state of the art electric propulsion vehicles and energy supply

8/12/2019 State of the Art Electric Propulsion Vehicles and Energy Supply

1/81

State of the Art Electric Propulsion:

Vehicles and Energy Supply

Work Package 1 Report

February 2013


2/81

Imprint

Leader of Work Package 1:Robin Krutak, Austrian Energy Agency

Authors of the report:

Austrian Energy Agency: Robin Krutak, Willy Raimund, Reinhard Jellinek, Christine Zopf-Renner

Institute of Transport Economics: Erik Figenbaum, Randi Hjorthol

Danish Road Directorate: Hans Bendsen, Gerd Marbjerg

Layout:Andrea Leindl, Austrian Energy Agency

Quality management:Margaretha Bannert, Austrian Energy Agency

Project Coordinator:Erik Figenbaum, Institute of Transport Economics

Cover picture:www.vlotte.at
http://www.vlotte.at/http://www.vlotte.at/http://www.vlotte.at/


3/81

Preface

This report is a part of the project COMPETT (Competitive Electric Town Transport), which is a project

financed by national funds which have been pooled together within ERA-NET-TRANSPORT.

In January 2011 ERA-NET-TRANSPORT initiated a range of projects about electric vehicles under the

theme ELEKTROMOBILITY+ concerning topics from the development of battery and charging technology

to sociological investigations of the use of electric vehicles.

20 European project consortia have now been initiated including the COMPETT project. COMPETT is a

co-operation between The Institute of Transport Economics in Norway, The Austrian Energy Agency, The

University College Buskerud in Norway, Kongsberg Innovation in Norway and the Danish Road

Directorate. The objective of COMPETT is to promote the use of electric vehicles, particularly with focus

on private passenger cars. The main question to answer in the project is How can e-vehicles come in to

use to a greater degree?

Read more about the project on.www.compett.org

The COMPETT project is jointly financed by Electromobility+, Transnova and The Research Council of

Norway, FFG of Austria and The Ministry of Science, Innovation and Higher Education (Higher

Education Ministry) in Denmark.
http://www.compett.org/http://www.compett.org/http://www.compett.org/http://www.compett.org/


4/81

Table of Content

1 Energy storage for electric propulsion ................................................................................................. 71.1 Batteries ....................................................................................................................................... 7

1.2 Hydrogen .................................................................................................................................... 10

2 Electric Propulsion Systems ................................................................................................................ 13

2.1 Electric Propulsion Principle ....................................................................................................... 13

2.2 Advantages of Electric Engines ................................................................................................... 13

3 ELECTRIC DRIVETRAIN CONCEPTS ...................................................................................................... 15

3.1 Battery Electric Vehicles ............................................................................................................. 15

3.2 Hybrid Electric Vehicles .............................................................................................................. 163.3 Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicles .................................................................................................. 19

3.4 Range Extender Electric Vehicles (REEV) .................................................................................... 20

3.5 Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles ........................................................................................................... 20

3.6 2-wheeler propulsion systems ................................................................................................... 21

3.7 Systems for Scooters/Motorcycles ............................................................................................. 23

4 Specifications of vehicles .................................................................................................................... 25

4.1 Vehicles on the market ............................................................................................................... 26

4.2 Hydrogen fuel cells vehicles (in test projects) ............................................................................ 37

4.3 Outlook: Vehicles to come ......................................................................................................... 384.4 Future costs of vehicles .............................................................................................................. 42

5 Locations for Charging Points ............................................................................................................. 47

6 Description of charging systems......................................................................................................... 51

6.1 Normal charging ......................................................................................................................... 51

6.2 Double speed charging ............................................................................................................... 54

6.3 22 kW semi fast charging ........................................................................................................... 54

6.4 43-50 kW fast charging ............................................................................................................... 55

6.5 Ultra fast charging ...................................................................................................................... 56

6.6 Battery exchange ........................................................................................................................ 56

7 Vehicle to Grid .................................................................................................................................... 59

8 Charging and hydrogen infrastructure ............................................................................................... 61

8.1 Infrastructure in Austria ............................................................................................................. 61

8.2 Infrastructure in Denmark .......................................................................................................... 64

8.3 Infrastructure in Norway ............................................................................................................ 66


5/81

9 Costs of infrastructure ........................................................................................................................ 71

9.1 Normal charge ............................................................................................................................ 71

9.2 Fast charge .................................................................................................................................. 73

9.3 Battery swap and charge stand access cost ............................................................................... 749.4 Summary of charging station costs ............................................................................................ 75

Abbreviations: ............................................................................................................................................ 77

Table of Literature ...................................................................................................................................... 78


6/81


7/81

Energystorageforelectricpropulsion

7

1 Energy storage for electric propulsion

1.1 Batteries

The energy for electric vehicles is provided from batteries. The performance of the battery defines bothpower and range of the car. As especially limited range is one of the most criticised attributes of

electric vehicles, a lot of concepts have been and still are developed to boost the performance of the

batteries and hence the cars. During the last decades a wide range of battery types was developed, the

following shows an overview of the most important types:

Lead-Acid Battery (Pb-Gel)

Lead batteries were used from the very

beginning for electric vehicles, like in the LohnerPorsche (1899). Lead-acid batteries are a

technology that has proven itself in the market

over many decades. Starter batteries for

vehicles with internal combustion engine are

usually also lead-acid batteries. The batteries

are relatively inexpensive and reliable, but have

only little energy density. Therefore the range

of vehicles with lead acid batteries lies well

below 100 km. Life of these batteries in electric

vehicle applications is limited and thus oneneeds to replace the batteries over the life of

the vehicle. Another problem is disposing of

used batteries, even when high recycling rates

are achieved. Today this battery type still is

used for vehicles that dont need a wide range

nor high power like vehicles for gardening

support in parks.

ZEBRA (Na-NiCl2)

The abbreviation ZEBRA stands for Zero

Emission Battery Research Activities and was

invented in the 1980ies. Advantages include a

relatively high energy density and no memory

effect. The ZEBRA battery requires an operating

temperature of at least 240 Celsius (Klima- und

Energiefonds, 2012a). The disadvantage of this

concept is that energy is also needed when the

vehicle is not in use, as the battery has to be

held at this high temperature. Therefore thebattery is especially suitable for vehicles that

are used on a daily basis. Fleet trials like in

Vorarlberg, Austria show that the battery

performs well in comparison to Lithium-Ion

batteries in winter time. On the other hand, it

was observed (Klima- und Energiefonds, 2012a)

that the battery needs more energy than that of

a comparable car with Lithium-Ion battery

(35 kWh/100 km to 20 kWh/100 km).

Nickel Metal Hydride Battery (NiMH)

Nickel metal hydride batteries are used

primarily in hybrid vehicles like the Toyota Prius

or the Lexus 450 h. The battery reaches much

higher energy densities than nickel-cadmiumand lead-acid batteries, but is more expensive.

In hybrid vehicles the NiMH batteries last the

whole lifetime of the vehicle.

Lithium-Ion Battery (Li-Ion)

Lithium-ion batteries consist of a negative

electrode made of lithium and a positive

electrode of graphite (carbon). Out of all

different types of batteries available on the

market, lithium-ion batteries have the greatestenergy density and therefore are also suitable

for longer ranges. There exist a number of

different lithium-ion battery types, as described

in the following.

Lithium Iron Phosphate (LiFePO4)

This type of battery was often used for the first

electric cars with lithium-ion batteries, as it is

quite safe and delivers a good performance at a

reasonable price. But energy density is less thanin most other lithium-ion batteries.


8/81


8

Lithium-Polymer (Li-Po)

This type of battery is also used for laptops and

cell phones, as it offers a higher energy density

than LiFePO4batteries.

Lithium Titanate

This type of battery is based on a LiFePO 4

battery, but has an improved anode (lithium

titanate) which results in a longer lifetime. The

battery provides a very good durability and

safety performance which makes it a good

choice for fast charging and use at low

temperatures. A disadvantage compared to

other lithium-ion batteries is the lower energy

density.

Lithium Silizium

With a three times higher energy density than

conventional li-ion batteries, this battery type

represents the next generation, to be on the

market not before 2018.

Lithium Air

Lithium air cells contain a catalyst as positive

electrode that charges the lithium negatively

when getting in contact with air. The potentialin terms of energy density is 10-times higher

than todays lithium-ion batteries, reaching

levels comparable with the energy density of

gasoline. Commercial development is not

expected before 2025.


