists who dominatedthe art world of seventeenth-century Italy but prominent inher own right was Artemisia Gentileschi (1593--1653). Bornin Rome, she studied painting under her father’s direction.In 1616, she moved to Florence and began a successful careeras a painter. At the age of twenty-three, she became the firstwoman to be elected to the Florentine Academy of Design.Although she was known internationally in her day as aportrait painter, her fame now rests on a series of pictures ofheroines from the Old Testament. Most famous is JudithBeheading Holofernes, a dramatic rendering of the biblicalscene in which Judith slays the Assyrian general Holofernesto save her besieged town from the Assyrian army.

French Classicism In the second half of the seventeenthcentury, France replaced Italy as the cultural leader ofEurope. Rejecting the Baroque style as overly showy andimpassioned, the French remained committed to theclassical values of the High Renaissance. French lateClassicism, with its emphasis on clarity, simplicity, bal-ance, and harmony of design, was, however, a ratheraustere version of the High Renaissance style. Its triumphreflected the shift in seventeenth-century French society

from chaos to order. Though it rejected the emotionalismand high drama of the Baroque, French Classicism con-tinued the Baroque’s conception of grandeur in theportrayal of noble subjects, especially those from classicalantiquity. Nicholas Poussin (1594--1665) exemplifiedthese principles in his paintings. His choice of scenesfrom classical mythology, the orderliness of his land-scapes, the postures of his figures copied from thesculptures of antiquity, and his use of brown tones allreflect French Classicism of the late seventeenth century.

Dutch Realism The supremacy of Dutch commerce inthe seventeenth century was paralleled by a brilliantflowering of Dutch painting. Wealthy patricians andburghers of Dutch urban society commissioned works ofart for their guild halls, town halls, and private dwellings.The interests of this burgher society were reflected in thesubject matter of many Dutch paintings: portraits ofthemselves, group portraits of their military companiesand guilds, landscapes, seascapes, genre scenes, still lifes,and the interiors of their residences. Neither classical norBaroque, Dutch painters were primarily interested in therealistic portrayal of secular everyday life.

This interest in painting scenes of everyday life isevident in the work of Judith Leyster (c. 1609--1660), whoestablished her own independent painting career, a re-markable occurrence in seventeenth-century Europe.Leyster became the first female member of the paintingGuild of Saint Luke in Haarlem, which enabled her to setup her own workshop and take on three male pupils.Musicians playing their instruments, women sewing,children laughing while playing games, and actors per-forming all form the subject matter of Leyster’s portrayalsof everyday Dutch life. But she was also capable of in-trospection, as is evident in her Self-Portrait.

The finest product of the golden age of Dutchpainting was Rembrandt van Rijn (1606--1669). Duringhis early career, Rembrandt painted opulent portraits andgrandiose scenes that were often quite colorful. He wasprolific and successful, but he turned away from mate-rialistic success to follow his own artistic path; in theprocess, he lost public support and died bankrupt.

Although Rembrandt shared the Dutch predilectionfor realistic portraits, he became more introspective as hegrew older. He refused to follow his contemporaries,whose pictures were largely secular; half of his ownpaintings depicted scenes from biblical tales. Since theProtestant tradition of hostility to religious pictures haddiscouraged artistic expression, Rembrandt stands out asthe one great Protestant painter of the seventeenth century.

A Wondrous Age of TheaterIn England and Spain, writing reached new heights be-tween 1580 and 1640. All of these impressive new workswere written in the vernacular. Except for academic fields,such as theology, philosophy, jurisprudence, and the sci-ences, Latin was no longer a universal literary language.


Artemisia Gentileschi, Judith BeheadingHolofernes. Artemisia Gentileschi painted a series ofpictures portraying scenes from the lives of courageous OldTestament women. In this painting, a determined Judith,armed with her victim’s sword, struggles to saw off the head ofHolofernes. Gentileschi realistically and dramatically shows thegruesome nature of Judith’s act.

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ingburghers of Dutch urban society commissioned works of

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ingburghers of Dutch urban society commissioned works ofart for their guild halls, town halls, and private dwellings.

