State-Level Strategies for Reducing Vehicle Miles of Travel

A Research Report from the University of California Institute of Transportation Studies

MichelleByars,InstituteofTransportationStudies,UCDavis

YishuWei,InstituteofTransportationStudies,UCDavis

SusanHandy,InstituteofTransportationStudies,UCDavis

September2017

ABOUT THE UC ITS TheUniversityofCaliforniaInstituteofTransportationStudies(UCITS)isanetworkoffaculty,researchandadministrativestaff,andstudentsdedicatedtoadvancingthestateoftheartintransportationengineering,planning,andpolicyforthepeopleofCalifornia.EstablishedbytheLegislaturein1947,ITShasbranchesatUCBerkeley,UCDavis,UCIrvine,andUCLA.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ThisstudywasmadepossiblethroughfundingreceivedbytheUniversityofCaliforniaInstituteofTransportationStudiesfromtheStateofCalifornia’sPublicTransportationAccount.TheauthorswouldliketothanktheStateofCaliforniaforitssupportofuniversity-basedresearch,andespeciallyforthefundingreceivedforthisproject.Theauthorswouldalsoliketothank

DISCLAIMER Thecontentsofthisreportreflecttheviewsoftheauthor(s),whoareresponsibleforthefactsandtheaccuracyoftheinformationpresentedherein.ThisdocumentisdisseminatedunderthesponsorshipoftheStateofCaliforniaintheinterestofinformationexchange.TheStateofCaliforniaassumesnoliabilityforthecontentsorusethereof.NordoesthecontentnecessarilyreflecttheofficialviewsorpoliciesoftheStateofCalifornia.Thisreportdoesnotconstituteastandard,specification,orregulation.

State-LevelStrategiesforReducing

VehicleMilesofTravelUNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION STUDIES

September2017

MichelleByars,YishuWei,andSusanHandy

InstituteofTransportationStudies,UCDavis

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

ExecutiveSummary.................................................................................................................i

Introduction...........................................................................................................................1

Pricing....................................................................................................................................1FuelTaxes................................................................................................................................................2MileageFees............................................................................................................................................3TollsandCongestionPricing....................................................................................................................4CordonPricing(AreaTolling)...................................................................................................................5OtherPricingStrategies...........................................................................................................................6

InfillDevelopment.................................................................................................................11

TransportationInvestments..................................................................................................13BicycleandPedestrianInvestments......................................................................................................14TransitInvestments...............................................................................................................................19

TransportationDemandManagementPrograms...................................................................22EBTRandTelecommutingPrograms......................................................................................................23OtherStrategies.....................................................................................................................................24

References............................................................................................................................26

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Executive Summary TheCaliforniaGlobalWarmingSolutionsActof2006(AssemblyBill32)createdacomprehensive,multi-yearprogramtoreducegreenhousegas(GHG)emissionsinthestateto80%below1990levelsby2050.WiththerecentpassageofSenateBill32,theStateofCaliforniahasadoptedanadditionaltargetofreducinggreenhousegasemissionsto40%below1990levelsby2030.Tomeetthesegoals,thestatemustachievea15percentreductionintotaltravelbylight-dutyvehiclesby2050comparedtoexpectedlevels.1,2Undercurrentstatepolicies,reductionsofthismagnitudeareunlikely.Strongevidenceexiststhatstrategiesacrossfourcategories–pricing,infilldevelopment,transportationinvestments,andtraveldemandmanagementprograms–canreducevehiclemilesoftravel(VMT).3Thestatecandirectlyimplementsomeofthesestrategies,particularlypricingstrategies,throughstate-levelpolicies.Othersdependonactionsbyregionalandlocalgovernments,thoughstate-levelpoliciescanencouragetheirimplementationthroughincentives,requirements,orothermechanisms.Inthispaper,weidentifypoliciesandprogramsthatareimplementedorbeingconsideredatthestatelevelforeachcategoryofstrategies.Stateshaveamoredirectroleinimplementingpricingstrategiesandshapingtransportationinvestmentsthantheydoinpromotinginfilldevelopmentandtransportationdemandmanagementprograms,butexamplesofstate-levelpoliciesarefoundacrossallfourcategoriesofstrategies.AsCaliforniaisformulatingpoliciesandprogramsforVMTreduction,theinformationpresentedinthispapermayhelpguidetheprioritizationandrefinementofstatepolicies.Summariesofeachcategoryareasfollows:PricingManystatesareconsideringpricingstrategiesasawaytoincreasefundingfortransportationandinsomecasestomanagecongestion,butfewasawaytodecreaseVMTorGHGemissions.Severalstates,includingNewJerseyandPennsylvania,havesubstantiallyincreasedtheirfueltaxes,eitherthroughone-timeincreasesorbyindexingthemtoinflationorothermeasures.Others,suchasTexas,haveexpandedtheuseoftolling.Georgia,Texas,andCaliforniahaveimplementedcongestionpricingforoptionaltolllanes.CaliforniaandNewYorkimposehighertollsonbridgesduringpeakhoursandbothhaveconsideredthecordon-pricingformofcongestionpricing,inwhichdriverspayatolltotravelintoadesignatedareaduringpeaktimes,inselectedlocations.Agrowingnumberofstatesisconsideringmileage-basedfeesasareplacementforfueltaxes.FollowingOregon’slead,Californiaislaunchingapilotstudyofmileage-basedfeesandseveralotherstatesareconsideringsuchstudies.Stateshavenotproposedpoliciesthatimposehigherpricesonvehicleswithhigherper-mileGHGemissions.

1https://www.arb.ca.gov/cc/scopingplan/2030sp_pp_final.pdf,page1042https://www.arb.ca.gov/planning/sip/2016sip/2016mobsrc.pdf,page373https://arb.ca.gov/cc/sb375/policies/policies.htm

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InfilldevelopmentDevelopmentdecisionsaretraditionallytheresponsibilityoflocalgovernments,bothcitiesandcounties,butstatepolicycaninfluencethesedecisions.Severalstates,includingCalifornia,Arizona,Connecticut,Delaware,andMaryland,haveadoptedrequirementsforlocalgovernmentstoconsiderGHGemissionsintheirplans.CaliforniarequiresMetropolitanPlanningOrganizations(MPOs)inthestatetodevelopSustainableCommunitiesStrategiesthatincludelandusepoliciesthatwillhelptoreduceGHGemissions.MPOsdonothavelanduseauthority,however,andthusrelyongrantprogramstoencouragecitiesandcountiestoimplementthesepolicies.Atthestate-level,Californiahascreatedanumberofgrantprogramstoencourageinfilldevelopmentandhasadoptedchangestostatepolicythataimtoeasethewayforinfilldevelopment;researchersarebeginningtoexaminetheimpactofthesepolicies.State-levelgrowthmanagementpolicies,suchasthoseadoptedbyOregonandsomenortheasternstates,alsohelptoencourageinfilldevelopment,atleastindirectly.TransportationinvestmentsinbicyclingandwalkingManystates,includingCalifornia,haveadoptedbicycleandpedestrianplans,andseveralhaveestablishedgrantprogramsforlocalgovernmentsforfundingforfacilities.Whilestateshaveofteninitiatedsafe-routes-to-schoolprograms,theirsupportforothereducationalandpromotionalprogramshasbeenmorelimited.Severalstateshaveinvestedinrecreationaltrailsthatmayalsoserveastransportationroutes.Nostateshaveadoptedpoliciestosubsidizeorincentivizebicyclepurchases,thoughsuchprogramsarecommoninEurope.Overall,stateshaveplayedakeyroleinsupportinglocaleffortstoshiftdriverstowalkingandbiking.TransportationinvestmentsintransitTransitsystemsintheU.S.primarilydependonacombinationoffederalfundsandregionalandlocaltaxes,butstatefundingisalsoimportant.InCalifornia,thestateallocatesapproximately$2.5billiontotransiteachyearthroughseveraldifferentprogramsthattargetspecificneeds.4Statesalsosupporttransitthroughthedevelopmentofstatewidetransitplansandtheimplementationofprogramsthathelptofillneedsnotmetbytransitagencies.TransportationdemandmanagementManyemployersacrosstheU.S.havevoluntarilyimplementedprogramstoencouragetheiremployeestochooseoptionsotherthandrivingalonetowork,butstate-levelrequirementsforemployer-basedtripreductionprogramsarerare.WashingtonandOregonrequireemployersofacertainsizeand/orincertainlocationstoadoptsuchprograms.Severalstateshaveestablishedtelecommutingprogramsforstateemployees,butstateshavenotadoptedrequirementsforprivateemployerstoestablishsuchprograms.

4CaliforniaTransportationFinancingSummary,FiscalYear2015–2016http://www.dot.ca.gov/docs/CA_Transportation_Financing_Package_2015-16.pdf.

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Introduction TheCaliforniaGlobalWarmingSolutionsActof2006(AssemblyBill32)createdacomprehensive,multi-yearprogramtoreducegreenhousegas(GHG)emissionsinthestateto80%below1990levelsby2050.WiththerecentpassageofSenateBill32,theStateofCaliforniahasadoptedanadditionaltargetofreducinggreenhousegasemissionsto40%below1990levelsby2030.Tomeetthesegoals,thestatemustachievea15percentreductionintotaltravelbylight-dutyvehiclesby2050comparedtoexpectedlevels.5,6Undercurrentstatepolicies,reductionsofthismagnitudeareunlikely.Strongevidenceexiststhatstrategiesacrossfourcategories–pricing,infilldevelopment,transportationinvestments,andtraveldemandmanagementprograms–canreducevehiclemilesoftravel(VMT).7Thestatecandirectlyimplementsomeofthesestrategies,particularlypricingstrategies,throughstate-levelpolicies.Othersdependonactionsbyregionalandlocalgovernments,thoughstate-levelpoliciescanencouragetheirimplementationthroughincentives,requirements,orothermechanisms.Researchshowsthatlocallevelclimateactionhappenswhenitisenabledbystronglocalchampions,supportiveresidents,andstateandnationalpoliciesandactions(Salon,et.al,2014).Inthispaper,weidentifypoliciesandprogramsthatareimplementedorbeingconsideredatthestatelevelforeachcategoryofstrategies.Ourgoalistoprovideinformationthatlaysthegroundworkforastate-wideVMTprojectionframework.8Inaddition,asCaliforniaisformulatingpoliciesandprogramsforVMTreduction,theinformationpresentedinthispapermayhelpguidetheprioritizationandrefinementofstatepolicies.Stateshaveamoredirectroleinimplementingpricingstrategiesandshapingtransportationinvestmentsthantheydoinpromotinginfilldevelopmentandtransportationdemandmanagementprograms,butexamplesofstate-levelpoliciesarefoundacrossallfourcategoriesofstrategies.