9/81


9

Pb-Gel NiMH Na-NiCl2 Li-Ion

Energy density

(Wh/kg)2050 4080 100120 110

Power density

(W/kg)80100 300 -20 to 60

Maintenance free yes yes yes yes

Lifetime (years) 35

Lifetime (cycles) 700800 2000 >600 >2000

Costs in mass

production ($/kWh)50150 200 200 3001000

Special featuretechnically mature

fast charging

possible

requires a heating

and cooling system

needs batterymanagementsystem

Table 1: Comparison of battery types (Hofmann 2010)

Battery Supporting Systems

Battery supporting systems help to improve the performance of batteries:

Battery management system

A battery for electric vehicles consists of several battery cells. For the efficient use of these cells a

battery management system (BMS) is needed. Tasks of the battery management system primarily are:

supervising charging and decharging of cells controlling heating and cooling of cells

balancing of cells

identification of degree of charging

estimation of available range

documentation of cell history

Thus the battery management system has a direct influence on the performance and durability of

batteries.


10/81


10

0

5

10

15

20

2530

35

30 C 20 C 10 C 0 C -10 C -20 C

Energyconsumptionin

kWh/100km

Ambient temperature

Mitsubishi i-MiEV

Figure 1: Energy consumption Mitsubishi i-MiEV as a function of

the ambient temperature (VK 2012)

Cooling and heating system

The performance of batteries very

much depends on the ambient

temperature. Especially under coldweather conditions, the performance

weakens. Figure 1 shows this

correlation for a Mitsubishi i-MiEV

equipped with lithium-ion batteries.

The optimum temperature in terms of

energy consumption is at about 20 C.

A cooling and heating system can keep

the battery in an optimum temp-

erature range and thus help toimprove the performance of both, the

battery and the vehicle.

Battery packaging

The hardware around the battery also has a direct influence on the performance and energy density of

the battery pack, these are e.g.:

tray

retention of modules interconnections

interface to vehicle

1.2 Hydrogen

Hydrogen offers the potential to operate vehicles with zero emissions on the local level. In general,

there are two options how hydrogen is used in vehicles:

1. Hydrogen combustion engine: Hydrogen is burned in an internal combustion engine. The only

direct emission resulting from this process is water in form of steam and very little emissions of

nitrogen oxides. The disadvantage of this concept is the engine efficiency: as it is a combustion

engine the efficiency is below 30%.

2. Fuel Cell Vehicles: Hydrogen and oxygen react in the fuel cell which produces an electric

potential of about 0.61 Volt. To achieve a higher voltage a number of these cells are put

together to form stacks. The only emission from a fuel cell is water in form of vapor. The

efficiency of a fuel cell system reaches 50% (Hofmann 2010).

Both concepts need hydrogen, which exists in nature primarily in bound form (e.g. in water and

hydrocarbons). Hence hydrogen has to be isolated, which is an energy intensive process. The Life Cycle

Assessment therefore depends very much on the source of electricity that is used for the production of

hydrogen.


11/81


11

There are different ways to produce hydrogen

Stationary production

One way to produce hydrogen is by electrolysis: by using electricity water (H 2O) is disaggregated into

hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O). If electricity from renewable sources is used for this process, the

production generates no CO2emissions.

For most of the hydrogen production nowadays fossil fuels are used to produce hydrogen through a

process called steam reforming. 45% of the worldwide hydrogen is thus produced from oil, 33% from

methane and 15% from coal. Another 7% result as by-products from various chemical production and

manufacturing methods (Ministerium fr Wirtschaft und Energie Nordrhein-Westfalen 2010).

Mobile Production

Another possibility is to produce hydrogen directly in the car by using a reformer. There are a number of

more or less complex hydrocarbons that can be used in a reformer; in particular the following materials

are possible (Hofmann 2010):

CNG

LPG

Methanol

Ethanol

Dimethyl ether

Diesel

modified gasoline

Hydrogen from centralized respectively by-product production can be transported in liquid (LH 2) or

gaseous (GH2) state. For longer distances pipelines and accordingly LH2 ships are used. For shorter

distances special wagons or trucks are used.

The storage of hydrogen is very complex. Hydrogen can be stored in liquid or gaseous state. One way is

to store the hydrogen as a gas in high-pressure tanks with up to 700 bar or in metal hydride storage

tanks. Another way is to store hydrogen in liquid form in cooling tanks which requires a temperature of -

235 C (BMLFUW 2008).


12/81


13/81

ElectricPropulsionSystems

13

2 Electric Propulsion Systems

2.1 Electric Propulsion Principle

Electric motors convert electric energy into kinetic energy. An electric motor in general consists of twoessential parts:

1. a fixed stator in which a magnetic field is produced

2. a magnetic rotor that moves in this magnetic field

Through the interchange of the two magnetic elements the rotor starts to move. This movement is

finally used to power the wheels of the vehicle.

Concept of an electric engine

The picture shows an electric engine inparts. The rotor (on the right side in thepicture) rotates within the stator.

AEA

2.2 Advantages of Electric Engines

In comparison to vehicles with an internal combustion engine, vehicles with electric drive show a

number of advantages:

Recuperation

A particularity of the electric motor is that it not only can be used as a motor but also as a generator to

produce electric energy. Most of the electric vehicles use this feature when the brake pedal is applied.

The kinetic energy of the vehicle is reduced by using the motor as a generator that converts the rotationenergy of the rotor (which is attached to the wheels through a gearbox and drive shafts) to electricity

which is then stored in the battery and hence can be used to power the wheels of the vehicle again

(recuperation).

Energy Efficiency

Electric drives have a motor efficiency of 9399% (Hofmann 2010) that amounts to a 3 to 4 times higher

efficiency factor in comparison to internal combustion engines (ELEKTRA 2009, S.22). Thus the input of

energy is much better used to generate a forward movement than in other engines.

In comparison to vehicles with an internal combustion engine that provide the energy optimum at aspeed of about 70 km/h, the energy consumption of electric vehicles is directly proportional to the rate

of velocity (VK 2012).


14/81

ElectricPropulsionSystems

14

Less emissions

Electric vehicles can use electricity from renewable energies like wind- , water- or solar power. Under

the assumption of an annual mileage of 10,000 km and an energy consumption of 15 kWh per 100

kilometres, renewable energies can supply energy for the following numbers of vehicles (BMLFUW

2012):

wind power: a 2 MW wind generator can produce the energy needed to power 2,800 electric

vehicles

water power: a 10 MW small scale water plant generates about 50 million kWh electricity p.a.

and hence is able to supply 33,000 electric vehicles.

solar power: 14 m2of photovoltaic under Austrian sun radiation conditions are enough to run

1 electric car

biomass: a 0.25 MW biomass plant produces about 1.75 million kWh electricity, which is enough

to run 1,200 electric vehicles.

The life cycle analysis which also includes emissions from the production of the car and the energy

needed, direct emissions and recycling, shows an 80% advantage in terms of CO2for an electric vehicle

powered with electricity from renewable energy sources compared to a conventional gasoline car.

Besides less greenhouse gas emissions and less air pollutants, electric vehicles also produce less noise,

as electric engines run very quiet.

No clutch, no gearbox

The energy source for the engine is direct current (DC) electricity from batteries or fuel cells (Hofmann

2010). Whereas combustion engines are only able to deliver torque when idle speed is reached, electricengines deliver torque from the very beginning. Hence a clutch and also a gearbox are not necessary for

electric vehicles (Hofmann 2010) which save maintenance costs.


15/81

ELECTRICDRIVETRAINCONCEPTS

15

3 ELECTRIC DRIVETRAIN CONCEPTS

There are a number of different concepts how to use an electric engine in the vehicle. The most

important concepts are explained in the following section.

3.1 Battery Electric Vehicles

Wheel hub motor

The electric motor is directly integrated into the wheel. The advantages of this concept are that no

gearbox, clutch, driveshaft or differential is needed. This makes the car lighter and thus also more

energy efficient. This motor concept was used already in the very beginnings of electric mobility, as e.g.

by the famous Lohner Porsche electric vehicle in 1899, having a wheel hub motor in each of the front

tyres and performing astonishingly: the maximum vehicle speed was 50 km/h and the range was up to

50 km with a total vehicle weight of 980 kg (BMLFUW 2008). Shortly after the two-wheel drive, Porsche

and Lohner also developed a four-wheel drive car with wheel hub motors.

One of the big disadvantages of this concept so far was that the tyres became very heavy and thus

leading to an uncomfortable driving at least at higher speed on uneven pavement. New concepts try to

solve this problem by using light weight material and new suspension concepts.

wheel hub motor

The picture shows the wheel hubconcept Active Wheel from Michelin,which arranges break, engine andsuspension within the wheel.

www.michelin.com

Nowadays the electric wheel hub concept is again used primarily in electric two wheelers like pedelecs

and electric scooters. However, car manufacturers (e.g. Volvo) are planning to bring this concept on the

market for electric four wheelers, too.

Single motor with reducer gearbox and driveshafts

In contrast to the wheel hub motor, this concept does not bring the power directly from the engine to

the wheel. Here in fact the electric engine is connected to the wheel by a reducer gearbox and

driveshafts. Thus, this concept needs more vehicle parts, but on the other hand does not have the

suspension problem, as does the wheel hub motor. This concept is used in most of the electric vehicles

currently on the market.