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ingart for their guild halls, town halls, and private dwellings.The interests of this burgher society were reflected in the

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ingThe interests of this burgher society were reflected in thesubject matter of many Dutch paintings: portraits of

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ingsubject matter of many Dutch paintings: portraits ofthemselves, group portraits of their military companies

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ingthemselves, group portraits of their military companiesand guilds, landscapes, seascapes, genre scenes, still lifes,

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ingand guilds, landscapes, seascapes, genre scenes, still lifes,

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ingand the interiors of their residences. Neither classical nor

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ingand the interiors of their residences. Neither classical norBaroque, Dutch painters were primarily interested in the

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Judith Leyster, Self-Portrait. Although Judith Leysterwas a well-known artist to her Dutchcontemporaries, her fame diminishedsoon after her death. In the latenineteenth century, however, a Dutchart historian rediscovered her work.In her Self-Portrait, painted in 1635,she is seen pausing in her work infront of one of the scenes of daily lifethat made her such a popular artistin her own day.

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Rembrandt van Rijn, Syndics of the Cloth Guild. The Dutch experienced a golden ageof painting during the seventeenth century. The burghers and patricians of Dutch urban societycommissioned works of art, and these quite naturally reflected the burghers’ interests, as thispainting by Rembrandt illustrates.

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The greatest age of English literature is often calledthe Elizabethan era because much of the English culturalflowering of the late sixteenth and early seventeenthcenturies occurred during the reign of Queen Elizabeth I.Elizabethan literature exhibits the exuberance and prideassociated with England’s international exploits at thetime. Of all the forms of Elizabethan literature, none ex-pressed the energy and intellectual versatility of the erabetter than drama. And of all the dramatists, none is morefamous than William Shakespeare (1564--1616).

William Shakespeare Shakespeare was the son of aprosperous glovemaker from Stratford-upon-Avon. Whenhe appeared in London in 1592, Elizabethans were alreadyaddicted to the stage. In Greater London, as many as sixtheaters were open six afternoons a week. London theatersranged from the Globe, which was a circular unroofedstructure holding three thousand spectators, to the Black-friars, which was roofed and held only five hundred. In theformer, an admission charge of a penny or two enabled eventhe lower classes to attend; the higher prices in the latterensured an audience of the well-to-do. Elizabethan audiencesvaried greatly, putting pressure on playwrights to write worksthat pleased nobles, lawyers, merchants, and even vagabonds.

William Shakespeare was a ‘‘complete man of thetheater.’’ Although best known for writing plays, he was alsoan actor and shareholder in the chief company of the time,the Lord Chamberlain’s Company, which played in theatersas diverse as the Globe and the Blackfriars. Shakespeare haslong been recognized as a universal genius. A master of the

English language, he was instrumental in codifying a lan-guage that was still in transition. His technical proficiency,however, was matched by an incredible insight into humanpsychology. In tragedies as well as comedies, Shakespeareexhibited a remarkable understanding of the human con-dition (see the box above).

Spain’s Golden Century The theater was also one of themost creative forms of expression during Spain’s goldencentury. The first professional theaters established inSeville and Madrid in the 1570s were run by actors’companies, as in England. Soon a public playhouse couldbe found in every large town, including Mexico City inthe New World. Touring companies brought the latestSpanish plays to all parts of the Spanish Empire.

Beginning in the 1580s, the agenda for playwrightswas set by Lope de Vega (1562--1635). Like Shakespeare,he was from a middle-class background. He was an in-credibly prolific writer; almost one-third of his fifteenhundred plays survive. They have been characterized aswitty, charming, action packed, and realistic. Lope deVega made no apologies for the fact that he wrote hisplays to please his audiences. In a treatise on dramawritten in 1609, he stated that the foremost duty of theplaywright was to satisfy public demand. Shakespeareundoubtedly believed the same thing, since his livelihooddepended on public approval, but Lope de Vega wasconsiderably more cynical about it: he remarked that ifanyone thought he had written his plays for fame, ‘‘un-deceive him and tell him that I wrote them for money.’’


William Shakespeare: In Praise of England

William Shakespeare is one of the most famous play-

wrights of the Western world. He was a universal ge-

nius, outclassing all others in his psychological insights,

depth of characterization, imaginative skills, and versa-

tility. His historical plays reflected the patriotic enthusi-

asm of the English in the Elizabethan era, as this

excerpt from Richard II illustrates.