Pricing StategovernmentshaveimplementedavarietyofpricingstrategiesthatresultinVMTreductions,mostnotablyfueltaxes,mileagebasedfees,andtolls.Manyrecentlylaunchedpricingstrategiesweremotivatedbythegoalofincreasingfundingfortransportationinthefaceofdecreasingfederalhighwayfundsandfuel-relatedrevenues.Whensponsorspitchpricingstrategiestoeithertothepublicortolegislators,someemphasizerevenuegenerationthroughfeeswhileothersemphasizecongestionreductionthroughpricing.Althoughtheimpulseandlanguagediffers,theeffectofincreasedcostsonconsumersremainsthesame:decreasedvehicle-milestraveledperperson.5https://www.arb.ca.gov/cc/scopingplan/2030sp_pp_final.pdf,page1046https://www.arb.ca.gov/planning/sip/2016sip/2016mobsrc.pdf,page377https://arb.ca.gov/cc/sb375/policies/policies.htm8https://ncst.ucdavis.edu/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/State-Level-VMT-Strategies-White-Paper_LP_EB1.pdf

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Publicsupportfortaxesthatgotowardsimprovedroadmaintenancehasincreasedasroadconditionshavedeteriorated.Anationalrandom-digit-dialpublicopinionpollcompletedtoassesssupportlevelsforthetaxoptionsfoundthatundercertainconditionsmostAmericanswouldsupporthighertaxesfortransportation(AgrawalandNixon,2017):78%ofrespondentssupportedagastaxincreaseof10¢pergalloniftherevenuesfundedroadmaintenanceandiffundswereintendedtoimprovesafety,thesupportwasalsoveryhighat65%.Thisreportweexaminedseveraltypesofpricingstrategiesincludingfueltax,mileage-basedfees,tolls,congestionandareatolls,andvariousrelationalapproachestopricingpolicies.Table1providesanoverviewofstate-levelpricingstrategiesthathavebeenadoptedorproposed,categorizedbytype.

Fuel Taxes Fueltaxpolicycan“controlexternalitiesassociatedwithautomobileuse”andraisegovernmentrevenue(Liet.al,2012).Allstatesandthefederalgovernmentimposeataxongasolinetofundfacilitymaintenanceandexpansions.Researchshowsthatincreasedfuelcostscurbfuelusage(Boarnet,et.al,2014)andthusreducegreenhousegases.Manystates,aswellasthefederalgovernment,havenotraisedtheirfueltaxaccordingtoinflationandnowfindthattheydonothaveenoughfundingtocovertransportationinfrastructureneeds.Severalstateshaverecentlyapprovedregulationsthatlinkthetaxtoaninflationindex,includingMassachusetts,NorthCarolina,andVermont,seetable1.RhodeIslandfueltaxisspecificallyindexedtotheConsumerPriceIndexforallUrbanConsumers(CPI-U).NorthCarolinadevelopedataxformulathatconsidersnotonlyinflation,butstatepopulation.NorthCarolinaSenateBill20,2015statesthefollowing:

ForcalendaryearsbeginningonorafterJanuary1,2018,themotorfuelexcisetaxrateistheamountfortheprecedingcalendaryear,multipliedbyapercentage.Thepercentageisonehundredpercent(100%)plusorminusthesumofthefollowing:(1)Thepercentagechangeinpopulationfortheapplicablecalendaryear,asestimatedunderG.S.143C-2-2,multipliedbyseventy-fivepercent(75%).(2)TheannualpercentagechangeintheConsumerPriceIndexforAllUrbanConsumers,multipliedbytwenty-fivepercent(25%).Forpurposesofthissubdivision,"ConsumerPriceIndexforAllUrbanConsumers"meanstheUnitedStatescityaverageforenergyindexcontainedinthedetailedreportreleasedintheOctoberpriortotheapplicablecalendaryearbytheBureauofLaborStatisticsoftheUnitedStatesDepartmentofLabor.9

9http://www.ncleg.net/Sessions/2015/Bills/Senate/PDF/S20v7.pdf?sessionId=1500312975876&referrer=https://www.google.com/&lastReferrer=www.taxrates.com

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Otherstatescontinuetoraisetaxesinpriceincrements.Georgiaincreaseditstaxesfrom7.5centsto26centsforgasolineand29centsfordiesel.Tennesseeproposedthattherevenuesgeneratedfromthetaxincreasewouldbeappliedspecificallytoaregionaltransitsystem.Kentuckytieditsgasolinetaxtowholesalefuelpricestopreventthetaxfromfallingbelow26cents.Somestatesallowlocalauthoritiestolevyadditionaltaxesonfuel;GoldmanandWachsreportedin2003thatatleast9stateshadenactedsuchlawsinwhichsomerequiredvoterapprovalandotherdidnot(2003).Oregon,Nevada,andFloridaallowlocalfueltaxes(seeTable1).Asanexample,Oregonenactedalaw(ORS319.950)thatallowsacity,county,orotherlocalgovernmenttotaxfuelformotorvehiclesaftersubmittingtheproposedtaxtotheelectorsofthelocalgovernmentfortheirapproval.Oregonlawadditionallylimitsthetaxesexclusivelyforthe“construction,reconstruction,improvement,repair,maintenance,operationanduseofpublichighways,roads,streetsandroadsiderestareasinthisstate.”(OregonConstitution,ArticleIX,Section3a).In2016,Portlandvotersapprovedatemporary“10-cent-a-gallontaxongasolinewithincitylimits,creatingthehighestlocalgastaxinthestate.”10Statesarerevisingthedefinitionoffuelfortaxingpurposestoraisetransportationfundingandtoequalizethefeesforallroadusers,regardlessoffueltype.Theresultisthatthoseusingalternativefuelsnowpaytheirshareoftaxforroadusage.Connecticut,Florida,andTennesseearesomestatesthathaveexpandedthedefinitionoffuelgoingbeyondgasolineanddieseltoincludebiodiesel,gasohol,propane,naturalgasandinConnecticut(CGS12-458),“liquidsthatgeneratethepowerneededtopropelamotorvehicle.”

Mileage Fees Publicopinionultimatelydecidesifpricingstrategypoliciesareviable.Currentresearchsuggeststhatthereisnotmajoritysupportformileage-baseduserfeespricing(Agrawal,NixonandHooper,2016).A2016studyfoundthat“opponentsofmileageuser-feeexceedsupportersbyaratioof4–1”(Duncan,et.al,2017).ConcernsoverprivacyandimplementationcostsespeciallyaffectthepoliticalfeasibilityofVMTpricingstrategies(DuncanandGraham,2013).PilotstudiesperformedinOregonandIowasuggestthatmileage-basedfeepricingsuccessistiedtocommunication,engagement,andmessagingaboutthestrategy,bothwithrespecttothelawmakersandtothepublic(WhittyandSvadlenak,2009).Forexample,authorsPerez,BatacandVovsharanktheexpecteddifficultyinpolitical/publicacceptanceintermsoffacilitytypesandtheyfoundpricingchangestoexistingtollareas“moreacceptable,”butchargingcordontollsonexistingnon-tollfacilities“provesdifficult”(Perez,BatacandVovsha,2012).StatesaswellastheFederalHighwayAdministrationrecognizethegrowingdividebetweentransportationneedsandtheabilitytomeetthemwiththeircurrentfueltaxstructure.Statesregardausage-basedtaxes,alsocalledmileage-baseduserfees(MBUF)orroadusagefees,orothertermsthatarebasedonvehicle-milestraveled,asapotentialalternativefinancingmechanism.Demonstratingnotableinterest,federal,state,regional,andmulti-stateagencies10http://www.oregonlive.com/politics/index.ssf/2016/05/portland_gas_tax_road_repairs.html

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haveprovidedfundingtofurtherexploretheconcept.11AsshowninTable1,mileage-baseduserfeepricinghasbeentriedatthescaleofpilotstudiesinsomemetropolitanregions,atthestatelevel,andacrossstateboundariesasinthecaseofacoalitionofnortheasternstates.In2012theU.S.GovernmentAccountabilityOfficecalledforfederalmileagefeestudy.12Fewpilotstudieshavebeencompletedtodate,butmanystatesareconsideringstudiesorareintheprocessofresearchingVMTtaxation.Severalstatesareresearchingvariousaspectsofmileagetaxation,layingthegroundworkforpotentialfeechanges.Completedin2010,aUniversityofIowastudywasthefirsttoevaluateroaduserchargesonanationalandmultijurisdictionalscale.The2-yearfieldstudyevaluatedthetechnicalfeasibilityanduseracceptanceofmileage-basedchargingin12metropolitanareasthroughoutthecountry(HanleyandKuhl,2011).13In2010,thetransportationagenciesintheI-95CorridorCoalitioncompletedaninitialstudyabouttheadministrative,legal,andlegislativeaspectsamileage-baseduserfeesysteminamulti-stateenvironment(I-95Coalition,2010).Inasecondphase,theCoalitionconductedacasestudywithMaryland,Delaware,andPennsylvaniathatincludedresearchontransitioningfromthecurrentfueltaxbasedrevenuecollectiontoonebasedonusagemiles(I-95Coalition,2012).Oregoncompletedmileage-basedpilotprogramsin2006and2012.In2015,Oregonthenlaunchedapermanentprogramwithamaximumof5,000participantsthatarebeingchargedbasedonroadusageanditisnowpreparedtolaunchstatewideonceithaslegislativeapproval.14Otherstatesmayfollow.InFebruaryof2017,Coloradobegananewpilotstudytodeterminetheviabilityofaroadusagechargetosustainablyfundtheirtransportationneeds.Withitsuniqueabilitytodovehicleresearchatthestatelevel,Hawaiiispoisedtolaunchthelargeststudyyetandhasbeenawardedalmost$4milliontostudythecollectionofuserfeesbasedonmanualandautomatedodometerreadingsatinspectionstations.Recognizingtheneedforlong-termreplacementoftheoutdatedgastax,SenateBill107715authorizedCaliforniatostudyaroadchargeasapotentialreplacement.Tothisend,Californialaunchedafieldtrialwith5,000participantsinJuly2016.16Illinois,Indiana,Minnesota,Texas,andWashingtonhavealsoconductedstudiesrelatedtomileagebasedpricing(seeTable1).

