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THE UNITED REPUBLIC OF TANZANIA

STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT REPORT – 2006

VICE PRESIDENT’S OFFICE-DIVISION OF ENVIRONMENT

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Published by the Vice President’s Office, Division of Environment, United Republic of Tanzania, Dar es Salaam 2006

Copyright 2006 Division of Environment, Vice President’s Office, URT ISBN: 9987-8990- This publication may be reproduced for educational or non-profit purposes without special permission from the copyright holders provided acknowledgement of the source is made. The Vice President’s Office would appreciate receiving a copy of any publication that uses this publication as a source. For further information, please contact: Division of Environment, Vice President’s Office, P. O. Box 5380, Dar es Salaam. TANZANIA. Phone : +255-22-2113983 Fax : +55-22-2125297 E-mail: [email protected] or [email protected] Cover Designer: S.R. Mwinjaka

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TABLE OF CONTENTES

ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS ............................................................................................. 8

FOREWORD ...................................................................................................................................10

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT .................................................................................................................11

INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................................12

CHAPTER ONE: SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND INSTITUTIONAL ISSUES .........................................15

PART 1: INSTITUIONAL ISSUES ..................................................................................................15

1.0 Location and Administrative Boundaries ........................................................................15 I.1 Location .........................................................................................................................15 1.2 Administrative Boundaries ............................................................................................15 2.0 People and Population Dynamics ..................................................................................15 2.1 People of Tanzania ........................................................................................................15 2.2 Population Dynamics .....................................................................................................16 3.0 Policies, Institutional and Legal Framework in Relation to Environmental Management 16 3.1 Policies ..........................................................................................................................16 3.2 Institutional and Legal Framework .................................................................................18 3.3 International Co-operation in Environment.....................................................................22

PART II: SOCIO-ECONOMIC ISSUES ...........................................................................................24

1.0 The State of the Economy .............................................................................................24 1.1 National Gross Domestic Product (GDP) .......................................................................24 1.2 Price Trends ..................................................................................................................25 1.3 Balance of Payment .......................................................................................................26 1.4 Public Finance ...............................................................................................................26

1.4.1 Domestic Revenue ....................................................................................................27 1.4.2 Foreign Grants and Loans .........................................................................................27 1.5 Government Expenditure...........................................................................................27

1.6 National Debt .................................................................................................................28 1.7 Human Development .....................................................................................................29

CHAPTER 2: LAND AND TERRESTRIAL ISSUES .......................................................................31

PART I: LAND ISSUES ..................................................................................................................31

1.0 General Land Use ..........................................................................................................31 1.1 Household Characteristics .............................................................................................31 1.2 Land Tenure System and Land Utilization .....................................................................33 1.3 Land Resources .............................................................................................................34

PART II: AGRICULTURE: ..............................................................................................................35

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1.0 Background information .................................................................................................35 2.0 Agro-ecological zones ...................................................................................................36 2.1 Soils ...............................................................................................................................37 2.2 Crop Production .............................................................................................................39 2.3 Farm Management ........................................................................................................40 2.4 Irrigation System ............................................................................................................40 2.5 Input Use .......................................................................................................................41 2.6 Crop marketing ..............................................................................................................44 2.7 Farming, livestock keeping activities and their environmental implications ....................45

PART III: FOREST RESOURCES ..................................................................................................46

1.0 Natural Forests and Products ........................................................................................46 1.1 The status of natural forests ..........................................................................................49 1.2 Plantation Forests and Products ....................................................................................50 1.3 Forest Products .............................................................................................................51 1.4 Importance of Forests/woodlands in the National Economy ..........................................51 1.5 Threats to the environment ............................................................................................51

PART IV: WILDLIFE RESOURCES ...............................................................................................52

1.0 Habitats .........................................................................................................................52 1.1 Species Diversity ...........................................................................................................54 1.2 Protection Status ...........................................................................................................55 1.3 Utilization and Conservation ..........................................................................................56

PART V: RANGELANDS................................................................................................................57

1.0 Range lands and Carrying capacity ...............................................................................57 1.3 Land suitability and land management .........................................................................62

PART VI: HISTORICAL AND CULTURAL HERITAGE: ................................................................63

1.0 Cultural Heritage ............................................................................................................63

CHAPTER 3: AQUATIC RESOURCES ..........................................................................................68