16/81


16

4WD system with dual motors with reducer gearboxes and driveshafts

Another concept is to use two electric motors, one for each axis, which enables 4-wheel driving (4WD).

Again the motors are connected with reducer gearboxes and driveshafts to bring the power to the

wheels. This concept is very seldom used for electric vehicles at the moment, but it is for example the

centrepiece of the new Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV.

A variation of this concept used in the Peugeot 3008 HYbrid4: the engine for the front axis is a

combustion engine and the engine for the rear axis is an electric motor. Hence the electric engine is

used to transform the car into a 4WD for short time periods.

3.2 Hybrid Electric Vehicles

Hybrid vehicles are vehicles equipped with two different types of engines. Most of the Hybrid Electric

Vehicles (HEV) are equipped both with an electric and a gasoline engine. Meanwhile also HEVs with anelectric and a Diesel engine are available.

There exist different types of HEV:

Parallel HEV:Both engines are mechanically connected to the drive wheels

Serial HEV:

Only one of the engines (namely the electric engine) is connected to thedrive wheels. The other engine, normally an internal combustion engine(ICE), powers a generator which produces electricity for the electricengine.

Mild HEV:

These are parallel HEVs with a rather small electric unit where a pureelectric driving mode is not possible.

Full HEV:

These are also parallel HEVs but equipped with an electric unit where apure electric driving modeat least for very short distancesis available.

Plug-In HEV:

These are vehicles that can be charged from an external energy source,mostly a charging station with a grid connection.

Table 2: Types of Hybrid Electric Vehicles

In the automobile wordingthe term Micro HEV is also used often. However, here the term hybrid

is misleading, as it is not about a vehicle with two different engines. It is rather a vehicle with an internal

combustion engine with a start/stop system: the system automatically shuts down when the car stops

and restarts the internal combustion engine as soon as the brake pedal is lifted. This helps to reduce the

time the engine runs at idle, thereby reducing fuel consumption and emissions. In fact it is a method to

increase fuel efficiency but not a HEV concept (TU Wien 2009).

In the following section the most important HEV and their concepts will be introduced.


17/81


17

Full HEV Toyota Prius

Toyota Prius is the most famous and also most-sold HEV. It was introduced in 1997 in Japan and in 2003

in USA followed by Europe. Meanwhile more than 2 million cars of this model were sold worldwide. The

Toyota Prius is a parallel hybrid, which means that both engines are mechanically connected to the drive

wheels. The THS (Toyota Hybrid Concept) is a power split drivetrain (Hofmann 2010) which enablesdriving just with the electric engine at least for very short distances (Full HEV).

It consists of the following components:

4 cylinder gasoline combustion engine

starter generator

planetary gear set

electric engine and generator

inverter

battery

The combustion engine is connected to the planetary gear set. The sun gear of the planetary gear is

connected to the generator. The generator starts the combustion engine and delivers energy to the

electric engine and also the battery, thus replacing the classical dynamo. The electric engine directly

powers the ring gear which results in forward and backward movements of the car. The second function

of the electric engine is to support the combustion engine, especially during acceleration phases. The

third function is that the electric engine works as a generator during braking and delivers electricity back

into the battery.

Prius 3rdgeneration

Meanwhile the Prius of the 3rdgeneration is on the market. It isequipped with a 1.8 litres, 73 kWgasoline engine and a 60 kW electricengine. The fuel consumption (NewEuropean Test Cycle) 3.9 litres/100 kmrespectively 89 grams of CO2 perkilometre. www.toyota.at

A special novelty of the 3rdgeneration Prius is that the heat from the exhaust gases is used to bring the

engine to an optimum temperature faster.

Mild HEV Honda type configuration

The second manufacturer after Toyota that brought a hybrid car on the market is Honda. In 1999 Honda

started with the Insight, equipped with the Integrated Motor Assist (IMA) hybrid system. Honda

launched further hybrid models like the Civic in 2006 or a new version of the Insight in 2010.

This system works as a parallel hybrid the electric engine is placed between the combustion engine

and the clutch.


18/81


18

Engine and fuel consumption

The actual Honda Insight is equippedwith a 1.3 litres, 65 kW gasoline engine

and a 10 kW electric engine. The fuelconsumption (New European TestCycle) is 4.4 litres/100 km respectively101 grams of CO2per kilometre.

www.honda.at

Peugeot 4WD hybrid concept

A different hybrid concept is used by Peugeot. Peugeot introduced the 3008 HYbrid4 onto the market in

2011, which is especially remarkable for two reasons:

1. It is the first diesel hybrid on the market, and

2. the hybrid concept is used to turn the car into a 4WD.

The 119 kW diesel combustion engine powers the front wheels only, whereas the electric engine

(27 kW) powers the rear wheels. Hence the electric engine is used to transform the car into a 4WD for

short time periods. The price in Austria is about 36,500 EUR including taxes.

Engine and fuel consumption

The Peugeot 3008 HYbrid4 is equippedwith a 2 litres, 120 kW Diesel engineand a 27 kW electric engine. It reachesa fuel consumption (New EuropeanTest Cycle) of 3.8 litres/100 km and99 grams of CO2 per kilometre,respectively.

Peugeot.com


19/81


19

3.3 Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicles

Toyota Prius PHEV type

The next generation of hybrid vehicles on the market are Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEV). Plug-

In indicates that the car can be charged with electricity from the grid. For that reason PHEV vehicles are

equipped with a bigger battery than the HEV and hence enable driving over longer distances in pure

electric mode. An example of this category is the Toyota Prius PHEV.

Car Model Battery type Battery capacity Pure electric range

Toyota Prius III Nickel-metal hydrid 1.3 kWh 2 km

Toyota Prius Plug-In Lithium-ion 5.2 kWh 25 km

Table 3: Battery capacity Toyota Prius

The battery of the Prius PHEV exactly has 4 times the capacity of the Prius (5.2 to 1.3 kWh). The Prius

PHEV battery can be charged on the grid and enables pure electric driving of up to 25 km. The

combustion engine is used in the same way as in the Toyota Prius and charges the battery if a lower

level is reached or fuels the car on longer distance trips (> 25 km).

Using a home charging station, the Prius PHEV needs 90 minutes to be fully reloaded. The price in

Austria is about 37,500 EUR including taxes.

4WD type Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV

Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV consists of two electric engines one on the front axis and one on the rear

axis, a gasoline internal combustion engine and a 12 kWh lithium-ion battery. With this equipment thevehicle provides different modes of driving:

EV Drive Mode: EV Drive Mode is an all-electric mode in which the front and rear motors drive

the vehicle using only electricity from the drive battery.

Series Hybrid Mode: In Series Hybrid Mode, the gasoline engine operates as a generator supplyingthe electric motors with electricity. The system switches to this mode when the

remaining charge in the battery falls below a predetermined level and whenmore powerful performance is required, such as accelerating to pass a vehicle

or climbing a steep gradient such as a slope.

Parallel Hybrid Mode: In Parallel Hybrid Mode, the gasoline engine provides most of the motive

power, assisted by the electric motors as required. The system switches to this

mode for higher-speed driving when the gasoline engine operates at peakefficiency.

Table 4: Driving Modes Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV1

1www.mitsubishi-motors.com/publish/pressrelease_en/motorshow/2012/news/detail0853.html
http://www.mitsubishi-motors.com/publish/pressrelease_en/motorshow/2012/news/detail0853.htmlhttp://www.mitsubishi-motors.com/publish/pressrelease_en/motorshow/2012/news/detail0853.htmlhttp://www.mitsubishi-motors.com/publish/pressrelease_en/motorshow/2012/news/detail0853.htmlhttp://www.mitsubishi-motors.com/publish/pressrelease_en/motorshow/2012/news/detail0853.html


20/81


20

3.4 Range Extender Electric Vehicles (REEV)

A special concept are electric vehicles that use a combustion engine attached to a generator in order to

produce electricity to enable additional kilometres of driving. When the battery is running low, the

internal combustion engine is started and powers a generator that feeds electricity to the electric motor

and the battery. As the combustion engine always runs in the optimal number of revolutions per minute(rpm), the engine works very efficiently. This concept is for example used in the Opel Ampera, which has

an electric range of up to 83 km and using the internal combustion engine a combined range of

500 km!

3.5 Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles

Similar to a range extender, also a fuel cell can be used for on-board production of for powering the

vehicle. In a fuel cell hydrogen and oxygen react, producing an electric potential of about 0.61 Volt in

one cell (BMLFUW 2008). To achieve a higher voltage, a number of these cells are assembled to form

stacks. The only emission from a fuel cell is water in form of vapour. The engine efficiency of a fuel cell

reaches 50% (Hofmann 2010).