Tolls and Congestion Pricing Pricingstrategiessuchastollingbecomeanattractiveoptionwhenfundingsourcesarerestricted.Whenfederalfundingislimitedorreduced,orwhenstatetaxpayersdisapproveofincreasedspendingonroadinfrastructure,statesandtransportationdepartmentsturntotolloptionsforbothfacilityexpansionsandmaintenanceofexistingsystems.11https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/revenue/road_pricing/defined/vmt.aspx12http://www.gao.gov/assets/660/650863.pdf13https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/pressroom/fhwa1648.cfm;seealso:https://hidot.hawaii.gov/administration/files/2016/09/Hawaii-FAST-Act-RUC-Project-Narrative_v12-Final_.pdf14http://www.myorego.org/about/;seealso:http://usa.streetsblog.org/2017/06/26/oregons-pay-per-mile-driving-fees-ready-for-prime-time-but-waiting-for-approval/15http://leginfo.legislature.ca.gov/faces/billNavClient.xhtml?bill_id=201320140SB107716https://www.californiaroadchargepilot.com/about/

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Moststateshavetollingprograms,includingCalifornia(seeTable1);somehaveusedinnovativeapproachestoassessorcalculatefees.Forexample,Connecticuthaspassedatollthatappliesonlytolargecargotrucksandusesanelectronictollstationtominimizescheduleimpact.Floridaisindexingthefeestoinflationthroughtheconsumerpriceindex.Georgia,alongwithseveralotherstatesnotlistedhere,isusingcongestionpricingonoptionaltolllanes.Texashasapolicythatsaysallnewhighwaysandallreconstructionsshouldbeevaluatedfortolls.InstudiesfundedbytheIntermodalSurfaceTransportationEfficiencyActof1991(ISTEA),fourmetropolitanplanningorganizations(MPOs)incorporatedroadpricingintheirlong-rangetransportationplansandnowserveasexamplesforotherregions(U.S.DepartmentofTransportation,2011).Economistsagreethatcongestion-basedtollingrepresentsthesinglemostviableandsustainableapproachtoreducingtrafficcongestion(U.S.DepartmentofTransportation,2011).Itisalsoameanstosecuretransportationfunding.Congestionpricing,sometimescalledvaluepricing,istheconceptofchargingavariablefeebasedonthenumber,orvolume,ofvehiclesusingabridge,road,tunnel,lane,ordesignatedzone.Thepriceisadjustedupwardduringtimesofcongestionanddownward,possiblyeveneliminated,whenthefacilityisnotcongested.Ineffect,congestionpricingaimstochangebehaviorthrougheconomicstimuli.Newtechnologyallowstollstobevariedbyacombinationoffactorssuchastimeofday,congestionlevel,vehicleoccupancy,dayofweek,season,paymentmethod,andbyotherinnovativescenarios.Forexample,technologyhasincreasedthecapabilityforzonepricing,alsocalledcordonorareapricing,whereintollscanbevariedbasedonresidencyorvehicletypetoaccountforthosethatliveinordelivertoazone(seebelow).Technologycanalsoenablethepricetovaryasoftenaseverythreeminutes(Perez,BatacandVovsha,2012).

Cordon Pricing (Area Tolling) Cordonpricingisalsoknownaszone-basedpricing,orareaorarea-widetolling.Cordonpricingisasystemwhereafeeisimposedondriversastheyenteraspecificarea,generallyacitycenterandcanvarybasedontimeofdayand/ortrafficdensity.Financiallyspeaking,cordonpricingisconsideredaregressivetax;however,someconsideritequivalenttotypicalregressivefueltaxesandsuggestthatitcouldbeoffsetbyreducinganotherregressivetax(MercatusCenter,2017).ThissystemhasbeenusedinlargecitiesoutsideoftheUnitedStatesbeginningwithSingaporein1975,thenLondonin2003,andfinallyStockholmin2006(Ops.fhwa.dot.gov,2017).Allofthesecasesshowsignificantreductionsinroadcongestionandsimultaneouslyincreasesintransitridership.AlthoughbothStockholmandLondonincreasedtransitserviceswellaheadofthefeeimplementation,ridershipdidnotchangesignificantlyuntilafterthecongestionfeewasenacted.CordonpricinghasbeenconsideredbutnotyetimplementedintheU.S.NewYorkCityproposedcordonpricingwithwidespreadpublicsupport,andtheCityCouncilapprovedit,butitwasrejectedin2008bytheStateLegislature.Theproposalcontinuestobediscussedasit

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awaitspoliticalwill,financialresources,andstateresolvetobeenacted(FerminoandDurkin,2015;Anon,2017).CaliforniahasauthorizedTreasureIsland,intheSanFranciscoBayArea,toformatransitauthorityandtoimplementcordonpricing.SanFranciscoconsideredthefeasibilityofarea-widepricingthroughaprogramcalledMobility,Access,andPricingStudy(MAPS).MAPSfoundthatpricingcouldbeahighlyeffectivewaytomanagetheirtransportationsystemandsupportthecity’sfuturegrowthplans.17LosAngeleshasimplementedapilotprogramcalledExpressTravelChoicestostudycordonpricing;asoffall2016itisengagingstakeholders,reviewingeconomicandenvironmentaljusticecomponentsofthecordonproject.

Other Pricing Strategies Anotherstate-levelstrategyoptionistoallowlocalagenciestoimplementpricingstrategiesthatgobeyondstate-levelpricing.Asnotedabove,CaliforniahasauthorizedtheTreasureIslandtotransitauthoritytoimplementcordonpricingandhasauthorizedalocally-controlledtollingsystemthroughtheBayAreaExpressLaneNetwork.Texashasauthorizedlocally-ownedtollprojectsinperpetuity.Parkingpricingisanotherlocalstrategythatstatescanencourage.IncreasesinthecostofparkinghavethepotentialtoreduceVMTsignificantly(Spears,et.al,2014).Analternativetoincreasingparkingcostsisa“parkingcash-out”approach.Atthefederallevel,taxlawexemptsemployer-providedtransitpassesandothertransportation-relatedbenefitsfromfederalincometaxesuptoanamountequivalenttothecostofparkingofferedotheremployees.Californiahasalawwithasimilarpurpose,enactedin1992andupdatedin1998,referredtoasthe“cash-outlaw.”Incontrasttofederallaw,California’scash-outlawrequirestheparticipationofemployersthathaveatleast50employeesandprovideleasedorsubsidizedparkingspacesfortheirworkers(Weikel,2015).Reducingparkingavailabilityisanotherwaytoincreaseparkingcost.TheDistrictofColumbia,likemanylocalauthorities,useflexiblezoningtoreduceparkingrequirementsfordevelopments,intheircaseby30%.18In2004,Londonshiftedfromminimumrequirementstomaximumrequirementsforparkingspacesfornewdevelopments,resultingina40%reductioninthenumberofparkingspacesprovided(GuoandRen,2013).ProvidingmoreparkingintherightplacescanalsohelptoreduceVMT.In2009,Connecticutproposedabilltobuildadditionalparkingattransitlocationsthatwouldencouragecoreareaworkerstocommuteviatransit.

17http://www.sfcta.org/sites/default/files/content/Planning/CongestionPricingFeasibilityStudy/PDFs/MAPS_fact_sheet_080113.pdf18https://library.municode.com/wa/arlington/codes/code_of_ordinances?nodeId=TIT20ZO_CH20.72PA_20.72.084REPASPREPRALTR&showChanges=true

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Table 1 Summary of State-Level Pricing Policies

FuelTax§ California,2017.12centgastaxincrease,20centdieselexcise,4%dieselsalestax,andzeroemissionvehicleregistrationfees19

§ Connecticut,2016.Fueltaxincludes“Diesel,gasohol,propane,andcombustiblegasesorliquidsthatgeneratethepowerneededtopropelamotorvehicle”20

§ Florida,2014.Begantaxingnaturalgasasamotorfuel21Allowscountiestolevyfueltaxes.22§ Georgia,2015.Increasedmotorfueltaxsignificantly(from7.5to26and29centsforgasanddieselrespectively)23

§ Kentucky,2015.Gasolinetaxtiedtowholesalefuelpricestopreventfallingbelow26centspergallon24

§ Massachusetts,2015.Gasolinetaxincreasedandindexedtoinflation25§ Nevada,2013.Localauthoritiespermittedtoenactadditionaltaxesonmotorfuelswithvoterapproval26

§ NorthCarolina,2015.Gastaxtiedtoaformulabasedonboththeconsumerpriceindexandpopulation.StartingJan.1,2018,theratewillchangeatthebeginningofeachyearbasedonastatutoryformulathattakesintoconsiderationpopulationandenergycostinflation.27,28,29

§ Oregon,2013.Allowslocalgovernmentstotaxfuel.30§ RhodeIsland,2014.GasolinetaxindexedtoConsumerPricingIndexforUrbanconsumersonly31§ Tennessee,2017.Proposedfueltaxincreaseby7centsongasolineand12centondieseltopayforregionaltransitsystem32

§ Vermont,2013.Gasolinetaxtiedtoinflation33

19http://mtc.ca.gov/sites/default/files/MTC_SB_1_Bill_Summary_4-7-17.pdf20https://www.cga.ct.gov/2016/rpt/pdf/2016-R-0191.pdf21https://www.flsenate.gov/Committees/BillSummaries/2013/html/43922http://floridarevenue.com/taxes/taxesfees/Pages/local_option.aspx23https://tti.tamu.edu/policy/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/TTI-Testimony-091015.revenue-strategies-other-states.pdf24https://tti.tamu.edu/policy/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/TTI-Testimony-091015.revenue-strategies-other-states.pdf25https://tti.tamu.edu/policy/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/TTI-Testimony-091015.revenue-strategies-other-states.pdf26http://www.reviewjournal.com/news/politics-and-government/clark-county/clark-county-fuel-tax-increase-passes-double-digit-margin27http://knowledgecenter.csg.org/kc/content/state-gas-tax-increases-201528https://www.ncdot.gov/about/finance/29http://www.ncleg.net/Sessions/2015/Bills/Senate/PDF/S20v7.pdf?sessionId=1500312975876&referrer=https://www.google.com/&lastReferrer=www.taxrates.com30https://www.oregonlaws.org/ors/2013/319.95031http://flrules.elaws.us/fac/14-15.0081/32https://nextcity.org/daily/entry/dem-mayor-and-gop-gov-align-on-transpo-plan33https://tti.tamu.edu/policy/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/TTI-Testimony-091015.revenue-strategies-other-states.pdf

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Mileage-basedfees§ Federal,2012.Proposaltoassessfederalmileagefeestofundsurfacetransportation34§ 12states,2005.UniversityofIowastudiedthetechnicalfeasibilityanduseracceptanceofmileage-basedcharging35

§ NEStatesandHawaii,2010.I-95CorridorCoalitionstudyonVMT,findsthatamulti-stateVMTfeeisadministrativelyviable.36,37,38