William Shakespeare, Richard IIThis royal throne of kings, this sceptered isle,This earth of majesty, this seat of Mars,This other Eden, demi-Paradise,This fortress built by Nature for herselfAgainst infection and the hand of war,This happy breed of men, this little world,This precious stone set in the silver sea,Which serves it in the office of a wallOr as a moat defensive to a houseAgainst the envy of less happier lands—This blessed plot, this earth, this realm, this

England,This nurse, this teeming womb of royal kings,Feared by their breed and famous by their birth,

Renowned for their deeds as far from home,For Christian service and true chivalry,As is the sepulcher in stubborn Jewry [the Holy

Sepulcher in Jerusalem]Of the world’s ransom, blessed Mary’s Son—This land of such dear souls, this dear dear land,Dear for her reputation through the world,Is now leased out, I die pronouncing it,Like a tenement or pelting farm.England, bound in with the triumphant sea,Whose rocky shore beats back the envious siegeOf watery Neptune, is now bound in with shame,With inky blots and rotten parchment bonds.That England, what was wont to conquer others,Hath made a shamful conquest of itself.Ah, would the scandal vanish with my life,How happy then were my ensuing death!

Why is William Shakespeare aptly described as

not merely a playwright, but a ‘‘complete man of the the-

ater’’? Which countries might Shakespeare have meant

to suggest by the phrase ‘‘the envy of less happier

lands’’?


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addicted to the stage. In Greater London, as many as sixtheaters were open six afternoons a week. London theatersProp

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theaters were open six afternoons a week. London theaters

of centuries occurred during the reign of Queen Elizabeth I.

of centuries occurred during the reign of Queen Elizabeth I.Elizabethan literature exhibits the exuberance and pride

of Elizabethan literature exhibits the exuberance and prideassociated with England’s international exploits at theof associated with England’s international exploits at thetime. Of all the forms of Elizabethan literature, none ex-of time. Of all the forms of Elizabethan literature, none ex-

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English language, he was instrumental in codifying a lan-

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ingHath made a shamful conquest of itself.

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ingAh, would the scandal vanish with my life,

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ingAh, would the scandal vanish with my life,How happy then were my ensuing death!

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ingHow happy then were my ensuing death!

Why is William Shakespeare aptly described as

Learn

ingWhy is William Shakespeare aptly described as

not merely a playwright, but a ‘‘complete man of the the-

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ingnot merely a playwright, but a ‘‘complete man of the the-

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ing

ater’’? Which countries might Shakespeare have meantLearn

ing

ater’’? Which countries might Shakespeare have meant

to suggest by the phrase ‘‘the envy of less happierLearn

ing

to suggest by the phrase ‘‘the envy of less happier

French Drama As the great age of theater in England andSpain was drawing to a close around 1630, a new dramatic erabegan to dawn in France that lasted into the 1680s. UnlikeShakespeare in England and Lope de Vega in Spain, Frenchplaywrights wrote more for an elite audience and were forcedto depend on royal patronage. Louis XIV used theater as hedid art and architecture---to attract attention to his monarchy.

French dramatists cultivated a classical style thatemphasized the clever, polished, and correct over theemotional and imaginative. Many of the French works ofthe period derived both their themes and their plots fromGreek and Roman sources, especially evident in the worksof Jean-Baptiste Racine (1639--1699). In Phedre, whichhas been called his best play, Racine followed closely the

plot of the Greek tragedian Euripides’ Hippolytus. Likethe ancient tragedians, Racine, who perfected the Frenchneoclassical tragic style, focused on conflicts, such asbetween love and honor or inclination and duty, thatcharacterized and revealed the tragic dimensions of life.

Jean-Baptiste Moliere (1622--1673) enjoyed the favorof the French court and benefited from the patronage ofKing Louis XIV. Moliere wrote, produced, and acted in aseries of comedies that often satirized the religious andsocial world of his time. In Tartuffe, he ridiculed religioushypocrisy. His satires, however, sometimes got him intotrouble. The Paris clergy did not find Tartuffe funny andhad it banned for five years. Only the protection of theking saved Moliere from more severe harassment.