If a reformer is used, other energy sources can also be used to fuel the car, e.g.:

CNG

LPG

methanol

ethanol

dimethyl ether

Diesel

modified gasoline

From these energy sources, the reformer produces hydrogen which is then used in the fuel cell. As the

energy sources are not burned as in a combustion engine, no local emissions are produced.

In general hydrogen which is produced internally through on-board auto thermal reformers offers little

GHG benefit compared to advanced conventional powertrains or hybrids2.

The fuel cell system can be used solitaire to power the electric motor, or in combination with another

engine. Hence different types of fuel cell vehicles are constructed:

Fuel cell electric vehicles

Fuel cell hybrid vehicles

Fuel cell plug-in hybrid vehicles

2Well-to-wheels analysis fo future automotive fuels and powertrains in the European context. Version 2c, march 2007,http://ies.jrc.ec.europa.eu/uploads/media/WTW_Report_010307.pdf


21/81


21

3.6 2-wheeler propulsion systems

Power assist Pedelec bicycle type

Electric motors are also used in bicycles: a small motor delivers additional power while pedalling. The so

called pedelec is the abbreviation of PEDal-ELECtric-Vehicle. In Austria meanwhile every 10thbicycle that

is sold, is equipped with an electric motor. There are a number of reasons why pedelecs are more and

more chosen:

cycling with a pedelec is less exhausting in comparison to a conventional bike

up-hills are easier to manage

less sweating

in the same time longer distances can be reached

These number of advantages helps to win new target groups for a sustainable way of driving.

The electric motor assists when pedalling up to 25 km/h and some pedelecs recharge the batteries whengoing downhill (recuperation). Pedelecs normally have a range - of 3080 kilometres without

recharging, depending on the model. The costs for a good quality pedelec are about 1,5002,500 Euro,

whereas energy costs amount only to 0.12 cent/km in comparison to 7.0 cent/km for a car (Koch 2012).

Meanwhile there are hundreds of different models of pedelecs available on the market. Hence there

have been established some websites to give a market overview, for example:

www.extraenergy.org

www.topprodukte.at

There are only a few power train producers for pedelecs on the market which are used by all (quality)

bicycle manufacturers; these are predominately Bionics, Bosch and Panasonic.
http://www.extraenergy.org/http://www.topprodukte.at/http://www.topprodukte.at/http://www.extraenergy.org/


22/81


22

There exist three different solutions for the construction of pedelecs:

Rear wheel hub engine

An electric wheel hub engine isinstalled in the rear wheel. This leads tobetter traction on slippery surfaces. Onthe other side, the handling of the bikeis weak, as the engine is mounted inthe rear part of the bicycle.

AEA

Middle engine

The engine is placed in the middle ofthe bike, which makes the handlingeasier. Costs are in general higher thanfor wheel hub solutions.

AEA

Front wheel hub engine

This concept uses a wheel hub enginein the front wheel. The danger ofslipping away is higher with thisconstruction, as the front wheel isheavier and has only little traction, in

comparison to the rear wheel. Theconcept is especially useful for bicycleswhich are used to carry children or alsogoods, as the front engine balances thebike.

AEA


23/81


23

3.7 Systems for Scooters/Motorcycles

E-scooters are already mass-produced and are available from various vendors although the selection

from OEM manufactures is still very low. E-scooters have the potential to replace two-wheelers with

internal combustion engines and hence reduce noise, CO2emissions and air pollutants.

One of the first e-scooters from an OEM manufacturer available in Europe is the Peugeot e-Vivacity.

Peugeot e-Vivacity

The Peugeot e-Vivacity is equipped withan 3kW electric motor. The range ist

between 45 60 km. The Scooter isalready available in Austria for 4.200,-EUR.

AEA

Also electric motor bikes are available on the market, e.g. the Vectrix or BMW.

BMW C_evolution

The BMW C_evolution is equipped withan 11kW electric motor delivering apeak performance of 35kW. The rangeof the vehicle is about 100km. It will beavailable in Austria from April 2013.

AEA

Rear wheel hub motor

All these vehicles and also the BMWC_evolution use a rear wheel hubmotor as an engine.

AEA


24/81


25/81

Specificationsofvehicles

25

4 Specifications of vehicles

In Austria financial incentives and purchase tax credits are offered for new cars with

alternative propulsion systems: e.g. a tax credit of 500 EUR for hybrid vehicles. Electric vehicles are

exempted from the purchase tax and the annual motor vehicle tax, resulting in about 4000 EUR savings

over five years.

Fleet owners receive a funding if they change from conventional to electric vehicles. The rates of

financial support are staggered according to the type of vehicle introduced, the level of CO2 reduction

achieved and the amount of renewable energy used: till 2012 up to 5,000 EUR were granted for

purchasing EVs, if powered with renewable energy. The subsidy shall be lowered in 2013 and also PHEV

and REEV will be eligible then within the new funding regime.

Denmarkhas a number of preferential treatments for electric vehicles. BEVs and FCEVs are

exempted from the registration tax until the end of 2015. This is an essential bonus, as the current

Danish registration tax for passenger cars is very high (up to 180%) and is based on the value of the car

plus VAT. Both categories are also exempted from annual tax until 2015 (IEA-HEV 2012).

On the other side, there is no tax reduction on hybrid vehicles; therefore they are hardly sold in

Denmark (DRD 2012).

Norway: Prices quoted are without destination charges (transportation etc. usually 7,000

10,000 NOK / 9371,339 EUR), but including a 1700 NOK / 228 EUR end-of-life fee which will be

returned to those who in the end deliver their vehicle for recycling or scrapping.

Electric vehicles and hydrogen vehicles are exempted from VAT as well as from the vehicle purchase tax.

Prices for plug-in hybrid vehicles include 25% VAT and the vehicle purchase tax. The vehicles purchase

tax is levied on all vehicles with combustion engines. It is based on the weight of the vehicle, thecombustion engine maximum power and the CO2emission of the vehicle. In general, the sum of these

taxes on PHEV vehicles is low, compared to gasoline and diesel vehicles. Hybrid vehicles in general,

including plug-in hybrids, get a 10% deduction of weight prior to the calculation of the weight tax

because of the additional weight of the electrical systems and the battery.

The annual motor vehicle tax for electric vehicles is 405 NOK / 54 EUR. The tax is 2885-3360 NOK / 386-

450 EUR per year for vehicles with combustion engine. Electric vehicles are also subject to a reduced

company car tax rate (50%).

Mark: Unless otherwise stated, the quoted car prices in the following section are minimum prices for

end consumers, including all additional costs (e.g. taxes etc.). As a currency exchange value for NKK and

DKK to EUR the average exchange rate in 2012 was used (1EUR=7,5DKK=7,47NOK).


26/81


26

4.1 Vehicles on the market

BEV drive

Bollor BluecarDrivetrain BEVBattery Lithium-IonBattery Capacity 30 kWhMax. Range 150250 kmSize (l-b-h) 365-170-161 cm

Price 330 EUR/month*)

*) Leasing only

Bollor

Smart EDDrivetrain BEVBattery Lithium-IonBattery Capacity 17.6 kWhMax. Range 140 kmSize (l-b-h) 270-156-154cm

Price 19,420 EUR

AEA

Smart ED BrabusDrivetrain BEVBattery Lithium-IonBattery Capacity n.a.Max. Range 150 kmSize (l-b-h) 270-156-154cm

Price n.a.

Daimler

German E-Cars StromosDrivetrain BEVBattery Lithium-IonBattery Capacity 19.5 kWhMax. Range 120 kmSize (l-b-h) 372-166-159 cm

Price 31,500 EUR

AEA


27/81


27

MiaDrivetrain BEVBattery Lithium-Ion

Battery Capacity 8/12 kWhMax. Range 80/125 kmSize (l-b-h) 287-164-155 cm

Price 27,952 EUR*

Price 159,900 NOK(21,406 EUR)

mia electric *) including 4.490 EUR for the battery

Mia LDrivetrain BEV

Battery Lithium-IonBattery Capacity 8/12 kWhMax. Range 80/125 kmSize (l-b-h) 319-164-155 cm

Price 30,036 EUR*

Price 165,900 NOK(22,209 EUR)

mia electric *) including 4.490 EUR for the battery

Citroen C-Zero

Drivetrain BEVBattery Lithium-IonBattery Capacity 16 kWhMax. Range 150 kmSize (l-b-h) 348-148-161 cm

Price 27,588 EUR

Price 193,000 NOK(25,837 EUR)

Raiffeisen-Leasing / Willi Denk

Mitsubishi I-MiEVDrivetrain BEVBattery Lithium-IonBattery Capacity 16 kWhMax. Range 150 kmSize (l-b-h) 348-148-161cm

Price 29,500 EUR

Price 192,500 NOK( 25,770 EUR)