§ California,2014.SB1077authorizedroadusagechargepilotprogram;findingsexpectedinsummer2017.RoadChargePilotProgramengagesthepublictogainfeedbackonconcernsofprivacy,datasecurityandtechnology39

§ Colorado,2007.Authorized,findingsexpectedin2017.Roadusagepilotprogramresearchingpay-by-milesystemasafundingsource,comparingrural/urbandrivers,environmentalconditions,andreportingtechnologies40

§ Connecticut.2016.Proposalforamileagefeepilotproject41§ Hawaii,authorized2016.Anticipating1millionparticipants,statewideroadusagechargedemonstrationwithcontinuousfeedbackandmodification.42

§ Illinois,2013.VMTistiedtoregistrationfee,intendedforlowmileagevehicles.43§ Indiana,2014.Studyoftransportationfundingincludingbasedonvehicleweight,milestraveled,roadcharges,anddamagecaused44,45

§ Massachusetts,2016.ProposedVMTpilotprogram,politicallyopposed46,47§ Minnesota,1995.Studytodemonstratetechnologieswhichwillallowforthefuturereplacementofthegastaxwithafuel-neutralmileagecharge48

§ Oregon,2013.OregonpassesSenateBill810establishingthenation'sfirstmileage-based(orroadusage)revenueprogramforlightvehicles.49

§ Oregon,2015.OReGO–Volunteer,RoadUser-paysPricingSolution,for5,00050§ Texas,2010.VMTstudyidentifiedchallengestoacceptance,but,opportunitiesforfinancing,

34http://www.gao.gov/assets/660/650863.pdf35http://trrjournalonline.trb.org/doi/pdf/10.3141/2221-0236http://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/tools/TL100/TL104/RAND_TL104.pdf,pp.1337http://i95coalition.org/projects/transportation-financing/38http://news.transportation.org/Pages/NewsReleaseDetail.aspx?NewsReleaseID=148839https://www.californiaroadchargepilot.com/about/;alsosee:http://leginfo.legislature.ca.gov/faces/billNavClient.xhtml?bill_id=201320140SB107740https://www.codot.gov/news/2016-news-releases/11-2016/cdot-announces-road-usage-charge-pilot-research-program41http://www.ctpost.com/local/article/Lawmakers-run-down-mileage-tax-8328079.php42https://hidot.hawaii.gov/administration/files/2016/09/Hawaii-FAST-Act-RUC-Project-Narrative_v12-Final_.pdf43http://www.cyberdriveillinois.com/departments/vehicles/cft/mileageintro.html44http://news.indiana.edu/releases/iu/2016/10/mileage-user-fee-study.shtml45https://iga.in.gov/legislative/2014/bills/house/110446http://www.masslive.com/politics/index.ssf/2016/07/legislature_poised_to_ask_for.html47http://www.masslive.com/politics/index.ssf/2016/08/citing_western_massachusetts_d.html48https://ops.fhwa.dot.gov/publications/fhwahop11030/cm_primer_cs.pdf49https://olis.leg.state.or.us/liz/2013R1/Downloads/MeasureDocument/SB81050http://www.myorego.org/about/

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recommendedatrialonelectricvehicles.51§ Washington,2017.Roadusagechargepilotprojectbeginsinfall2017withvisionofper-milesystem52

TollCharges§ Connecticut,2011.LargecargotruckonlytollusingE-Zpasstollstations53§ Florida,2016.Indexedtollstoinflation(ConsumerPricingIndex)54§ Texas,2003.Legislationconvertsnon-tollstatehighwayintoatollfacility.55§ Texas,2014.Legislationallowslocallyownedtollprojectsinperpetuity56§ Texas,2015.Acceptanceofcongestionpricedtollsandallnewlimitedaccesshighwaysshouldbeevaluatedfortollpotentialandallreconstructionsshouldincludepricedexpresslanesasappropriate57

Congestion-PricedTolling§ USDOT,2008.UrbanPartnershipAgreementProgramformetropolitanareas(UPA)gainedcommitmenttousecongestionpricingintheselocations:581. LosAngeles,CA592. SanFrancisco,CA3. Seattle,WA4. Minneapolis,MN5. Miami,FL6. Atlanta,GA60

§ California,2010.StateownedbridgesinSanFranciscobayareabasedoncongestion.61§ Georgia,2013.Congestionpriced,optionaltolllanes.“dynamically-pricedtolllanesareintendedtoofferamorereliabletrip”62,63

§ Texas,2009.Acceptanceofcongestionpricedtollsandallnewlimitedaccesshighwaysshouldbeevaluatedfortollpotentialandallreconstructionsshouldincludepricedexpresslanesasappropriate64Texpresswillbettermanagemobilityandcongestionrelief65

§ Washington,2008.Congestionpricedtolllanesandbridge,freeforcarpools66

51https://texashistory.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metapth303676/m1/52https://waroadusagecharge.org/#what-is-ruc53https://www.cga.ct.gov/2011/TOB/H/2011HB-05949-R00-HB.htm54http://flrules.elaws.us/fac/14-15.0081/55https://static.tti.tamu.edu/tti.tamu.edu/documents/PRC-14-3-F.pdf56http://d2dtl5nnlpfr0r.cloudfront.net/tti.tamu.edu/documents/PRC-14-3-F.pdf57https://ops.fhwa.dot.gov/publications/fhwahop11030/cm_primer_cs.pdf58https://ntl.bts.gov/lib/55000/55600/55668/UPA_2015_Final_9-17-15.pdf59https://www.metroexpresslanes.net/en/about/history_about.shtml60http://www.georgiatolls.com/about/history-statutes/61http://www.eastbaytimes.com/2010/06/28/bay-area-bridge-toll-questions-answered/62http://www.srta.ga.gov/georgia-express-lanes/63http://www.peachpass.com/blog/tolling-a-part-of-georgias-transportation-past-and-future64https://ops.fhwa.dot.gov/publications/fhwahop11030/cm_primer_cs.pdf65http://www.texpresslanes.com/maps/texpress-lanes-map66http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/Tolling/TollRates.htm

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AreaTolls–CordonPricing§ California,2017.StudyofcordonpricinginLosAngelesareaandproposinganidealscenarioofaLAcountywidenetworkofdualHOTlanes67,68,69

§ California,2013.SanFranciscoproducedafeasibilitystudyofareapricingwitharecommendationinfavor.70

§ California,2008.TreasureIslandCordonpricing,authorizedbystatelegislationAB981(2008)andAB141(2014)71

§ NewYork,2007.Proposedtousecordonpricing,withwidespreadpublicandlocalgovernmentsupport,butblockedbylegislature72

AuthorizationofLocalPricing§ California,2008.TreasureIslandCordonpricing,authorizedbystatelegislationAB981(2008)andAB141(2014)73

§ California,2009.BayAreaExpressLaneNetworkauthorizedbyAB74474§ Colorado,2013.Localgovernmentsgiventhepowertospendtheirportionofthestate’shighwayuser’staxfundonanassortmentoftransitprojects75

§ Nevada,2016.Countiesgivenlocalauthoritytoenactadditionaltaxesonmotorfuelswithvoterapproval76

§ Texas,2011.Legislationallowslocallyownedtollprojectsinperpetuity77ParkingPricing§ Federal.CombinationofTEA-21,TaxpayerReliefAct,andConsolidatedAppropriationsActestablishedtax-freecommuterbenefitsequaltoparkingbenefits78

§ California,1992.Parkingcash-outprogramtoencouragealternatecommuteoptions(AssemblyBill2109,Katz;Chapter554,Statutesof1992)79

§ Connecticut,2009.Proposaltoencouragetransitusebyofferingmoreparkingattransithubs80§ DistrictofColumbia,2015.Rule11-2101reducedparkingrequirementsupto30%.81,82

67https://ops.fhwa.dot.gov/congestionpricing/value_pricing/projects/involving_tolls/zone_based_pricing/ca_cordon_area_la.htm68http://www.dot.ca.gov/d12/planning/pdf/MLFS_final.pdf69https://www.scag.ca.gov/Documents/SCAG_ComprehensiveBudgetFY1617.pdf70http://www.sfcta.org/transportation-planning-and-studies/congestion-management/mobility-access-and-pricing-study-home71http://www.sfcta.org/sites/default/files/content/Planning/TreasureIsland/FinalReport/TIMMA_Pricing_report_072916.pdf72http://www.nyc.gov/html/dot/downloads/pdf/schaller_paper_2010trb.pdf73http://www.sfcta.org/sites/default/files/content/Planning/TreasureIsland/FinalReport/TIMMA_Pricing_report_072916.pdf74http://leginfo.legislature.ca.gov/faces/billNavClient.xhtml?bill_id=200920100AB74475https://tti.tamu.edu/policy/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/TTI-Testimony-091015.revenue-strategies-other-states.pdf76http://www.reviewjournal.com/news/politics-and-government/clark-county/clark-county-fuel-tax-increase-passes-double-digit-margin77http://www.lrl.state.tx.us/scanned/srcBillAnalyses/82-0/SB19INT.PDF78https://www.nctr.usf.edu/programs/clearinghouse/commutebenefits/79https://www.arb.ca.gov/planning/tsaq/cashout/cashout_guide_0809.pdf80https://www.cga.ct.gov/asp/cgabillstatus/cgabillstatus.asp?selBillType=Bill&bill_num=HB05033&which_year=200981https://www.municode.com/library/wa/arlington/codes/code_of_ordinances?nodeId=TIT20ZO_CH20.72PA_20.72.084REPASPREPRALTR&showChanges=true