TIMELINE

1600 16501625 1675 1700 1725

Rule by CardinalRichelieu

Reign of Louis XIV

Frederick William the Great Elector Peter the Great

Thirty Years’ War

English Civil War

Paintings of Rembrandt

Plays of Shakespeare

Plays of Racine

Glorious Revolution

Official recognition of the Dutch Republic

Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan John Locke, Two Treatises of Government


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NOTES

1. Quoted in Joseph Klaits, Servants of Satan: The Age of the Witch

Hunts (Bloomington, Ind., 1985), p. 68.

2. Quoted in John B. Wolf, Louis XIV (New York, 1968),

p. 134.

3. Quoted in James B. Collins, The State in Early Modern France

(Cambridge, 1995), p. 130.

4. Quoted in W. H. Lewis, The Splendid Century (Garden City,

N.Y., 1953), pp. 39--40.

5. Quoted in Wolf, Louis XIV, p. 618.

6. Quoted in D. H. Pennington, Europe in the Seventeenth Century,

2d ed. (New York, 1989), p. 494.

7. Quoted in J. H. Elliot, Imperial Spain, 1469--1716 (New York,

1963), p. 306.

8. Quoted in B. H. Sumner, Peter the Great and the Emergence of

Russia (New York, 1962), p. 122.

9. Quoted in Simon Schama, A History of Britain, vol. 2,

The Wars of the British, 1603--1776 (New York, 2001),

pp. 182, 185.

SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER READING

General Works For general works on the seventeenth

century, see D. H. Pennington, Europe in the Seventeenth Century,

2d ed. (New York, 1989); T. Munck, Seventeenth-Century Europe,

1598--1700, 2d ed. (London, 2005); Q. Deakin, Expansion, War,

and Rebellion, 1598--1661 (Cambridge, 2000); and J. Bergin,

Seventeenth-Century Europe, 1598--1715 (Oxford, 2001).

Witchcraft Craze The story of the witchcraft craze can be

examined in J. Klaits, Servants of Satan: The Age of the Witch

Hunts (Bloomington, Ind., 1985), and B. P. Levack, The Witch-

Hunt in Early Modern Europe (London, 1987). See also R. Briggs,

Witches and Neighbors: The Social and Cultural Context of

European Witchcraft, 2d ed. (Oxford, 2002).

Thirty Years’ War The classic study on the Thirty Years’

War is C. V. Wedgwood, The Thirty Years’ War (Garden City, N.Y.,

1961), but it needs to be supplemented by the more recent works

by G. Parker, ed., The Thirty Years’ War, 2d ed. (London, 1997);

R. G. Asch, The Thirty Years’ War: The Holy Roman Empire and

Europe, 1618--1648 (New York, 1997); and the brief studies by

S. J. Lee, The Thirty Years’ War (London, 1991), and R. Bonney,

The Thirty Years’ War, 1618--1648 (Oxford, 2002).

The Military Revolution On the military revolution, see

G. Parker, The Military Revolution: Military Innovation and

the Rise of the West, 1500--1800, 3d ed. (Cambridge, 1995), and

J. M. Black, A Military Revolution? Military Change and

European Society (London, 1991). On changes in naval warfare, see

J. Glete, Navies and Nations: Warships, Navies and State Building

in Europe and America, 1500--1860, 2 vols. (Stockholm, 1993).

France and Spain For succinct accounts of seventeenth-

century French history, see R. Briggs, Early Modern France, 1560--

1715, 2d ed. (Oxford, 1998), and J. B. Collins, The State in Early

Modern France (Cambridge, 1995). A solid and very readable

biography of Louis XIV is A. Levi, Louis XIV (New York, 2004).

For a shorter study, see P. R. Campbell, Louis XIV, 1661--1715

(London, 1993). Well-presented summaries of revisionist views on

Louis’s monarchical power are R. Mettam, Power and Faction in

Louis XIV’s France (Oxford, 1988), and W. Beik, Absolutism and

Society in Seventeenth-Century France (Cambridge, 1985). For a

revision of the ‘‘revisionist’’ views, see J. J. Hurt, Louis XIV and the

Parlements: The Assertion of Royal Authority (Manchester, 2002).