PART 1: FRESH WATER RESOURCES .......................................................................................68

1.0 An Overview of Existing Water Uses .............................................................................68 1.2 Inter-Sectoral Considerations on Water Use ..................................................................68 2.0 Water Resources Management .....................................................................................68 2.1 Water Resources Assessment .......................................................................................69 3.0 Fresh water resources availability ..................................................................................70 3.1 Surface Water Resources ..............................................................................................70 3.2 Water Resources Monitoring .........................................................................................70 3.3 Ground water resources ................................................................................................71 4.0 Water resources utilization.............................................................................................71 4.1 General Use and Demand .............................................................................................71 5.0 Water quality and pollution ............................................................................................75 5.1 Surface Water Quality ....................................................................................................75 5.2 Ground Water Quality ....................................................................................................77 5.3 Water Quality Standards ................................................................................................78

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5.4 Water Quality Monitoring Programme ............................................................................78 6.0 Rain water harvesting ....................................................................................................78

PART II: COASTAL AND MARINE RESOURCES AND ECOSYSTEMS ......................................80

1.0 Geography of setting .....................................................................................................80 1.1 Physical characteristics .................................................................................................81 1.2 Geology and Soils ..........................................................................................................81 1.3 Hydrology ......................................................................................................................82 1.4 Currents and Tidal Regime ............................................................................................82 1.5 Sea surface temperature ...............................................................................................82 1.6 Salinity ...........................................................................................................................83 2.0 Coastal Ecosystem, Resources and Their Utilization ...............................................83 2.1 Coral Reefs ....................................................................................................................83 2.2 Mangrove Forests ..........................................................................................................83 2.3 Fish Resources ..............................................................................................................84 2.4 Marine Mammals ...........................................................................................................85 2.5 Sea Turtles ....................................................................................................................85 2.6 Sea grass ......................................................................................................................85 2.7 Plankton .........................................................................................................................86 3.0 Economic Opportunities for the Coastal and Marine Environment. ........................87 3.1 Fisheries ........................................................................................................................87 3.2 Mariculture .....................................................................................................................88 3.3 Coastal Tourism .............................................................................................................89 3.4 Extraction of Minerals and Energy Resources ....................................................................90 4.0 Threats on Coastal and Marine Resources and Ecosystem ....................................91 4.1 Decline of Marine and Coastal Living Resources ..........................................................91 4.2 Loss of Coastal and Marine Habitats and Biodiversity ...................................................91 5.0 Management of the Coastal and Marine Environment ...................................................93 5.1 Traditional Management Systems .................................................................................93 5.2 Policies and Legislation .................................................................................................94 6.0 Coastal Management Plans/Projects/Programmes...................................................94 6.1 Tanga Coastal Zone Conservation and Development Programme ................................94 6.2 Tanzania Coastal Management Partnership (TCMP) ....................................................95 6.3 The Marine and Coastal Environment Management Project (MACEMP) .......................95 6.4 Kinondoni Coastal Area Management Programme (KICAMP) .......................................95 7.0 Marine Protected Areas and Reserves ..........................................................................95

PART III: WETLANDS RESOURCES ............................................................................................96

1.0 Introduction ....................................................................................................................96 2.0 Status of wetlands .........................................................................................................97 3.0 Classification of wetlands. .............................................................................................98 3.1 Compliance with the Ramsar Convention ......................................................................99 4.0 Current Uses and Threats of Wetlands ..........................................................................99 4.1 Water supply for domestic and industrial use ................................................................99 4.2 Agricultural and Irrigation ...............................................................................................99 4.3 Livestock ......................................................................................................................100 4.4 Conservation of ecosystem, biodiversity and tourism ..................................................100 4.5 Fishing .........................................................................................................................100

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4.6 Power Production .......................................................................................................100 4.7 Threats to wetlands ....................................................................................................100 5.0 Current status of policies, strategies and other initiatives. ...........................................101

CHAPTER IV: URBAN AND INDUSTRIAL ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES ....................................102

PART I: MINERAL RESOURCES AND MINING AND ENVIRONMENT ......................................102

1.0 Background .................................................................................................................102 1.2 Mineral Rights ..............................................................................................................102 1.3 Impacts of Mining Industry on Environment .................................................................103 1.3 Large Scale Mining Impacts.........................................................................................104 1.3.2 Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining ................................................................................106 1.3.3 Illegal Mining Activities .................................................................................................107