AEA


28/81


28

Peugeot I-OnDrivetrain BEVBattery Lithium-Ion

Battery Capacity 16 kWhMax. Range 150 kmSize (l-b-h) 348-159-159 cm

Price 29,640 EUR

Price 191,500 NOK(25,636 EUR)

AEA

Tesla RoadsterDrivetrain BEV

Battery Lithium-IonBattery Capacity 53 kWhMax. Range 340 kmSize (l-b-h) 395-185-113 cm

Price ~ 103,000 EUR

Price 667,500 NOK(89,357 EUR)

Teslamotors

Renault ZoeDrivetrain BEVBattery Lithium-IonBattery Capacity 22 kWhMax. Range 160 kmSize (l-b-h) 409-179-154 cm

Price 22,580* EUR

AEA *) Battery for rent only: 79 Euro/month

Renault Kangoo ZEDrivetrain BEVBattery Lithium-IonBattery Capacity 22 kWhMax. Range 170 kmSize (l-b-h) 423-183-182 cm

Price 24,360 EUR

Price 227,000 NOK(30,388 EUR)

Renault *) Battery for rent only starting by 86 ,40 EUR or 715 NOK (96 EUR)


29/81


29

Ford Focus BEVDrivetrain BEVBattery Lithium-Ion

Battery Capacity 23 kWhMax. Range 160 kmSize (l-b-h) 436-186-148 cm

Price available Q3/13

Nissan LeafDrivetrain BEV

Battery Lithium-IonBattery Capacity 24 kWhMax. Range 175 kmSize (l-b-h) 445-177-155 cm

Price 37,490 EUR

Price231,790 NOK(31,029 EUR)

AEA

Renault Fluence ZEDrivetrain BEVBattery Lithium-IonBattery Capacity 22 kWhMax. Range 170 kmSize (l-b-h) 475-183-146 cm

Price 25,950* EUR

AEA *) Battery for rent only: 82 Euro/month


30/81


30

Plug-in Hybrid

Toyota Prius Plug-inDrivetrain PHEV

Battery Lithium-IonBattery Capacity 5.2 kWhMax. Range 20 km (electric only)

km in total n.a.Size (l-b-h) 448-175-149 cm

Price 37,500 EUR

Price 329,900 NOK(44,163 EUR)

AEA

Volvo V60 Plug-inDrivetrain PHEVBattery Lithium-IonBattery Capacity 12 kWhMax. Range 50 km electric only

km in total n.a.Size (l-b-h) 463-186-148 cm

Price 57,400 EUR

Price 652,900 NOK(87,403 EUR)

AEA


31/81


31

Range Extender Electric Vehicles

AEA

Opel AmperaDrivetrain REEV

Battery Lithium-IonBattery Capacity 16 kWhMax. Range 83 km electric only

500 km in totalSize (l-b-h) 450-179-144 cm

Price 43,000 EUR

Price 369,900 NOK(49,518 EUR)

Chevrolet VoltDrivetrain REEVBattery Lithium-IonBattery Capacity 16 kWhMax. Range 61 km electric only


Price 42,950 EUR

Chevrolet

Mitsubishi Outlander Plug-in REDrivetrain REEVBattery Lithium-IonBattery Capacity 12 kWhMax. Range 880 km in total

55 km electric onlySize (l-b-h) 465-180-168cm

Price 48,000 EUR

AEA

Fisker KarmaDrivetrain REEVBattery Lithium-IonBattery Capacity 20 kWhMax. Range 83 km electric only


Price 121,200 EUR

Price1,169,000 NOK(156,493 EUR)

AEA


32/81


32

Quadricycles

Renault Twizy45/80*)Drivetrain BEV

Battery Lithium-IonBattery Capacity 6.1 kWhMax. Range 120/100 kmSize (l-b-h) 234-124-145 cm

Price 6,990/7,690 EUR**)

AEA*) maximal Speed

**) Battery for rent only: 50

to72 Euro/month

Buddy Electric BuddyDrivetrain BEVBattery Ni-MhBattery Capacity n.a.Max. Range 120 kmSize (l-b-h) 244-149-151 cm

Price 169,900 NOK(22,744 EUR)

AEA

Tazzari ZeroDrivetrain BEVBattery Lithium-IonBattery Capacity 14 kWhMax. Range 150 kmSize (l-b-h) 288-155-140 cm

Price 19,000 EUR

Price 162,490 NOK

(21,752 EUR) Moser Parts


33/81


33

Light Duty Vehicles

GoupilDrivetrain BEVBattery Lead-AcidBattery Capacity 8.619.2 kWhMax. Range 60100 kmSize (l-b-h) 322*-110-200 cmLoading capacity 4 m/ n.a. kg

Price 20,000 EUR

AEA *) large edition: length 370 cm

Piaggio PorterDrivetrain BEVBattery Lead-AcidBattery Capacity n.a.Max. Range 110 kmSize (l-b-h) 337-139-187 cmLoading capacity 4 m/450-540 kg

Price 20,500 EUR

AEA

Citroen Berlingo

Drivetrain BEVBattery ZebraBattery Capacity 23,5 kWhMax. Range 120 kmSize (l-b-h) 414-172-182cmLoading capacity 3.3 m/500 kg

Price 43,000 EUR

Citroen

Peugeot PartnerDrivetrain BEVBattery Zebra and Li-IonBattery Capacity 22.5 kWhMax. Range 170 kmSize (l-b-h) 414-196-183cmLoading capacity 3 m/ 600 kg

Price 42.000 EURwith ZEBRA Battery

Price 241,000 NOK(32,262 EUR)with Li-Ionen Battery

Peugeot


34/81


34

Renault Kangoo ZEDrivetrain BEVBattery Lithium-Ion

Battery Capacity 22 kWhMax. Range 170 kmSize (l-b-h) 423-183-182 cmLoading capacity 3.5 m/650 kg

Price 24,360 EUR*

Price 222,900 NOK*(29,839 EUR)

AEA *) Battery for rent only: 86,4 Euro/month in Austria, 855 NOK (114EUR)/month for 36 month/20000 km lease in Norway

Ford Transit ConnectDrivetrain BEVBattery Lithium-IonBattery Capacity 28 kWhMax. Range 130 kmSize (l-b-h) 428-180-181 cmLoading capacity 3.8 m/410 kg

Price n.a.

AEA

Renault Kangoo MaxiZEDrivetrain BEVBattery Lithium-IonBattery Capacity 22 kWhMax. Range 170 kmSize (l-b-h) 460-183-182 cmLoading capacity 3.5 m/650 kg

Price 26.400 EUR*

Price 229,900 NOK(30,776 EUR)

*) Kangoo maxi Length 460 cm, Loading cap. 4,6 m

**) Battery for rent only: 82 Euro/month in Austria, 855 NOK (114EUR)/month for 36 month/20000 km lease in Norway AEA


35/81


35

Mercedes Vito E-CellDrivetrain BEVBattery Lithium-IonBattery Capacity 36 kWhMax. Range 130 kmSize (l-b-h) 500-189-190 cmLoading capacity 600-850 kg

Price n.a.

Mercedes

Iveco DailyDrivetrain BEVBattery Lithium-Ion

Battery Capacity 34/51 kWhMax. Range 90/140 kmSize (l-b-h) 508 (548)-188-226(263) cm

Loading capacity 7.310.2 m

Price ~ 100,000 EUR

APA-OTS/Strasser

German E-cars PlantosDrivetrain BEVBattery Lithium-IonBattery Capacity 40 kWhMax. Range 120 kmSize (l-b-h) n.a.Loading capacity 950 kg

Price 79,500 EUR German E.cars


36/81


36

Electric Scooters

Peugeot e-VivacityDrivetrain BEV

Battery Lithium-IonBattery Capacity 3 kWhMax. Range 60 kmLength /Weight 123 cm /115 kg

Price 4,199 EUR

AEA

IO Scooter 1500 GTDrivetrain BEVBattery SiGelBattery Capacity 1.7 kWhMax. Range 60 kmSize (l-b-h) 170-88-127cm

Price 1.850 EUR

io-scooter

Etropolis FutureDrivetrain BEVBattery Lithium-IonBattery Capacity n.a.Max. Range 70 kmLength /Weight 180 cm /135 kg

Price 2,195 EUR

Etropolis

Honda EV-neoDrivetrain BEVBattery Lithium-IonBattery Capacity 0.9 kWhMax. Range 34 kmLength /Weight 183 cm /110 kg

Price n.a.