A good general work on seventeenth-century Spanish history is

J. Lynch, Spain Under the Habsburgs, 2d ed. (New York, 1981).

Central and Eastern Europe On the German states, see

P. H. Wilson, The Holy Roman Empire, 1495--1806 (New York, 1999),

and M. Hughes, Early Modern Germany, 1477--1806 (Philadelphia,

1992). On the creation of Austria, see R. J. W. Evans, The Making of

the Habsburg Monarchy, 1550--1700 (Oxford, 1979); C. Ingrao, The

Habsburg Monarchy, 1618--1815 (Cambridge, 1994); and P. S.

Fichtner, The Habsburg Monarchy, 1490--1848 (New York, 2003). On

Austria and Prussia, see P. H. Wilson, Absolutism in Central Europe

(New York, 2000). On Frederick William the Great Elector, see

D. McKay, The Great Elector (Essex, 2001). For an introduction to

Polish history, see N. Davies, God’s Playground: A History of Poland,

vol. 1, The Origins to 1795, 2d ed. (Oxford, 2004).


CONCLUSION

To many historians, the seventeenth century has assumedextraordinary proportions. The divisive effects of theReformation had been assimilated and the concept of aunited Christendom, held as an ideal since the MiddleAges, had been irrevocably destroyed by the religiouswars, making possible the emergence of a system ofnation-states in which power politics took on an increasingsignificance. The growth of political thought focusing onthe secular origins of state power reflected the changesthat were going on in seventeenth-century society.

Within those states, there slowly emerged some of themachinery that made possible a growing centralization ofpower. In those states called absolutist, strong monarchswith the assistance of their aristocracies took the lead inproviding the leadership for greater centralization. But inEngland, where the landed aristocracy gained power at the

expense of the monarchs, the foundations were laid for aconstitutional government in which Parliament providedthe focus for the institutions of centralized power. In all themajor European states, a growing concern for power anddynastic expansion led to larger armies and greater conflict.War remained an endemic feature of Western civilization.

But the search for order and harmony continued,evident in art and literature. At the same time, religiouspreoccupations and values were losing ground to secularconsiderations. The seventeenth century was a period oftransition toward the more secular spirit that has char-acterized modern Western civilization to the present. Nostronger foundation for this spirit could be found than inthe new view of the universe that was ushered in by theScientific Revolution of the seventeenth century, and it isto that story that we now turn.

CONCLUSION 481

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y Peter the Great and the Emergence of

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y Peter the Great and the Emergence of

A History of Britain,

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y A History of Britain,

The Wars of the British, 1603--1776

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y The Wars of the British, 1603--1776 (New York, 2001),

Propert

y (New York, 2001),


Propert

y


General Works Propert

y

General Works For general works on the seventeenthPropert

y

For general works on the seventeenth

D. H. Pennington,Propert

y

D. H. Pennington,

of Europe in the Seventeenth Century,

of Europe in the Seventeenth Century,

Imperial Spain, 1469--1716of Imperial Spain, 1469--1716 (New York,of (New York,

Peter the Great and the Emergence ofof Peter the Great and the Emergence of

Cenag

e S. J. Lee,

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e S. J. Lee,

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e (Garden City,

Cenag

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Europe in the Seventeenth Century,Cenag

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Europe in the Seventeenth Century,

(New York,Cen

age

(New York,

The Thirty Years’ War, 1618--1648

Cenag

e The Thirty Years’ War, 1618--1648

The Military Revolution

Cenag

e The Military RevolutionG. Parker,

Cenag

e G. Parker, The Military Revolution: Military Innovation and

Cenag

e The Military Revolution: Military Innovation and

the Rise of the West, 1500--1800,

Cenag

e the Rise of the West, 1500--1800,

J. M. Black,

Cenag

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European Society

Cenag

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ing

Learn

ingThe Thirty Years’ War: The Holy Roman Empire and

Learn

ingThe Thirty Years’ War: The Holy Roman Empire and

Europe, 1618--1648Learn

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Europe, 1618--1648 (New York, 1997); and the brief studies byLearn

ing

(New York, 1997); and the brief studies byLearn

ing

The Thirty Years’ WarLearn

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The Thirty Years’ War

The Thirty Years’ War, 1618--1648Learn

ing

The Thirty Years’ War, 1618--1648Learn

ing

Learn

ingthe new view of the universe that was ushered in by the

Learn

ingthe new view of the universe that was ushered in by theScientific Revolution of the seventeenth century, and it is

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ingScientific Revolution of the seventeenth century, and it isto that story that we now turn.