PART II: URBAN PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT OF HUMAN SETTLEMENTS ....................109

1.0 National Overview and Context ...................................................................................109 1.1 Urbanization.................................................................................................................110 1.2 Links of Urbanization to Economy ..............................................................................112 1.3 Urban Poverty ..............................................................................................................113 1.4 Urban Poverty and Environment ..................................................................................114 2.0 Urban Governance ......................................................................................................115 2.1 Urban Management Deficits ........................................................................................115 3.0 Initiatives and Priorities ................................................................................................117 3.1 Priorities .......................................................................................................................117 3.2 Initiatives ......................................................................................................................118 4.0 Way Forward ...............................................................................................................119 4.1 Improving the Governance of Urban Settlements ........................................................119 4.2 Adopting the Environmental Planning and Management (EPM) Process ....................120

PART III: ENERGY SECTOR AND THE ENVIRONMENT ...........................................................121

1.0 Energy resources .........................................................................................................121 1.1 Energy Balance ...........................................................................................................121 1.2 Energy Sources ...........................................................................................................122

2.0 ..... Challenges related to promotion of environmentally and socially sound Energy Technologies ......................................................................................................................................................127 PART IV: POLLUTION SOURCES ..............................................................................................128

1.2 Costs of water pollution to the National Economy ........................................................132

1.3 Research .....................................................................................................................132

1.4 Initiatives ......................................................................................................................132

1.5 Way forward.................................................................................................................133

2.0 Air and Noise Pollution ................................................................................................133

2.1 Air Pollution .................................................................................................................133

2.2 Noise Pollution .............................................................................................................133

2.3 Research .....................................................................................................................134

2.4 Policy and Institution Initiatives ....................................................................................134

2.5 Way forward.................................................................................................................134

3.0 Pollution from transport activities .................................................................................134

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3.1 Automobile Air Pollution ...............................................................................................134

3.2 Noise and vibration pollution from traffic and construction machinery .........................135

3.3 Aircraft Noise Pollution ................................................................................................135

3.4 Water pollution .............................................................................................................135


3.6 Climate Change ...........................................................................................................136

3.6.1 Initiatives ......................................................................................................................136

3.7 Way forward.................................................................................................................137

4.0 Waste Management .....................................................................................................137

4.1 Industrial Wastes .........................................................................................................137

4.2 Municipal Wastes .........................................................................................................138

4.3 Health care waste ........................................................................................................139

4.4 Plastic wastes ..............................................................................................................139

4.5 Agricultural wastes .......................................................................................................140

4.6 Other wastes................................................................................................................140

4.7 Research and Development ........................................................................................141


4.9 Way forward.................................................................................................................141

4.10 Recycling and Resource Recovery ..............................................................................141

4.11 Recycling of Solid Wastes ...........................................................................................141

4.12 Resource Recovery from Solid Wastes .......................................................................142

4.13 Way forward.................................................................................................................142

5.0 Public Health Problems Related to Sanitation and Pollution ........................................142

5.1 Policy and Programme Initiatives .................................................................................143

6.0 Natural Disasters .........................................................................................................144


CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION ............................................................. 145

BIBLIOGRAPHY .................................................................................... 150

APPENDICES ........................................................................................ 157

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 1.1: Contribution of Natural Resources to National GDP (percentage) .................................24 Table 2.1: Distribution of Land Cover in Tanzania Mainland ...........................................................31 Table 2.2: Food Crops Production 2004 and 2005 (tons’ 000) ........................................................39 Table 2.3: Cash Crops production 2004 and 2005 (Tons’ 000) .......................................................39 Table 2.4: Typical Rain-fed and Irrigated Paddy Yields in Tanzania ...............................................41 Table 2.5: Distribution of Forest and Woodland Resources ............................................................47 Table 2.6: Categories of Protected Areas under Wildlife Conservation ...........................................53 Table 2.7: National parks (NPs) and Ngorongoro Conservation Area (NCA) ..................................53 Table 2.8: Game Reserves (Mainland) ...........................................................................................54 Table 2.9: Endemic Species in Costal Forests ................................................................................55 Table 2.10: Wildlife Protection and Management Institutions in Tanzania ......................................56 Table 2.11: Some climatic and carrying capacity characteristics of the Rangeland Vegetation ......59 Table 2.12: Visitation at Selected Cultural Heritage Sites 1996- 2000 ............................................63 Table 3.1: River Basins ...................................................................................................................69 Table 3.2: Freshwater Fish Production from 1995 to 2005 ..............................................................73 Table 3.3: Recorded Cyclones in Tanzania.....................................................................................81 Table 3.4: Mainland Mangrove Species ..........................................................................................84 Table 3.5: Distribution of sea grass species in Tanzania coast .....................................................86 Table 3.6: Trend of Marine Fish Production (Tanzania Mainland ) from 1995 to 2005 ....................87 Table 3.7: Quantification of shoreline change in the Kunduchi-Manyema creek during the period