Honda


37/81


37

E-max 90S / 110SDrivetrain BEV

Battery Silicon/Silizium-Battery Capacity 4 x 12V / 60AhMax. Range 90 kmLength /Weight 190 cm /160 kg

Price 2,995 /3,295 EUR

Price DKK

Price NOKFoto:: www.scooterman.at

4.2 Hydrogen fuel cells vehicles (in test projects)

Daimler

Mercedes F-Cell 2011 modelDrivetrain FCEVMax. Range 400 km

Hyundai

Hyundai Tucson ix 35Drivetrain FCEVMax. Range 588 km
http://www.scooterman.at/http://www.scooterman.at/http://www.scooterman.at/http://www.scooterman.at/


38/81


38

4.3 Outlook: Vehicles to come

Audi e-tron DetroitDrivetrain BEV

Battery Lithium-IonBattery Capacity 49 kWhMax. Range 250 kmSize (l-b-h) 393-178-122 cmAvailable from n.a

Price n.a

AEA

Foto:

BMW i3Drivetrain BEVBattery Lithium-IonBattery Capacity 49 kWhMax. Range 160 kmAvailable from n.a

Price n.a

BMW

BMW i8Drivetrain PHEVBattery Lithium-IonBattery Capacity n.aMax. Range 35 km electric onlyAvailable from n.a.

Price ~ 200,000 EUR

BMW

Ford C-max EnergiDrivetrain PHEVBattery Lithium-IonBattery Capacity n.aMax. Range 32 km electric onlyAvailable from n.a.

Price n.a

Ford


39/81


40/81


40

Nissan NV200 vanDrivetrain BEVBattery Lithium-Ion

Battery Capacity 24 kWhMax. Range 175 kmAvailable from 2013*)

Price n.a.

Nissan *) tested by FedEx in London

Tesla Model SDrivetrain BEVBattery Lithium-IonBattery Capacity 4085 kWhMax. Range 260480 kmAvailable from 2013

Price 37,500 EUR

Price 446,600 NOK(59,786 EUR)

Tesla

VW E-upDrivetrain BEVBattery Lithium-IonBattery Capacity 18.7 kWhMax. Range 150 kmSize (l-b-h) 354-164-147 cmAvailable from Autumn 2013

Price ~ 22,500 EUR

AEA

VW Golf Blue E-MotionDrivetrain BEVBattery Lithium-IonBattery Capacity 26.5 kWhMax. Range 150 kmSize (l-b-h) 420-179-148 cmAvailable from n.a

Price n.a

AEA


41/81


41

picture n.a. VW Golf Plug-in HybridDrivetrain PHEV

Battery Lithium-IonBattery Capacity 8 kWhMax. Range 50 km electric only

Available from 2014

Price ~ 25,000 EUR

picture n.a. VW Passat Plug-in hybridDrivetrain PHEVBattery Lithium-IonBattery Capacity n.a

Max. Range 50 km electric onlyAvailable from 2014

Price n.a

VW Caddy E-motionDrivetrain BEVBattery Lithium-IonBattery Capacity 26 kWhMax. Range n.a

Available from 2014

Price n.a

Volkswagen

Volvo C-30 BEVDrivetrain BEVBattery Lithium-IonBattery Capacity 24 kWh

Max. Range 150 kmAvailable from n.a.

Price n.a.

Volvo


42/81


42

4.4 Future costs of vehicles

The costs of electric vehicles are a major barrier for a broader market implementation at the moment.

Depending on the car model, EVs cost up to 2.5 times more than comparable cars with internal

combustion.

Table 5: Indicators for conventional and electric vehicles in the reference scenario for 2013 (Umweltbundesamt 2012)

So the development of the prices will have a major influence on the future market chances of electric

vehicles. The most important cost driver is the price of the battery.

Source Technische Universitt Wien (Technische Universitt Wien 2009):)

Starting at 700 EUR in 2010, the prices decrease to less than one third till 2050.

Figure 1: Development of costs for lithium-ion batteries 20102050 (Technische Universitt Wien 2009)

In this scenario, the development of fuel cell systems costs starts in 2020, as before this time line no

mass market production is expected to happen.

Figure 2: Development of costs for fuel cell systems 20202050 (Technische Universitt Wien 2009)

Vehicle example Fiat 500 I-MiEV VW Polo Nissan Leaf Skoda Octavia EV Mercedes E-Class Opel Ampera

Price [] 10.490 26640 19145 30000 40606 48000 30451 42000

Performance [kW] 49 47 65 80 125 88 90 81

Energy costs [/km] 0,06 0,03 0,07 0,03 0,097 0,03 0,09 0,03

Maintenance costs [/km] 0,06 0,03 0,06 0,03 0,06 0,03 0,06 0,03

Range [km] > 500 144 > 500 160 > 500 160 > 500 160

Segment 1 Segment 2 Segment 3 Segment 4


43/81


43

Source European Hydrogen Association (EHA)

Another source regarding the development of costs is the study carried out by the European Hydrogen

Association (McKinsey & Company 2011) using data from participating car manufacturers like BMW,

Daimler, Ford, General Motors, Honda, Hyundai, KIA, Nissan, Renault, Toyota, and Volkswagen.

Whereas the development of battery costs is predicted by EHA quite similar as by the source mentioned

before, the development of fuel cell stack costs shows a different and much more optimistic picture,

with a mean price for fuel stacks of 43 EUR/kw in 2020. The reason for this is that EHA expects a very

soon FCEV mass market uptake with already 100,000 FCEV units installed by 2015 and 1,000,000 FCEV

units installed by 2020.

Figure 3: Development of battery costs for batteries and fuel cell stacks (McKinsey & Company 2011)

The same source also shows the development for different types of drivetrains for cars from the Total

Cost of Ownership (TCO) perspective. Whether a car seems to be expensive or not, not only depends on

the sales price, but on all costs related to buying and running a vehicle.

Cost categories considered in a TCO analysis (sterreichischer Wirtschaftsverlag 2012):

Financing costs (depreciation, taxes, interest rate)

Operating costs for fuel/energy Insurance costs

Maintenance costs

Administration costs for fleet operators like car selection processes and accounting

Other costs (e.g. parking fees, road tolls, car washing etc.)


44/81


44

From this perspective, cars with internal combustion engine remain cheaper than electric vehicles in the

near future, but price differences are balancing in the long run:

Figure 4: Total Cost of Ownership development for FCEV, BEV, PHEV, and ICE for C/D segment vehicles (McKinsey &

Company 2011)

E-Car-Sharing

A different approach to reduce the costs of (electric) car driving is car sharing. There exist already a

number of car sharing services with electric vehicles in Europe:

Autolibis a public car sharing-service with electric cars in Paris. The service was started in December

2011. The cars can be used for one way trips also. Meanwhile 1740 Bollor Bluecars are running and are

offered for rent at 1100 stations. 5000 charging points were installed. The target is to reach 3000 cars

and 6000 charging points until 2020.


45/81


45

Autolib rates

Package Member fee Rate

Autolib' 1 day 10 / day 7 per 1/2h

Autolib' 1 week 15 / week 7 per 1/2h

Autolib' 1 month 30 / month 6 per 1/2h

Autolib' 1 Year Premium 144 / 1 year (12/month) 5 per 1/2h

Shared 16h Premium 165 /month for 16h of shared utilization

Number of included subscribers: 4

Package to share between 1 to 4 users, for a 12-month subscription.

Table 6: Rates for Autolib

www.autolib.eu

Move Aboutwas founded in 2007 and has launched according to their own disclosures world's first

public car sharing service with EVs (in Oslo). Till now almost 100 electric vehicles are in operation in

Norway, Sweden, Denmark and Germany. Main areas of the service are the cities of Oslo, Gothenburg,

Helsingborg, and Copenhagen. Move About operates both public car sharing services and closed

systems to corporate customers.

For a fixed monthly fee, Move About provides complete financing and service for companies, including:

24/7 access to dedicated vehicles

24 hour roadside assistance

a web based vehicle booking system

individual contact-less access cards

vehicle insurance

maintenance and service

change to summer / winter tires

fill wiper fluid, check tire pressure, etc.

regular cleaninginside and out

www.moveabout.net
http://www.autolib.eu/http://www.autolib.eu/http://www.moveabout.net/http://www.moveabout.net/http://www.moveabout.net/http://www.autolib.eu/


46/81


47/81

Locationsfo

rChargingPoints

47

5 Locations for Charging Points

Electric vehicles require different charging habits than we are used from fossil vehicles. Charging electric

vehicles takes much more time than filling up a conventional vehicle with gasoline. Thus charging

electric vehicles is favourable when long parking times occur, like parking overnight at home or during

work on the company site. Being on tour fast charging solutions are planned with a very high charging

power to gain additional kilometres in short time.

Home charging

Vehicles are charged at home with a standard plug or a wall box.

Figure 5: Wall box for home charging, AEA

Normally only low charging power is used, as a conventional plug allows a maximum of 3.6 kW. The low

charging power often is not a problem as the vehicles park all night long at home. So there is enough

time to reload the batteries.

New buildings and charging

facilities

New building projects often alreadyconsider new mobility. The pictureshows a new building project in Viennaoffering Elektrotankstelle bei jedemKFZ-Stellplatza charging facility forelectric vehicles at every parking space.