Learn

ingto that story that we now turn.

Russia On Russian history before Peter the Great, see the

classic work by V. O. Klyuchevsky, A Course in Russian History:

The Seventeenth Century, rev. ed. (Chicago, 1994). Works on Peter

the Great include L. Hughes, Russia in the Age of Peter the Great

(New Haven, Conn., 1998), and P. Bushkovitz, Peter the Great

(Oxford, 2001).

English Revolutions Good general works on the period of

the English Revolution include M. A. Kishlansky, A Monarchy

Transformed (London, 1996); G. E. Aylmer, Rebellion or

Revolution? England, 1640--1660 (New York, 1986); and A. Hughes,

The Causes of the English Civil War (New York, 1991). On Oliver

Cromwell, see R. Howell Jr., Cromwell (Boston, 1977), and

P. Gaunt, Oliver Cromwell (Cambridge, Mass., 1996). For a general

survey of the post-Cromwellian era, see T. Harris, Politics Under

the Late Stuarts (London, 1993). On Charles II, see the scholarly

biography by R. Hutton, Charles II (Oxford, 1989). Locke’s

political ideas are examined in J. H. Franklin, John Locke and the

Theory of Sovereignty (London, 1978). On Thomas Hobbes, see

D. D. Raphael, Hobbes (London, 1977).

United Provinces On the United Provinces, J. Israel, The

Dutch Republic: Its Rise, Greatness, and Fall (New York, 1995), is

a valuable but lengthy study. Of much value is S. Schama, The

Embarrassment of Riches: An Interpretation of Dutch Culture in

the Golden Age (New York, 1987).

European Culture A brief, readable guide to Mannerism

is L. Murray, The High Renaissance and Mannerism (New York,

1985). For a general survey of Baroque culture, see M. Mainstone

and L. Mainstone, The Cambridge Introduction to Art: The

Seventeenth Century (Cambridge, 1981), and F. C. Marchetti

et al., Baroque, 1600--1770 (New York, 2005). The literature on

Shakespeare is enormous. For a biography, see A. L. Rowse,

The Life of Shakespeare (New York, 1963). French theater and

literature are examined in A. Adam, Grandeur and Illusion:

French Literature and Society, 1600--1715, trans. J. Tint

(New York, 1972). For an examination of French and Dutch art,

see A. Merot, French Painting in the Seventeenth Century

(New Haven, Conn., 1995), and S. Slive, Dutch Painting,

1600--1800 (New Haven, Conn., 1993).

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Jean Rousset de Missy, describing Russians in Western dress

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Propert

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(New York, 1963). French theater and

of (New York, 1963). French theater and

Grandeur and Illusion:

of Grandeur and Illusion:

J. Tint of J. Tint

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Cenag

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Cenag

e specific to this book:

Cenag

e specific to this book:


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e http://www.thomsonedu.com/history/spielvogel

For a variety of tools to help you succeed in this course, visit the

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e For a variety of tools to help you succeed in this course, visit the

Western Civilization Resource Center. Enter the Resource

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e standalone access card for the

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quizzes; images; primary source documents; interactive simu-

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e quizzes; images; primary source documents; interactive simu-

lations, maps, and timelines; movie explorations; and a wealthCenag

e

lations, maps, and timelines; movie explorations; and a wealth

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ingKing Frederick William, Welcoming the Huguenots to Prussia

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ingKing Frederick William, Welcoming the Huguenots to Prussia

The Tenure of Kings and Magistrates

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ingThe Tenure of Kings and Magistrates

The Six Books of a Commonweale

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ingThe Six Books of a Commonweale

Jean Rousset de Missy, describing Russians in Western dress

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ingJean Rousset de Missy, describing Russians in Western dress

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ing

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