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Infill Development Infilldevelopmentreferstobuildingwithinunusedandunderutilizedlandswithinexistingbuildingdevelopmentpatterns.83Althoughdevelopmentdecisionsaretheresponsibilityoflocalgovernments,statescaninfluencelocaldecisionsbyrequiringcitiestoadoptgeneralplansthatlayouttheirvisionsforgrowthanddevelopment.CaliforniaaswellasArizona,Connecticut,Delaware,andMarylandrequiregeneralplansthatdetailhowaregionwillgrowandhowitwillreducegreenhousegasemissions(seeTable2).Thisapproachallowsflexibilityandaccountsforlocalconditionswhenmeetingreductiongoalsforthestate.ResearchonlocalclimateactionbySalon,Murphy&Sciara(2014)foundthatstateornationalpoliciesshouldgivelocalcommunitiesasmuchlatitudeaspossibletotailorlocalactionstolocalneedsandopportunities.Californiahasbeenamongthemostaggressivestatesinadoptingpoliciestoencourageactionatthelocalleveltopromoteinfilldevelopment.California’sSB375(Steinberg,2008)andSB391(Liu,2009)wereadoptedtopromotemulti-modalinvestmentsandinfilldevelopment(GallivanandGrant,2010).UnderSB375,thestate’sMetropolitanPlanningOrganizations(MPOs)arerequiredtodevelopSustainableCommunityStrategiesinconjunctionwiththeirRegionalTransportationPlans.84SB391requirestheregionalSustainableCommunityStrategiestobeincorporatedintotheCaliforniaTransportationPlanandtoidentifythestatewideintegratedmultimodaltransportationsystemneededtoachievemaximumfeasibleemissionsreductions(GallivanandGrant,2010).Thesepolicieshavecausedthestate’sfourlargestMPOstoprioritizeinfilldevelopmentinareasservedbytransitalongwithinvestmentsinalternativestodriving(SciaraandHandy,2017).Californiahascreatedotherincentivesforinfilldevelopment.SB744,signedintolawin2015,reducesparkingrequirementsforsomeaffordablehousingproject,inadditiontoestablishingdensitybonuses.85SB743,signedintolawin2013,willfacilitateinfilldevelopmentbymovingthestateawayfromafocusonlevel-of-servicetoafocusonVMTimpactsinassessingtransportationimpactsundertheCaliforniaEnvironmentalQualityAct(CEQA).86SB226enactedastreamlinedCEQAreviewprocessforsomeinfillprojects.87California’sprioritydevelopmentareas(PDAs)arelocallydesignatedareaswithinexistingcommunitieswhereincreasedhousingorcommercialgrowthwillsupporttheday-to-dayneedsofresidentsandworkersinapedestrian-friendlyenvironmentservedbytransit.IntheSanFranciscoBayArea,morethan70cityandcountygovernmentshavevoluntarilydesignatedsome170locationsaroundtheBayAreaasPDAs.Californiahasalsoestablishedanumberofgrantprogramsthat

82http://www.dcregs.dc.gov/Gateway/ChapterHome.aspx?ChapterNumber=11-2183https://www.opr.ca.gov/s_infilldevelopment.php84https://www.arb.ca.gov/cc/sb375/sb375.htm85https://leginfo.legislature.ca.gov/faces/billNavClient.xhtml?bill_id=201520160AB74486http://leginfo.legislature.ca.gov/faces/billNavClient.xhtml?bill_id=201320140SB743;https://www.opr.ca.gov/s_sb743.php;87https://www.opr.ca.gov/s_sb226.php

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incentivizeinfillprojects.88,89Suchgrantprograms,alongwithstateandnationalfunding,providesignificantsupportforlocalclimateactioningeneral,althoughone-timeprograms,incontrasttoongoingfunding,havemorelimitedimpacts(Salon,et.al,2014).Otherstateshaveemployedavarietyofstrategiestoencourageinfilldevelopment(Table2).Asanincentivefordeveloperstochoosemorecentrallocationfortheirprojects,Floridaproposedtoenact“mobilityfees”thatmaketheconnectionbetweendistanceofadevelopmentfromthecoreareaandthecostofnewroads.Connecticutofferszoningflexibilitythatpromotesdensedevelopmentneartransit.RezoningundertheSmartGrowthZoningOverlayDistrictActinConnecticut,Chapter40R,requiresdensitiesofatleasteightunitsperacre,whichismorethandoubletypicalmetropolitandensity,substantiallyincreasingthesupplyofhousingandconsequentlydecreasingitscost.90NewMexicoencouragestheuseofTransferofDevelopmentRights(TDR),avoluntary,incentive-basedprogramthatallowslandownerstoselldevelopmentrightsfromtheirlandtoadeveloperorotherinterestedpartywhothencanusetheserightstoincreasethedensityofdevelopmentatanotherdesignatedlocation.Connecticuthasnewperformance-basedplanningandprogrammingrequirementswhereinactionsmustbeconsistentwithsixGrowthManagementPrinciples.Maryland,Delaware,Connecticut,NewJersey,Vermont,NewYork,Massachusetts,Pennsylvania,Maine)directstatefundingtogeographicareasdesignatedforgrowthorinfilldevelopmentandconstraininvestmentsinareasdesignatedforopenspaceorruralpreservation.Table 2 Examples of State-Level Infill Policies from Beyond California

PlanningRequirements§ Arizona.Legislationrequirescities,towns,andcountiestoadoptageneralplanthat

addresseslanduseandcirculation.91§ Connecticut.ConservationandDevelopmentplanoutlinessixstatewide(growth

managementprinciplesincorporatingprioritiesofcompactgrowth,housingopportunity,transportationcorridors,resourceconservation,environmentalprotections,andintegratedplanning)thataimtocoordinatefuturedevelopment.Thesesixprinciplesoutline,amongotherconsiderations,theneedtoredevelopandrevitalizeareaswithexistinginfrastructureandtoconcentratedevelopmentaroundtransportationhubsandcorridors.92

§ Delaware.ComprehensiveplanshavebeenrequiredfromlocalitiessincetheinceptionoftheShapingDelaware’sFutureActin1995.93

§ Maryland.Smart,GreenandGrowingprogramrequiresMaryland’scountiestotrackandannuallyreportgrowth-relatedindicatorstoMDP.94

88http://sgc.ca.gov/Grant-Programs/89http://www.sgc.ca.gov/Grant-Programs/AHSC-Program.html90http://www.mass.gov/hed/community/planning/chapter-40-r.html91http://database.aceee.org/state/transportation-system-efficiency;seealso:http://www.azleg.gov/legtext/47leg/2r/summary/h.hb2294_03-01-06_asengrossedandaspassedhouse.doc.htm92http://database.aceee.org/state/transportation-system-efficiency93http://database.aceee.org/state/transportation-system-efficiency

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OtherStrategies§ Connecticut.PublicAct08-182outlinesnewperformance-basedplanningand

programmingrequirementswhereinactionsmustbeconsistentwiththesixGrowthManagementPrinciples,designating“PriorityFundingAreas”95

§ Florida,2009.Proposaltoenact“mobilityfees”todiscouragenewroadconstructionbyputtinghigherdevelopmentfeesondevelopmentsfurtherfromacitycore96,97

§ Massachusetts.Chapter40R/40Ssubstantiallyincreasethesupplyofhousinganddecreaseitscost,byincreasingtheamountoflandzonedfordensehousing.98

§ NewMexico.TDRProgramisavoluntary,incentive-based,market-drivenapproachtopreservingagriculturalland,openspaceandothercriticalresourceswhileencouragingdevelopmentindesignatedCountygrowthareas.99

§ Virginia.HB2developedprioritizationprocessestoevaluateprojectsby:congestionmitigation,economicdevelopment,accessibility,safety,environmentalqualityandlandusecoordination(inareaswithover200,000population).100

§ NEstates.(Maryland,Delaware,Connecticut,NewJersey,Vermont,NewYork,Massachusetts,Pennsylvania,Maine)directstatefundingtogeographicareasdesignatedforgrowthorinfilldevelopmentandconstraininvestmentsinareasdesignatedforopenspaceorruralpreservation.101

Transportation Investments Statepoliciesthatdirectinvestmenttowardthreecategoriesoftransportationmodes–bicycle,pedestrian,andtransitservice–havethepotentialtoreduceVMTbyencouragingashiftfromdriving.Here,theterm“investment”referstofundingallocatedtowardinfrastructureaswellasnon-infrastructureimprovementssuchasplanning,travelsurveys,education,andoutreach.Thefollowingsubsectionconsidersinvestmentinbicycleandpedestrianprogramstogetherbecausepoliciesareoftensimilarorthesemodesarecombinedunderonepolicy.Thesubsectionontransitfocusesoninvestmentmadebythestatesratherthantheallocationoffederalfundingthroughthestates.WedonotdiscussinvestmentinhighwaysbecauseavailableresearchshowsthatincreasedhighwaycapacityleadstoincreasesinVMT.

94http://www.mass.gov/envir/smart_growth_toolkit/pages/state-policy.html95http://www.ct.gov/opm/lib/opm/igp/org/cdupdate/2013-2018_cd_plan.pdf96http://www.fdot.gov/research/Completed_Proj/Summary_PL/FDOT_BDK84%20977-02_rpt.pdf97http://www.fdot.gov/intermodal/mobility/MobilityFee.pdf98http://www.mass.gov/envir/smart_growth_toolkit/pages/state-policy.html99https://www.santafecountynm.gov/growth_management/planning/tdr100http://vasmartscale.org/documents/hb2_quick_guidev3.pdf101http://www.georgetownclimate.org/files/report/report-tci-state-level-programs-policies-supporting-sustainable-communities.pdf

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Bicycle and Pedestrian Investments Grant Programs Researchsuggeststhattheconnectionbetweenbicycleandpedestrianinfrastructureandtheamountofbikingandwalkingareinfluencedbyseveralfactors,includinginfrastructureextentandquality,streetnetworkcharacteristics,andpromotionalprogramsavailablefortravelers.102Themostcommonwayforstatestoinvestinactivetransportationisthroughgrantprogramsthatallocatefundingtolocalgovernments.Severalstateshaveimplementedgrantprogramsforactivetransportationprojectsandprograms.In2013,CaliforniaGovernorJerryBrownsignedlegislationcreatingtheActiveTransportationProgram(ATP)(SenateBill99,Chapter359andAssemblyBill101,Chapter354).TheATPconsolidatesthreeexistingfederalandstatetransportationprogramsintoasinglegrantprogramthatallocatesfundingtoinfrastructureprojects,plans,andnon-infrastructureprojects(education,encouragement,andenforcement)relatedtoactivetransportation.103SimilartotheATP,Oregon’sActiveTransportationSectionandWashington’sPedestrianandBicycleProgramserveasthestatewideall-inclusiveprogramthatsupportsbothinfrastructureandnon-infrastructureprojectsrelatedtoactivetransportation.104,105Manystate-levelprogramsalsooffergrantsspecificallyforbicycleandpedestrianinfrastructure(ConnectOregon106,WashingtonSmallCitySidewalkProgram107,BikeBC108)ornon-infrastructureprogramsrelatedtosustainabletransportationingeneral(CaliforniaSustainabletransportationPlanningGrantProgram109,NorthCarolinaBicycleandPedestrianPlanningGrantInitiative110).Whilestatesoftendirectlyinvestinactivetransportationplanning,wedidnotfindacasewhereastateinvesteddirectlyininfrastructurewiththesolepurposeoffacilitatingactivetransportation.However,stateornationalgovernmentsindeedhavethepowertoinvestinsuchprojects.TheNetherlandshasconstructedaten-milebicyclehighwaythatconnectstwomajorcities,andNorwayplanstoconstruct10two-lanebikehighwayswithaspeedlimitof25mphtofacilitatelong-distancecommute.111TheCaliforniaBicycleandPedestrianPlan(2017)directsMPOsandtheDivisionofTransportationPlanningatCaltranstoexploreopportunitiesfordevelopingbikehighways,althoughnosourceoffundinghasbeenidentifiedatthisstage.112