AEA


48/81

Locationsfo

rChargingPoints

48

Company charging

Also company sites are well suitable for charging electric vehicles, as vehicles are parked often also for a

long time.

Company charging

Picture shows a company parking areawith solar modules as sun protectionand power source. Electric vehicles candirectly be charged with the powerfrom the solar plant.

AEA

Semi-public charging (public garages)

Public garages are also a good place to recharge batteries.

Figure 6: A Toyota Prius Plug-In is charged in a public garage, AEA


49/81

Locationsfo

rChargingPoints

49

Public charging (charging points along the street or in public spaces)

Charging in public is the most critical location for charging electric vehicles and requires safe technical

solutions.

Figure 7: Public charging in the model region for electric mobility in Vorarlberg, AEA

Pathway charging:

Fast charging stations along travel routes bring additional 100 to 150 kilometres in only 20 minutes

(VC, 2009).

Fast foodfast charging

A Burger King outlet in Vienna offersfast charging while dining in therestaurant: Electric vehicles can beplugged to a Chademo fast chargingstation.

Austrian Energy Agency


50/81


51/81

Description

ofchargingsystems

51

6 Description of charging systems

The most common way to recharge the batteries of electric vehicles is by connecting to the grid. The

charging systems, plugs and sockets are still not completely standardized. Therefore the various options

are introduced in the following.

Charging systems can be divided according to the speed of charging. Normal charging gives 1530 km of

range per hour of charge, double speed charging 50 km, semi fast charge 120 km and fast charge

typically 220280 km/hour of charge. Ultra fast charge could be more than 400 km/hour of charge.

Battery swap systems replace a discharged battery with a fully charged 24 kWh battery in only 3

minutes.

For public charging stations one needs to add the time to deviate from the desired route to get to the

charging or battery swap station. In addition, the charging station could be occupied and one would

have to wait for the charger (if it is a fast charger) or the battery swap station to be available which addsmore time. Or worse, in the case of normal charging it may be necessary to drive to another charging

station. This means that the effective kilometers one can get per hour of charge can be substantially

lower than the theoretical ones. The issue with occupied stations could be mitigated with real-time

information and reservations systems.

6.1 Normal charging

Normal charging or slow charging is a term used when charging electric vehicles from standard

household sockets or dedicated wallmounted charge stations (popular name wallbox), which gets its

power feed from one of the regular household/building circuits.


52/81

Description

ofchargingsystems

52

Types of normal charging

Figure 8: Normal charge systems, (TI 2013, based on Civitas Stavn 2012, supplier websites

There are four types of slow charging, Mode 1, Mode 2 and Mode 3 conductive and inductive charging.

Mode 1is essentially an electric cable betweenthe vehicle and a power socket mounted on a

wall or charge stand inside a garage or

outdoors. The power socket will be part of a

building installation consisting of a fuse

protecting the cable installation and a ground

fault interruption device. In older houses in

Norway the entire electrical installation is

protected with one ground fault interruption

device. New installations have one in each

fused circuit. This mode of charging has beenused on older vehicles but is no longer in

compliance with relevant European standards

for charging electric vehicles. On the mains side

the Schuko socket is used. This is not really

rated for 16A continuously over many hours, so

charging should be limited to 12-13A.

Mode 2 introduces a protection device

mounted on the charging cable. This is called an

Electric Vehicle Supply Equipment (EVSE). Itconsists of a combined ground fault

interruption device and circuit breaker, a

maximum current limiting function and a pilotsignal built into the cable going to the vehicle.

The latter verifies that there is a proper ground

connection between the vehicle and the EVSE.

It also assures that when the vehicle is

disconnected, the pilot signal is breached

before the power is breached. This makes it

possible for the circuit breaker in the EVSE to

open before the power is breached and there is

no risk of arching. This reduces fire risk and

there is less wear on the connectors on thevehicle side. However, the mains side of the

EVSE is not protected, so the user must keep in

mind to first disconnect the vehicle side. The

IEC standard introducing the use of EVSEs for

charging electric vehicles specifies that the EVSE

should be located within 30 cm of the mains

plug of the cable. On the mains side the regular

building installation socket (in Norway Schuko)

is used. This is not really rated for 16A

continuously so charging should be limited to

12-13A for a socket fused with 16A fuse.


53/81

Description

ofchargingsystems

53

Mode 3 conductive charging improves safety

even more by moving the EVSE into the charge

stand/wall installation making it a charge

station. Normally this means that the cable to

be used is attached to the charge station, but it

is also possible to use a loose cable. The latter

requires the use of a connector on the vehicles

side and on the charge station side that has a

built-in pilot signal circuit.

This mode of charging station is the safest one

as it protects the entire cable between the

vehicle and the mains power. It is also possible

to set up a 20A power supply to these charge

stations, allowing them to provide 16A charge

power continuously.

Mode 3 inductive charging station is a device

that is being developed and will come on the

market in some countries from 2013. The

electric power is transferred by inductive

coupling across a narrow air gap between the

transmitter on the garage floor and the

receptacle under the vehicle. This means that

charging proceeds without physical connection

between the vehicle and the electrical

installation of the garage. The system can

employ manual or automatic docking to the

receptacle device mounted on the floor inside

the garage. The data-communication between

the vehicle and the charging station uses a

wireless protocol.

Infrastructure requirements

From the infrastructure side, mode 1 and mode 2 are equal. The mains socket that the charging cable is

connected to is part of the buildings regular electrical system. Power sockets already installed in

garages, outside buildings and in stands for power connection to engine block heaters can be used

immediately. This allows a great number of people to start using electric vehicles quickly. There is

however an issue with the Schuko plug system, 10A installations use the same socket as 16A

installations. Some countries even use 13A. In mode 2 charging this can be solved by making differentEVSE units for 10A, 13A and 16A installations, or providing a switch to select charge power on the EVSE

unit or inside the car, so that the built-in charger limits it power draw to what the building installation

can handle. All electric vehicles delivered today are equipped with a mode 2 charge cable as standard.

This is a costly item born by the owner of the vehicle, not the infrastructure provider. The different car

manufacturers have different policies. Some only deliver 10A limited cables, others only provide cables

that require 16A circuits and that draw 13-14 A from the socket. For the user it is not possible to see if a

Schuko socket is rated for 16A or 10A. In general, new installations would be 16A in Norway while older

ones could be both. Power rating would be in the 2.3 to 3.2 kW range.

Mode 3 conductive charging is rather different

in that it provides a dedicated electric vehicle

charging infrastructure. The charging station,

which often is called the wall box, is

permanently attached to the buildings

electrical installation. It is a requirement in the

electrical code that this installation has to be

done by an authorized electrician. Normally a

dedicated circuit is used, protected by a 20Afuse in the buildings fuse box. In home charging

units the cable is often permanently attached to

the wall box, while in public places it would be

possible to use a loose cable to connect to the

wall box. This reduces risk of wear and tear on

the public equipment and will probably be the

preferred option as it also reduces the cost of

the loose cable that comes with the vehicle. In

workplaces with closed garage facilities, a wall

box with built-in cable could be an option. Thecharge power will be up to 3.6 kW.


54/81


55/81

Description

ofchargingsystems

55

6.4 43-50 kW fast charging

Figure 9: Fast charging systems, (TI 2013, based on Civitas Stavn 2012)

There are two main directions on fast charging, mode 3 AC with the charger inside the vehicle and mode

4 DC with the charger external to the vehicle. In many cases the installation of fast chargers requires

electrical distribution network reinforcement, normally a bigger transformer in the connection point.

Mode 4 electric vehicle charger stations are DC fast chargers providing DC power to the vehicles

batteries. In this case the charger is external to the vehicle. The Chademo 50 kW DC charge standard is

the most commonly used DC fast charging standard. Chargers of this type have been deployed in

Norway. Up to 2012, this was the only type of fast charger that could be used by the vehicles sold in

Norway. This includes the best-selling electric vehicles, Nissan Leaf, Mitsubishi I-MiEV, Peugeot Ion and

Citroen C-zero.

Mode 3 AC fast charging is the other main direction. From 2013/2014 vehicles with on-board fastchargers that require 43 kW AC supply (230 V, three phase, 63A) will come on the market. This will be a

high power variant of mode 3 charging with dedicated charge stations, with an integrated charge cable

for connection to the vehicle. Apart from the power level, the charge stations communicate with the

vehicle using the same protocol as normal mode 3 charging and contain the same protective equipment,

but off course with a higher power rating.

The two options can be combined easily into "combo" chargers capable of delivering both types of AC

and DC fast charge power.

In Norway it has been reported that fast chargers only deliver about half of the power to the vehicleswhen it is cold in the wintertime, as the cold batteries are not capable of handling the full 50 kW charge

power. This comes in addition to the range being drastically reduced in the winter due to the need to


56/81

Description

ofchargingsystems

56

overcome higher resistive forces when driving and using electric energy to heat the vehicle. In addition

the batteries available energy content could be reduced in cold weather conditions. In Norway a range

reduction up to 50% in the coldest winter period can be experienced when these factors are combined.