1981 – 2002.................................................................................................................93 Table 3.8: Key Policies, Legislation and Plans Relevant to Marine and Coastal Environment ........94 Table 4.1: energy sources contribution to the total energy balance at the end-use level ..............121 Table 4.2: Demand and consumption projections .........................................................................124 Table 4.3: Fuel Consumption (in metric tones) in Tanzania ..........................................................125 Table 4.4: Municipal Pollution loads Trend from urban centres in Lake Victoria Basin in Tanzania

(2002-2005) ...............................................................................................................129 Table 4.5: National Coverage of Excreta Disposal Facilities in Tanzania......................................138 Table 4.6: Waste generation rates in some municipalities in Tanzania .........................................139

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1: Agro-ecological zones Figure ........................................................................................37 Figure 2.2: Soil map of Tanzania [source: Tanzania National Resources Information Center]

http://www.fao.org/ag/agl/swlwpnr/reports/y_sf/z_tz/tzmp221.htm ..............................38 Figure 3.1: A map showing regions affected by excessive fluoride (hatched) in their water sources.

....................................................................................................................................76 Figure 3.2: Demonstration rooftop catchments system at Mburahati dispensary, ...........................79

Dar es Salaam ............................................................................................................79 Figure 3.3: Tanzania Exclusive Economic Zone .............................................................................80 Figure 3.4: Wetlands in Tanzania ....................................................................................................97 Figure 4.1: Trends of rate of urbanization (%) for past, present and future, United Republic,

Mainland and Zanzibar ..............................................................................................111 Figure 4.2: Urban Employment by Sector .....................................................................................111 Figure 4.4: Main energy consumption sectors and their share in total consumption .....................122

Figure 4.5: Sectoral contributions of Carbon-dioxide Emissions in Tanzania in 1990 ……………136

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ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

AMD Acid Mine Drainage

ARD Acid Rock Drainage

ESET Environmentally Sound Energy Technologies

FAO Food and Agricultural Organization

FBD Forest and Beekeeping Division

FR Forest Reserves

GDP Gross Domestic Product

GML Gemstone Mining Licence

MEM Ministry of Energy and Minerals

ML Mining Licence

MW Mega Watt

NIDP National Irrigation Development Programme

Pas Protected Areas

PL Prospecting Licence

RET Renewable Energy Technology

SAS Stand Alone Solar

SML Special Mining Licence

SPH Solar Pre-Heater

TPDC Tanzania Petroleum Development Corporation

MNRT Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism

GR Game Reserve

CBD Convention on Biological Diversity

DOE Division of Environment


GEF Global Environment Facility

ILFEMP Institutional and Legal Framework for Environmental

Management Project

NEMC National Environment Management Council

NGO Non-governmental Organization

SUA Sokoine University of Agriculture

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UDSM University of Dar-es-Salaam

UNDP United Nations Development Programme

UNEP United Nations Environment Programme

URT United Republic of Tanzania

VPO Vice President‟s Office

WFP World Food Programme

AMD Acid Mine Drainage

ARD Acid Rock Drainage

RET Renewable Energy Technology

MEM Ministry of Energy and Minerals

TPDC Tanzania Petroleum Development Corporation

ESET Environmentally Sound Energy Technologies

SAS Stand Alone Solar

SPH Solar Pre-Heater

MW Mega Watt

GML Gemstone Mining Licence

SML Special Mining Licence

ML Mining Licence

PL Prospecting Licence


FAO Food and Agricultural Organization

NIDP National Irrigation Development Programme

FR Forest Reserves

FBD Forest and Beekeeping Division

PAs Protected Areas

MNRT Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism

GR Game Reserve

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FOREWORD

Tanzania‟s natural resources and environment are the main source of peoples‟ livelihoods

and are the backbone of the country‟s main productive sectors such as agriculture,

tourism, fisheries and mining. The relationship between economic development and

rational management of the environment and natural resources is emphasized in the