102https://www.arb.ca.gov/cc/sb375/policies/bicycling/bicycling_brief.pdf,page4-6103http://www.catc.ca.gov/programs/ATP/2017/Final_Adopted_2017_ATP_Guidelines.pdf104http://www.oregon.gov/ODOT/TD/AT/Pages/index.aspx 105http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/NR/rdonlyres/39192EFE-E71F-4B4B-83BD-535C9A896418/0/201719_LegislativeReport.pdf106http://www.oregon.gov/ODOT/TD/TP/Pages/bikepedplan.aspx107https://www.wsdot.wa.gov/NR/rdonlyres/F061CF6D-7B96-4E61-BF20-50EAF2716997/0/BikePedPlan.pdf108http://www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/transportation/funding-engagement-permits/funding-grants/cycling-infrastructure-funding109http://www.dot.ca.gov/hq/tpp/grants/GrantGuideFY2017-18.pdf110https://connect.ncdot.gov/municipalities/PlanningGrants/Pages/Planning-Grant-Initiative.aspx111http://www.citylab.com/cityfixer/2016/03/norway-bike-highways-billion-dollars/472059/112http://www.cabikepedplan.org/files/managed/Document/194/CSBPP%20DRAFT%202017-02-07_website.pdf,

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Complete Streets Policy Acompletestreetisatransportationfacilitythatisdesignedandoperatedtoprovidesafemobilityforallusers.Inmostcases,statesandlocalagenciesutilizethisconcepttobringemphasistotheinclusionoffacilitiesforpedestrian,bicycle,andtransitvehicles,ascompletestreetsfacilitatesuchalternativemodesoftravel.TheCaliforniaCompleteStreetsPolicy,forexample,directsCaltranstoprovidefortheneedsofalltravelersofallagesandabilityinallplanning,programming,design,construction,operations,andmaintenanceactivitiesonthestatehighwaysystem.Thegoalofthispolicyistoimprovesafety,access,andmobilityforalltravelersinCalifornia,andrecognizebicycle,pedestrian,andtransitmodesasintegralelementsofthetransportationsystem.113WhilemoststatewidecompletestreetspoliciessuchasthoseofCalifornia114,Washington115,Minnesota116,andUtah117directtransportationagenciestoaddresstheneedsofmulti-modaltravelerswithnospecificrequirementorfundingallocation,TheOregonBikeBill(ORS366.514),passedin1971,requirestheinclusionofpedestrianandbicyclefacilitieswhereveraroad,streetorhighwayisbuiltorrebuilt.Italsorequiresthestateandlocaljurisdictionsto“spendreasonableamountsoftheirshareofthestatehighwayfundonfacilitiesforpedestrianandbicyclists”.118

Bicycle and Pedestrian Planning and Tools Investmentsinbicycleandpedestrianinfrastructurearemostlymadeatthelocallevelbycitiesandsometimescounties.Inadditiontograntprograms,statescanuseplanningtoolstoencouragesuchinvestments.CaliforniaDepartmentofTransportation(Caltrans)isintheprocessoffinalizingtheCaliforniaStateBicycleandPedestrianPlan(CSBPP).Inadditiontoidentifyinggoals,objectives,andstrategies,theCSBPPevaluatesCaltrans’existingactivetransportationpoliciesandprogramsrelatedtotransportation,anddevelopsperformancemeasuresforthedepartment’sfutureeffort.119StatesincludingOregon,Washington,Minnesota,Massachusetts,NorthCarolina,andVirginiahavecreatedseparateorcombinedstatewidebicycleandpedestrianplansthataimtoimprovemulti-modalsafetyandaccessibility,encouragephysicalactivity,andreduceVMT,congestion,andgreenhousegasemissions.Ingeneral,theseplansprovidebackgroundinformation,guidelines,strategiesandmeasurementofsuccessforactivetransportationplanningandinfrastructureprojects.Someplansalsoidentifysourcesoffundingthatmayhelptoachievethegoals.Asanalternativetoanall-inclusivestatewidebicycleandpedestrianplan,theUtahDOTusestheUtahStateBicyclePlantoidentifygapsinbicyclefacilityineachUtahDOTregionandestablishaprocedureforregionstoupdatetheirregionalbikeplan.120Interestingly,theUtah

113http://www.dot.ca.gov/hq/tpp/offices/ocp/docs/dd_64_r2.pdf114http://www.dot.ca.gov/hq/tpp/offices/ocp/docs/dd_64_r2.pdf115http://apps.leg.wa.gov/documents/billdocs/2011-12/Pdf/Bills/SessionLaws/House/1071-S.SL.pdf116http://www.dot.state.mn.us/policy/operations/op004.html117https://www.udot.utah.gov/main/uconowner.gf?n=10483007294967763118https://www.oregon.gov/ODOT/HWY/BIKEPED/Pages/bike_bill.aspx119http://www.cabikepedplan.org/About120https://www.udot.utah.gov/main/uconowner.gf?n=16746106523524233

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DepartmentofHealthwasthestateagencythatdevelopedaBicycle&PedestrianMasterPlanDesignGuide,whichdoesnotidentifyanygoalsofitsownbutprovidesguidelinesandresourcestoassistlocalagencieswithproducingtheirownbicycleandpedestrianplan.121

Education and Public Engagement ResearchsuggeststhatstateactionstoincreasebicycleandpedestrianinfrastructurewouldbemosteffectiveinreducingVMTifimplementedinconjunctionwithpromotionalandeducationalprograms(Pucher,etal.2010).However,state-leveleducationprogramsareoftenlimitedtoasimplebicyclistsafetymanual,suchasthatofOregon.122Butasapublicengagementeffort,Oregonalsolaunchedasmartphoneapp(ORcycle)thatcollectsandsharesroutedataandsafetyreportsuploadedbybicyclistsacrossthestate.123AnothersignificantbicycleeducationeffortwasmadeinNorthCarolinaaspartoftheState’sSafeRoutetoSchoolProgram.TheLet’sGONCPedestrianandBicycleSafetyCurriculumProgramdevelopedbyNorthCarolinaDOTprovidesonlinevideolessonsanddownloadablelessonplansforinstructorstoeducateelementary-agedchildrenhowtowalkandbikesafely.124WithU.S.DOTfunding,NorthCarolinaalsodevelopedaneventplanningguidethathelpseducatorstoplanforawalkandbiketoschoolevent.Inadditiontoinformationonhowtoeventorganization,thisguidealsoincludesresourcesforeventparticipantsortheschoolstoassessthequalityofacommunity’sactivetransportationinfrastructure.125Besidesstateagencies,somenon-profitorganizationshavebeenprovidingvaluableactivetransportationeducationprograms.OrganizationssuchasBikeUtahandBicycleColoradohavedevelopedbicycletrainingprogramsthatsendinstructorsandequipmenttoschoolsacrossthestatetoprovidein-personbicycletrainingforchildren.Accordingtotheseorganizations’websites,the5-hourUtahYouthBicycleEducationandSafetyTrainingProgramaimstoteachover3,000youthsinUtahhowtoridesafely,andBikeColorado’sSafeRoutetoSchoolprojecthasreachedover87,000students.126,127Althoughtheseprogramsarecurrentlyadministeredbynon-profitorganizations,itispossibleforstatetoincorporatesuchaneducationelementaspartoftheactivetransportationprograms.

Bicycle Purchase Incentives Asofthetimeofwritingthisreport,nostateintheU.S.hasimplementedincentivesorsubsidiesforbicyclepurchases;however,thisstrategyiswidelyadoptedinEurope.Italy128,France129,Spain130,andtheCityofOsloinNorway131offerorhaveofferedcitizensdirect

121http://choosehealth.utah.gov/documents/pdfs/Utah_Bike_Ped_Guide.pdf122http://www.oregon.gov/ODOT/hwy/bikeped/docs/bike_manual.pdf123https://www.pdx.edu/transportation-lab/orcycle124https://www.ncdot.gov/bikeped/safetyeducation/letsgonc/125https://connect.ncdot.gov/projects/BikePed/Documents/NCHowToPlan.pdf126https://bikeutah.org/get-involved-2/youth-bicycle-education-program/127https://www.bicyclecolorado.org/initiatives/safe-routes-to-school/128http://www.copenhagenize.com/2009/05/italian-government-subsidizes-bicycles.html129http://www.treehugger.com/bikes/france-offers-200-subsidy-electric-bike-purchases.html

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subsidiesrangingfrom200to1200eurostowardthepurchasingofbicyclesand/orelectricbicycles.TheUnitedKingdomalsooffersaschemethatallowspeopletoborrowbicyclesandsafetyequipmentthroughtheiremployersasatax-freebenefit,andtheemployeesmaypurchasethebikeforadiscountedpriceaftertherentalperiod.132InCalifornia,SantaCruzCountyseveralyearsagooffered$300incentiveforbicyclesand$500fore-bikes;however,theprogramseemstohavebeendiscontinued.133InFebruary2017,theCaliforniaBicycleCoalition(Calbike)proposedabicyclerebateprogramtotheCaliforniaAirResourcesBoard(CARB),whichwouldallowcitizenstodeductupto$500forabicycleandupto$1000forelectricbicycles.Calbikeexplainedthattheproposedcostoftheprogramis$10million,afractioncomparedtoCARB’s$206millionCleanVehicleRebateProject.134

U.S. Bicycle Routes and Recreational Trails Severalstatesalsodedicatefundingtowardrecreationalbiketrails.Althoughitisunclearhowmuchutilitariantraveloccursonrecreationalbiketrails,thepotentialexistsforstrategicallylocated,highqualitybiketrailstofacilitatetheshiftfromdrivingtobiking.Forexample,commutersmaychoosetoutilizeU.S.BicycleRoute41and45becausetheyprovideahigh-qualitybicyclepaththatconnectsMinneapolisandSaintPaulwithnorthernsuburbanareas.Inaddition,recreationaltrailsmayhelpreducerecreationalvehicletravel,promotelocalinvestmentinbicycleinfrastructure,andboostlocaleconomy.AssuggestedintheMinnesotaStatewideBicycleSystemPlan,thepresenceofastatebicycleroutehaspromptedlocaldecisionmakerstoimprovebicycleconditionsincommunitiesalongthestatebicycleroute.TheMinnesotaDOTalsoprovidesaone-timetechnicalassistanceprogramforcommunitiestoperformabicyclefriendlycommunityassessmentandpreparealocalMississippiRiverTrailmarketingactionplan.135TheStateofWashington,whichhasbeenrankedasthemostbicyclefriendlystateforeightyearsinarow,alsodedicatesfundingtowardrecreationalbiketrailconstructionandmaintenancethroughtheWashingtonWildlifeandRecreationProgram.136