6.5 Ultra fast charging

Charging above 50 kW is termed ultra fast charging. The vehicles need to be prepared for this charge

level, but no vehicles have had this capability up to 2012.

Tesla Sedan S will be capable of charging at a charge rate of 90 kW at dedicated charge stations. The first

stations are currently being erected in California, so far6 by December 2012. Only the Model S vehicles

with the largest (85 kWh) battery packs can use these stations. The charging stations will be similar to

the ones rated at 50 kW, apart from the higher power output. On the vehicle side this requires very

efficient cooling of the battery.

This mode of charging is not yet relevant in Europe but could be an option in the future. This charge

power level will definitively require reinforcement of the electric distribution network.

6.6 Battery exchange

Rather than fast-charging electric vehicles, the infrastructure development company Better Place

proposes to swap out the battery and replace it with a fully charged one when the vehicle is undertaking

a longer journey. They have developed battery swap stations that can do this in less than 3 minutes. Theadvantage of the system is that it is much faster than fast charging.

Currently they are deploying this system in Denmark and Israel. Only one vehicle is available with the

battery swap system, the Renault Fluence.

Better Place is selling the vehicle without the battery. The customer then pays for an all-inclusive

monthly subscription which includes the battery, access to the charging stations, the set-up of a wall box

in the car owners garage, the electric energy used by the vehicle and warranty and insurance on the

battery pack. The charging station access can include battery swap stations but this is voluntary. Better

Place owns the battery which is an important requirement that the battery swap station is actually used,

as the customer might be reluctant to swap as the state and quality of the swapped battery would not

be known.

The customer monthly fee is depending on the expected mileage driven.


57/81

Description

ofchargingsystems

57

Figure 10: Better Place Battery swap station, Source: Better Place Denmark

Charge type Building installation

requirement

Charge power (Typical

with safety margin)

Theoretical maximum

km of driving per hour of

charge in the summer

Normal charge 10A household socket 2 kW 15 km

13A household socket 2.5 kW 20 km

16A household socket 3 kW 25 km

20A Wallbox charge station 3.6 kW 30 km

Double speed charge 32A Wallbox charge station 6 kW 50 km

Semi fast charge 230V three phase 32A 20 kW 120 km

Fast charge 230V three phase 63A 40 kW 220 km

Chademo charge station 50 kW DC 280 km

Battery swap Off board charging ofswapped battery

New 24 kWh battery,which gives vehicle

range up to 150 km,

replaced in 3 minutes.

3000 km

Table 7: Summary of charging systems

For public charging stations one needs to add the time to deviate from the desired route to get to the

charger or battery swap stations. In addition one may have to wait for the charging station to be

available or drive to the next station if it is expected to be occupied for a long time period. This means

that the effective kilometers one can get per hour of charge can be substantially lower than the

theoretical ones. This is of course also true for internal combustion engine vehicles that need to deviate

from the desired route to fill gasoline or diesel, but this only is needed every 5001000 km whereas for

electric vehicles this would be needed approximately every 100 km. In addition the waiting time is much

smaller for the filling of gasoline or diesel as this only takes a few minutes for each vehicle and the

network of filling stations is extensive.


58/81


59/81

VehicletoG

rid

59

7 Vehicle to Grid

Most of the time vehicles are parking, on average 23 hours a day (VC 2012). Energy suppliers see this

as a big potential to buffer energy for short periods in vehicles.

A big problem for energy suppliers is that electric energy is not always used in the same moment as it is

produced. There are different reasons for this, e.g.

- electricity demand is lower than expected

- good weather conditions for wind or solar plants, which leads to an oversupply of electricity

Electric energy cannot be stored in the grid, so if it is not used it is lost. One way to solve this problem is

to deploy pump power stations. In times of energy surplus, electricity is used to pump water uphill. If

more energy is needed this water can then be used to produce electricity in a water power plant.

Storing surplus energy in electric vehicles would be another option for buffering energy: Electric vehicleswhich are connected to a charging station receive energy from the grid in times when more energy than

needed is produced. At a later time, when more energy is needed in the grid, the energy which was

buffered in the vehicles batteries is transferred back into the grid.

At the moment this concept is tested in pilot projects in Austria and Denmark.

Austria, Kstendorf

In the model region Kstendorf in Austria vehicle to grid concepts are actually tested. Therefore about60 houses were selected as core area for the project. Half of the houses have installed a PV system on

the roof and 37 households use an electric car. Target is to demonstrate how the low voltage network

can be kept stable if the PV systems are producing energy in combination with the operation of the

electric cars. During sunshine periods the photovoltaic systems produce more energy than is consumed

by the households in the area, and the electric cars offer an interesting opportunity for energy storage.

Salzburg AG

SMART LOW VOLTAGE GRID

Project partners:AIT, Salzburg Netz, Energie AG Netz,Linz AG Netz, Siemens, Fronius, TUWien und BEWAG

Duration: March 2011February 2014www.smartgridssalzburg.at
http://www.smartgridssalzburg.at/http://www.smartgridssalzburg.at/http://www.smartgridssalzburg.at/


60/81


61/81

Chargingan

dhydrogeninfrastructure

61

8 Charging and hydrogen infrastructure

8.1 Infrastructure in Austria

An overview on Austrian charging stations is given on the websitewww.e-tankstellen-finder.com.

e-tankstellen-finder.com

CEE 3 polig 231CEE 5 polig 5CEE 7 polig 0Typ2 Plug 18Home Plug 956Yazaki Typ1 2

XLR Stecker 48

CHAdeMO 6Total 1189

Province Normal charge Fast charge pointsChademo

Salzburg 95 0

Carinthia 256 1

Vorarlberg 29 1

Upper Austria 191 0

Vienna 67 3

Styria 120 0Lower Austria 292 1

Tyrol 52 0

Burgenland 58 0

Total 1183 6

Table 8: Charging points in Austrian provinces

The existing charging stations are defined according to the provided plug. Actually there are 1,177

charging stations listed. Meanwhile also Germany, Spain, France, the Netherlands, Poland and Slovenia

join this platform. In total about 1,800 charging stations are listed.

Another platform for charging stations in Austria is on the Websitewww.elektrotankstellen.net.At themoment there are 3,257 charging points listed on the platform. These are mostly gas stations, hotels,

community organizations and also private households.

There exists one public hydrogen station in Austria. It was opened in October 2012 in Vienna and is

managed by the Austrian oil company OMV. 1 kg of hydrogen costs 9 EUR. Filling up a Mercedes B-Class

Fuel Cell vehicle therefore amounts to 33 EUR and provides a maximum range of 385 km. It is planned to

open a second hydrogen filling station in Upper Austria in the near future. This would set the first

hydrogen corridor leading from Vienna to Germany.

At the moment there exists 1 hydrogen car in Austria (Kurier 2012).
http://www.e-tankstellen-finder.com/http://www.elektrotankstellen.net/http://www.elektrotankstellen.net/http://www.elektrotankstellen.net/http://www.elektrotankstellen.net/http://www.e-tankstellen-finder.com/


62/81

Chargingan

dhydrogeninfrastructure

62

Model regions for electric mobility

Within the Austrian Climate and Energy Fund the introduction of e-mobility is promoted by R&D

projects and the pilot regions for e-mobility. These regions focus on electric vehicles powered by

renewable energy sources and the integration of vehicle use schemes incombination with the public

transport system. Users within the pilot regions pay a monthly mobility rate which includes not onlythe electric vehicle, but also the use of public transport.

To date, eight pilot regions have been established reaching about 3.5 million people or 40% of the

population of Austria. These model regions are the major drivers for the establishment of charging

infrastructure in Austria:

(1) in 2009 the Vorarlberg/Rhine valley region (VLOTTE Project) with 360 e-cars/LDVs and 120

charging stations; mobility services contracts including leasing of e-cars, railway/public transport pass,

car sharing and free charging; provision of 20m2photovoltaic power for each e-car;

(2) in 2010 the Greater Salzburg Area with 100 e-cars and 750 e-bikes; ElectroDrive e-mobility withthe public transport pass: leasing/purchasing concept for e-bikes, e-scooters, Segways and e-cars; free

charging with green electricity (photovoltaic; hydro-power);

(3) the urban agglomeration of Graz: e-mobility Graz; goal 500 e-cars, 1200 e-bikes, 140 public

charging points; e-mobility services packages for large fleet operators (vehicles, public transport,

charging stations);

(4) Vienna metropolitan area; e-mobility on demand; goal of 500 cars, 100 charging points; multi-

modal mobility and public transport pass with focus on commuters and fleet operators;

state of the art electric propulsion vehicles and energy supply

Documents