National Environmental Policy, 1997 and the Strategy for Growth and Reduction of

Poverty, in Kiswahili acronyms MKUKUTA. Addressing environmental degradation is

also one of the eight Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). Environmental problems

especially in relation to drought and its impacts such as shortage of power were among

the ten core issues that the President of the fourth phase Government of United Republic

of Tanzania in his first speech to the National Assembly promised to address during his

term in the Office. As a follow up, in March, this year, the Vice President of United

Republic of Tanzania made a declaration on urgent steps to be taken to improve the

environment. This culminated into preparation of a Strategy for Urgent Actions on Land

Degradation and Water Catchments.

Addressing environmental problems effectively require informed decisions. In that

regard, up-to-date, accurate and timely information on the state of the environment must

be made available This State of the Environment Report is one of the important

documents, which are intended to support decision makers in addressing our

environmental problems. It is prepared as a requirement of the National Environmental

Management Act, 2004, section 175 subsection (1) which require the Director of

Environment to publish State of the Environment Report and table it before the National

Assembly after every two years. As well, this year, the State of the Environment Report

is required for providing baseline information in setting targets and choosing indicators

under the General Budget Support Performance Assessment (GBS-PAF) towards better

and healthy environment.

I am, therefore, happy to avail to the people of the United Republic of Tanzania and the

international community at large the first State of Environment Report. I call upon you to

work with the Government in developing appropriate and rational interventions based on

the information contained in this report among other sources to address the environmental

problems for the benefit of this generation and others to come. The government in its part

will continue to support your efforts that strive to make Tanzania a better place to live in.

Finally, I note with satisfaction that a number of individuals and institutions with

different mandates and expertise have been involved in the implementation of this project

and the preparation of the State of the Environment Report in particular. I argue all those

who are involved in environmental management to use it so that its value can be realized

by all Tanzanians and the future generations.

Hon. Prof. Mark James Mwandosya, MP

MINISTER OF STATE - ENVIRONMENT, VICE PRESIDENT’S OFFICE

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The successful preparation of the first State of Environment Report despite time

constraint is a result of commitment and hardwork by many individuals and institutions

who deserve a vote of appreciation. I would like to take this opportunity to assure them of

our heartfelt appreciation and we value their cooperation and support.

I would like to express our gratitude to the experts who were involved in the preparation

of the chapters of the report. Our thanks goes specifically to Dr. H. Mjengela (Ministry

of Water), Dr. P. J. Kabudi (UDSM), Dr. Y. M. Ngaga (SUA), Mr. R. Muyungi (VPO-

DOE), Dr. S. R. Mwinjaka (VPO–DOE), Mr. S. R. Nkondokaya (VPO-DOE), Mr. R.

Muheto (NEMC), Mr. T. B. P. Silinge (Ministry of Energy and Minerals), Mr. G. Kasege

(Ministry of Energy and Minerals), Prof. G. R. Kasenga (UCLAS), Dr. A. G. Kyessi

(UCLAS), and Dr. F. Kilahama (Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism).

I am particularly indebted to the team of experts that compiled and edited the State of

Environment Report for their commendable effort and input. The team included Mr. R.

Muyungi, Dr. S.R. Mwinjaka, Mr. S. R. Nkondokaya, Mr. F. Ngeregeza and Mr. C.

Shengena all from the Vice President‟s Office, Mr. R. Muheto (NEMC), Prof. G.R.

Kasenga (UCLAS), Mr. T. B. P. Silinge (Ministry of Energy and Minerals).

I also wish to thank members of the Environment Working Group for the valuable

comments and the road map to accomplish the task.

Finally I am thankful to Mr. E. K. Mugurusi, Director of Environment, who provided

overall guidance and coordination of the process.