Other Policies Anumberofpoliciesdonotcurrentlyleadtoinvestmentsinactivetransportationprojectsbuthavethepotentialtodoso.InWashington,forexample,localagencieshavetheauthoritytocollectbicycleregistrationandviolationfees.Ofthismoney,75percentmustbeusedforbuildingandmaintainingbicyclepathsandroadwaysorforreimbursingregistrationprogramorenforcementexpenses.However,nolocalagenciesinWashingtoncurrentlycollectthesefees

130http://www.eltis.org/discover/news/spain-offers-incentives-purchase-e-bikes131http://www.citylab.com/commute/2017/01/oslo-norway-city-grant-for-electric-cargo-bikes/515100/?utm_source=nl__link6_020117132https://www.cyclescheme.co.uk/get-a-bike/can-i-apply-for-cyclescheme133http://www1.ucsc.edu/currents/01-02/12-03/bikes.html134http://cal.streetsblog.org/2016/02/17/calbike-proposes-rebate-program-for-the-ultimate-zev/135http://www.dot.state.mn.us/bike/system-plan/pdfs/statewide-bicycle-system-plan-final.pdf,page57136http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/News/2015/05/WABikeFriendlyState.htm

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primarilybecausetheadministrativefeeswouldexceed25percentoffundscollected.137AnotherexampleistheBritishColumbiaNewBuildingCanadaFund–SmallCommunitiesFund.Thisprogramdirectsfederalandprovincialgastaxproceedstoeligiblecommunity-levelprojectsincludingredevelopment,energy,transportation,andwatertreatment.138Althoughactivetransportationandpublictransitimprovementsdonottakepriorityinthelistofeligibleprojects,itwouldbejustifiabletomakegivethemprioritybecausethesourceoffundingistransportationrelated.Table 3 Summary of State-Level Policy on Transportation Investments – Bike/Ped

StateGrantPrograms§ CaliforniaActiveTransportationProgram(ATP)§ CaliforniaSustainableTransportationPlanningGrantProgram§ OregonActiveTransportationSection§ ConnectOregon§ WashingtonPedestrianandBicycleProgram§ WashingtonSmallCitySidewalkProgram§ NorthCarolinaBicycleandPedestrianPlanningGrantInitiative§ BritishColumbiaBikeBCCompleteStreetsPolicy§ CaliforniaCompleteStreetsProgram§ OregonBikeBill§ WashingtonCompleteStreetsAct§ MinnesotaCompleteStreetsPolicy§ -UtahInclusionofActiveTransportationPolicyBike/PedPlansandPlanningTools§ CaliforniaStateBicycleandPedestrianPlan§ OregonBicycleandPedestrianPlan§ WashingtonStateBicycleFacilitiesandPedestrianWalkwaysPlan§ MinnesotaStatewideBicycleSystemPlan§ MinnesotaWalks(StatewidePedestrianSystemPlan)§ MassachusettsBicycleTransportationPlan§ MassachusettsPedestrianTransportationPlan§ NorthCarolineWalkBikeNC§ VirginiaBicycleandPedestrianProgram§ VirginiaDOTStatePedestrianPolicyPlan§ UtahStateBicyclePlan§ UtahBicycleandPedestrianMasterPlanDesignGuide

137https://www.wsdot.wa.gov/NR/rdonlyres/F061CF6D-7B96-4E61-BF20-50EAF2716997/0/BikePedPlan.pdf,page18138http://www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/transportation/funding-engagement-permits/funding-grants/small-communities-fund

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EducationandPublicEngagement§ OregonORBicyclistManual§ ORcycle,asmartphoneappforcyclists§ NorthCarolinaLet’sGoNCPedestrianandBicycleSafetyCurriculum§ NorthCarolinaEventPlanningGuideforWalkandBiketoSchoolDay§ UtahYouthBicycleEducationandSafetyTrainingProgram§ BicycleColorado’sCompleteBicycleandPedestrianEducationProgram

BicyclePurchaseIncentives

§ UKCycleScheme§ ItalyBicycleSubsidy§ FranceE-BikeSubsidy§ SpainE-BikeSubsidy§ NorwayClimateandEnergyFund(electriccargobikesubsidy)§ SantaCruzCountyBicycleSubsidy§ ProposedBikeRebateProgramthroughCaliforniaAirResourcesBoardOther§ MinnesotaBikeRoutes(USBR41,USBR45)§ WashingtonBicycleRegistrations(putbikefeestowardinfrastructure.Notimplemented)§ BritishColumbiaNewBuildingCanadaFund–SmallCommunitiesFund(NBCF-SCF)(gastax

fundinggoesintovariouscommunityprojects)

Transit Investments Direct Funding InvestmentsintransitservicehavethepotentialtoreduceVMTbyencouragingashiftfromdrivingtotransit.Oneofthemostcommonwaysforstatestoinvestintransitisbyallocatingfundingtowardtransitagencies.Insomecases,statesinvestdirectlyintransitprojectsthroughastateagency(e.g.CaliforniaHigh-SpeedPassengerTrainBondFund,administratedbytheHigh-SpeedRailAuthority139).Nationally,muchofthefundingforintra-regionaltransitflowsdirectlyfromtheUSDOTtotransitagencies.InCalifornia,transitimprovementsareincreasinglyfundedthroughcountyandregionalsalestaxmeasures.Althoughthestateroleinpromotingtransitinvestmentsismorelimitedthanitisforothermodes,somestateshavecreatedprogramstoallocatestatefundingtowardtransit.TheCaliforniaTransportationDevelopmentAct(TDA)establishedtwofundingsourcesforthestate’spublictransportationservices:LocalTransportationFund(LTF)andtheStateTransitAssistancefund(STA).Thesefunds,derivedfroma¼centstatewidegeneralsalestaxandsalestaxondieselfuel,respectively,areallocatedtoareasofeachcountybasedonpopulation,

139http://www.dot.ca.gov/docs/CA_Transportation_Financing_Package_2015-16.pdf,page16

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taxablesales,andtransitperformance.WhileLTFfundingmaybeusedforawiderangeoftransportationprogramsinadditiontopublictransportation,STAfundingcanonlybeusedfortransportationplanningandmasstransportationpurposes.140In2014,theCaliforniaLowCarbonTransitOperationsProgramwascreatedtoprovideadditionaloperatingandcapitalassistancefortransitagencieswithapriorityonservingdisadvantagedcommunities.ThisprogramcontinuouslyappropriatesfivepercentoftheannualauctionproceedsintheGreenhouseGasReductionFund(Cap-and-tradeproceeds).141Additionally,CaliforniamakestransitinvestmentsthroughthePublicTransportationAccount(FTA,fundedbysalestaxondieselfuel),thePublicTransportationModernization,ImprovementandServiceEnhancementAccount(fundedbybondmeasure)andtheCaliforniaHigh-SpeedPassengerTrainBondFund(fundedbybondmeasure).142StatesincludingNewYork,Colorado,andVirginiaregularlyallocatestatefundingforpublictransportation.TheNewYorkStateTransitOperatingAssistance(STOA)dedicatesover$5billiontowardtheoperation,capitalimprovement,andinfrastructurespending.143TheColoradoFundingAdvancementsforSurfaceTransportationandEconomicRecoveryActof2009(FASTER)distributesapproximately$11millioncollectedthroughincreasedvehicleregistrationfeestowardtransitcapitalimprovements,operatingassistance,andmetropolitantransitagencies.144In2013,VirginiaSenateBill1140establishedaperformance-baseddistributionprocessfortheCommonwealthMassTransitFund.Theperformancemetricisbasedonnetcostperrider,customersperrevenuehour,andcustomersperrevenuemile.145Alsoin2013,ColoradopassedSenateBill48,whichgavelocalgovernmentsthepowertospendtheirportionofthe$250millionstate’shighwayuser’staxfund(collectedthrougha22-cent-per-gallonfueltaxandvehicleregistrationfees)onanassortmentoftransitandbicycle/pedestrianprojects.146

Transit Plans CaliforniaisintheprocessofdevelopingtheCaliforniaStatewideTransitStrategicPlan.147StatesincludingWashington148,Colorado149,Minnesota150,andSouthCarolina151havedevelopedstatewidetransitplans.Theseplansareusedtoidentifygoalsandlayoutthestrategicframeworkfortheimplementationandfundingoftransitprojectsacrossthestate.As

140http://www.dot.ca.gov/hq/MassTrans/Docs-Pdfs/STIP/TDA_4-17-2013.pdf141http://www.dot.ca.gov/drmt/splctop.html142http://www.dot.ca.gov/docs/CA_Transportation_Financing_Package_2015-16.pdf,page8,14,16143https://nytransit.org/images/positionpapers/2016/Budget_Analysis_4.4.16.fd.pdf144https://www.codot.gov/programs/transitandrail/transit/transit-grant-programs145http://www.hrtpo.org/uploads/docs/TTAC100213/P13-Transit_Performance_Metrics.pdf,page7146http://www.denverpost.com/2013/05/05/colorado-road-money-can-now-be-used-on-transit-projects/147http://www.dot.ca.gov/drmt/spstsp.html148http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/NR/rdonlyres/EF00F16E-472D-43FE-AFF6-935DF809274B/0/WashingtonStatePublicTransportationPlan_Section50871816optimized.pdf149https://www.codot.gov/programs/transitandrail/statewidetransitplan150http://www.dot.state.mn.us/transit/reports/transit-report/pdf/greater-mn-transit-plan.pdf151http://www.scdot.org/multimodal/pdf/SC_MTP_Transit_Plan.pdf

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ageneraltrend,statesaimtoexpandtheirpublictransitnetwork,improvemobilityforallindividualsandcommunities,improvetheefficiencyandcustomerexperienceofthetransitsystem,andprioritizefundingfortransitservicesandinfrastructures.Someplansalsoincludeinformationonthecurrentstate,challenges,andsourcesoffundingfortransitimprovements.Tofacilitatethestate’stransitplan,MinnesotaDOTalsodevelopedtheGreaterMinnesotaTransitInvestmentPlan,whichsupportsthestatetransitplanbypresentingaseriesofinvestmentstrategiestoachievethevision.Theinvestmentplanalsoincludesamorein-depthanalysisonthecurrenttransitservices,marketswithunmetdemand,sourcesoffunding,aperformancemeasure,andaprioritizationmatrixforallstrategiesidentified.152Similarly,Washingtonpreparedafour-pagedocumentthatidentifiesspecificnear-termactionsthatshouldbetakeninordertomeetthegoalssetbythestatepublictransportationplan.153

Other Strategies TheimpactsoftransitinvestmentsonVMTarelikelytobehigherincaseswheretheinvestmentstarget“choice”riders,includinghigher-incomeriders,off-peakandnon-commutetrips,andsmallcitiesandsuburbanareas.154Somestateshaveinvestedinalternativetransitprogramstoattractpeoplewhomightotherwisechoosetodrivealone.Totransportlong-distancecommuterstoandfromDenver,ColoradoDOTfundsandmanagesBustang,aninterregionalexpressbusservice.BustangrunsduringpeakcommutehoursMondaythroughFridayalongthebusyI-25andI-70corridors.Thebusfleet,operatedbyacontractedcoachbuscompany,iscomprisedof13coachbusesservicingthreeroutes.Eachbushasa50-passengercapacityandoffersfeaturessuchaswheelchairaccessibility,on-boardWi-Fi,restrooms,bikeracks,andchargingoutlets.Single-ridefareragesfrom$5to$28,andvariousdiscountedticketpackagesareavailable.155In2008,lawmakersinIllinoisapprovedalong-termmasstransitfundingbillthatprovidesfreetransportationtoIllinoisseniors(over65yearsold).Thislegislationprovides$494millioninnewandrecurringfundingtoChicagoMetroAreatransitagencies,andanother$50milliontotransitagenciesoutsideoftheChicagoarea.156

152http://www.dot.state.mn.us/transitinvestment/pdf/gmtip-public-comment-draft.pdf153http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/NR/rdonlyres/F587CB10-BFC3-4E22-A757-0C5C88701B24/0/20160614_WSPTPEarlyActions.pdf154https://www.arb.ca.gov/cc/sb375/policies/transitservice/transit_brief.pdf,page6155https://www.codot.gov/travel/bustang156http://www.ilga.gov/legislation/95/HB/PDF/09500HB0656lv.pdf

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Table 4 Summary of State-Level Policy on Transportation Investments - Transit

DirectFunding§ CaliforniaTransportationDevelopmentAct(TDA)§ CaliforniaStateTransitAssistance(STA)§ CaliforniaPublicTransportationAccount(PTA)§ CaliforniaPublicTransportationModernization,ImprovementandServiceEnhancement

Account§ CaliforniaLowCarbonTransitOperationsProgram(LCTOP)§ High-SpeedPassengerTrainBondFund(Proposition1A)§ NewYorkStateTransitOperatingAssistance§ ColoradoTransitGrantProgram§ ColoradoHighwayUsersTaxFund§ VirginiaSB1140Performance-BasedFundingforPublicTransportationTransitPlans§ CaliforniaStatewideTransitStrategicPlan§ WashingtonStatewidePublicTransportationPlan§ ColoradoStatewideTransitPlan§ GreaterMinnesotaTransitInvestmentPlan§ GreaterMinnesotaTransitPlan§ SouthCarolinaStatewidePublicTransportationandCoordinationPlanOtherStrategies§ ColoradoBustang§ IllinoisProvidingFreePublicTransportationforSeniorCitizens

Transportation Demand Management Programs Transportationdemandmanagement(TDM)programsencompassavarietyofstrategies,includingemployer-basedtripreduction(EBTR)programs,telecommutingprograms,andvoluntarytravelbehaviorchangeprograms.Car-sharingservicesmightalsoplayaroleinmanagingdemand.MostTDMprogramsaimtoreducecongestionandgreenhousegasemissionsbyreducingsingle-occupantcartraveltowork,andtheyaremostapplicableinmetroareas.TDMprogramsaregenerallyimplementedbylargeemployersinresponsetostateorlocalrequirementsorfinancialincentives,althoughsomeapplicationsappropriateforruralareas.

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EBTR and Telecommuting Programs State-levelTDMprogramsoftenincludeEBTRandtelecommutingcomponents.AlthoughTDMprogramscanbeappliedtoemployersstatewide(CommuterChoiceMaryland157),moststate-levelTDMprogramslimittheirapplicationtocertainmetropolitanareas(OregonEmployeeCommuteOptions158andWashingtonCommuteTripReductionAct159)orcertainemployers(ColoradoGreeningGovernment160).Manystatesalsohavestand-aloneprogramsinplacetoofferstateemployeesatelecommuteoption,includingCaliforniaandMassachusetts.161,162Ingeneral,TDMprogramsmandateemployersthatfitcertaincriteriatoofferoptionssuchassubsidizedcarpoolingorvanpooling,carpoolingassistance,compressedworkweek,telecommuting,ordiscountedorfreetransitpassestoemployees.Alternatively,programssuchastheCommuterChoiceMarylandandthenow-expiredOregonBusinessEnergyTaxCreditprogramincentivizeEBTRbyofferingtaxcredittoemployerswhopurchasecarpoolingvehiclesortransitpasses.163Inmostcases,TDMprogramsdonotevaluateitssuccessbysettingahardgoalorstandard.Rather,theyregulateorevaluateemployer’sefforttoimplementsuchprograms(OregonEmployeeCommuteOptions,CaliforniaBayAreaCommuterBenefits).TheColoradoGreeningGovernmentExecutiveOrders,however,setsagoalofreducingpetroleumuseby25%.Becausethisprogramisimplementedonstategovernmentemployers,thestatecaninvestmoreresourcesinordertoachievethegoal(e.g.purchaseelectricworkvehicles).AlthoughCaliforniahasnotimplementedastate-levelEBTRprogram,manyregionshaveexperimentedwithEBTRprogramsinefforttoreducecongestionandharmfulemissions.In1988,thenow-expiredSouthernCalifornia’sRegulationXVrequiredemployerswithworksitesofmorethan100employeestodevelopemployeetripreductionplans.In2009,SanJoaquinValleyAirDistrictadoptedacommute-tripreductionprogram(eTrip),andtheBayAreaAirQualityManagementDistrictadoptedtheBayAreaCommuterBenefitsProgramin2013.164In2016,NewYorkCityimplementedCommuterBenefitsLaw,whichrequiresqualifiedemployerstoofferemployeestheopportunitiestopurchasetransportationfringebenefitsusingpre-taxincome.165FederalpolicyhassupportedTDMeffortsinavarietyofways.TheFederalConsolidatedAppropriationsActof2015providestaxbenefitstocommuters.Commutingemployeesmaypayforwork-relatedparkingortransit/vanpoolexpenseswithupto$550inpre-taxincomepermonth,$225ineachcategory.166TheTeleworkEnhancementActof2010requireseach

157http://commuterchoicemaryland.com/emp_programoptions.htm158http://arcweb.sos.state.or.us/pages/rules/oars_300/oar_340/340_242.html159http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/Transit/CTR/overview.htm160https://www.colorado.gov/pacific/sites/default/files/VehicleMilesReductionGuidelines.pdf161http://www.dgs.ca.gov/dgs/ProgramsServices/telework.aspx162http://www.mass.gov/anf/employment-equal-access-disability/hr-policies/alt-work-options/telecommuting/telecommuting-policy.html163http://www.lanepowell.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/04/kimmelfieldn_012.pdf164https://www.arb.ca.gov/cc/sb375/policies/ebtr/ebtr_brief.pdf165https://www1.nyc.gov/site/dca/about/commuter-benefits-FAQs.page166https://www.nctr.usf.edu/programs/clearinghouse/commutebenefits/

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Executiveagencytoestablishandimplementapolicyunderwhichemployeesareauthorizedtotelework.167

Other Strategies RidesharinghasbecomeanincreasinglypopularTDMstrategy.State-ledridesharingprogramssuchastheConnecticutCTridesandtheDelawareRidesharegobeyondspecificemployersorlocationstoofferridematching,vanpoolservices,orinformationontravelresourcestocommutersworkingorlivingintheentirestate.168,169ManyTDMandrideshareservicesalsooffera“guaranteedridehome,”whichallowscommuterswhomisstheirregularridetoreceivereimbursementforthecostofalternatetransportation.Insomecases,ridesharingprogramsalsoworkwithemployerstostartaTDMprogramattheirworkplace.Otherprogramstargetawareness.TheDriveLessSaveMoreprogramlaunchedbyOregondepartmentofTransportationandotherpartnersin2006aimstoraisegeneralawarenessaboutreducingdrivingandpromotedalternativemodesoftransportation,includingcarpooling,telecommuting,ridingtransit,bikingandwalking.Thecampaignwasreportedtohavereduced21.8millionvehicleroadmilesby2009.170NewYorkhasformedapublic-privatepartnershiptodevelopaprogramthatintegratesinformationonmanyaspectsofthedrivingexperienceintoadevicecalledDriveSmart.171,172Thisdeviceprovidesdriverswithinformationthathelpsthattodrivemoresafelyandsavebothtimeandmoney.Table 5 Summary of State-Level TDM Policies

EBTRandTelecommutingPrograms-OregonEmployeeCommuteOptions(ECO)Program-WashingtonCommuteTripReduction(CTR)LawandCTREfficiencyAct-ColoradotheGreeningGovernmentExecutiveOrders-MarylandCommuterChoiceMaryland-MassachusettsTelecommutingPolicy-CaliforniaStatewideTelework-CaliforniaEmployer-BasedTripReductionProgram(BeingEvaluated)-OregonBusinessEnergyTaxCreditProgram(Expired)167https://www.telework.gov/guidance-legislation/telework-legislation/legislation/168http://ctrides.com/about-ctrides169http://ridesharedelaware.org/about-rideshare-delaware/170http://drivelesssavemore.com/about-us171http://www.nyc.gov/html/dot/html/pr2015/pr15-090.shtml172https://ops.fhwa.dot.gov/congestionpricing/value_pricing/projects/not_involving_tolls/pay_drive/ny_drive_smart_mtpp.htm

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EBTRandTelecommutingProgramsatOtherLevelsofGovernment-CaliforniaTheBayAreaCommuterBenefitsProgram-CaliforniaSanJoaquinValleyeTrip-NewYorkCityCommuterBenefitsLaw-CaliforniaSouthCoastAQMDRegulationXV(Expired)-ConsolidatedAppropriationsAct(commutetaxbenefits)-TheTeleworkEnhancementActof2010OtherStrategies-ConnecticutCTrides-DelawareRideShare-OregonDriveLessSaveMore-NewYorkDriveSmart

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