A.R.M.S Rajabu

PERMANENT SECRETARY, VICE PRESIDENT’S OFFICE

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Introduction The current global and national environmental challenges has necessitated the need for

an integrated environmental assessment and reporting that is cross sectoral, participatory

and consultative in nature. Today, throughout the world, the need for such a

comprehensive integrated environmental assessment and reporting is necessary in order

for providing a comprehensive and informed approach to address the environmental

challenges of the day. This is done either through global cooperative mechanisms such as

the work of the Commission on Sustainable development and the various Multilateral

Environmental agreements and related treaties or through national actions such as the

National Strategy on Urgent actions to address the degradation of land and water

catchment areas. This kind of assessment and reporting is being done at various levels.

At global level UNEP has been providing a comprehensive assessment and reporting

framework through the so called UNEP Global Environment Outlook project which was

initiated in 1995 in response to the reporting requirement under agenda 21.

At national level countries have been preparing the State of Environment reports through

such comprehensive assessment and participation in order to address the national

environmental and sustainable development challenges through an informed perspective.

This overview state of the Environment Report (SoER) for Tanzania is prepared from this

perspective. The preparation of this Report is specifically in response to the need to fulfill

the requirement of this year‟s General Budget Support Performance Assessment

Framework (GBS/PAF) which requires the production of the State of Environment

Report by October 2006 which will provide a key indicator at the outcome/impact level.

It is also in response to government desire to implement the EMA and the National

Strategy for Growth and the Reduction of Poverty- MKUKUTA. Section 175 subsection

(1) of the Environment Management Act No. 20 of 2004 requires the Director of

Environment to, every two years; publish a report on the State of the Environment and

Environmental Management that shall be tabled before the National Assembly.

Subsection (2) of the same section further states that the Director may publish other

information he considers necessary for public education on the environment and other

environmental issues. This initial work will contribute to the production of a more

comprehensive SoER in response to this requirement.

This concise report provides environmental trend in each key sectors and areas taking

into consideration the widest possible range of social economic, political and cultural

drivers and root causes – demographics, production and consumption, poverty , trade,

globalization, financing, and others. The report analyses the increased human

vulnerability to environmental change affecting the various sectors of the economy and

the implications to the achievement of sustainable development, the attainment of the

MKUKUTA targets and the Millennium development goals. Thus, this reporting is

organized around human concerns rather than environmental resources. The

understanding of the implications of environmental degradation to economic

sustainability as a country dependent upon climate sensitive sectors is more emphasized

rather than just stating the environmental resources of the country.

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The report therefore provides a more integrated analysis of the current state of the

environment aiming at showing the cause and effect of human-nature relationship. It

seeks to connect causes (drivers and pressure) to environmental outcomes (state) to

activities (policies and decisions) that have shaped the environment recently, and the

impact such changes now have on people, on ecosystems, and on sustainable

development of the country as a whole. For instance, the current droughts and the

continued degradation of water catchments areas are attributed to climate change and

continued unsuitable environmental degrading practices that have a boomerang effect to

the communities and far reaching implications to economic development and the

attainment of the national development vision. The implications of the overall global

environment change such as climate change to Tanzania and the role of the international

community in this regard has also been underscored. Over and above, the preparation of

this state of the environment report has improved the understanding of environmental

processes and the impacts of human activities on these processes. Throughout the report

the aim has been to use the improved understanding of the causes and effects to provide

and recommend for responses to such changes and challenges. In the cause of this work,

the assumption is that the analyzed data will be important for developing and

monitoring sustainable development strategies, programmes and projects that will lead to

the achievement of the poverty eradication initiatives.

Thus, for consistence and clarity, this state of the environment report has been prepared

in such a way that it provides access to environmental information that has been

integrated, analyzed, and interpreted for government and other agencies to enhance

decision making and sustainable development planning; provide information for

environmental monitoring and additional assessments in areas of priority; increase public

awareness and understanding of environment issues and challenges as they relate to

sustainable development; the interlinkages between environment, community actions and

government policies and strategies thereby encouraging individuals, communities and the

government to engage in actions that can improve the quality of life of everyone.

Tanzania depends on a robust and healthy environment to support income generating

activities and to provide Tanzanians with food, medicines, energy, and building

materials. The country is highly endowed with natural resources such as gold/gemstones,

fish, forests and wildlife. It has a high richness of biodiversity and natural beauty where

approximately 30% of Tanzania‟s land has been set aside in some form of protection.

The country's natural resources provide the principle source for peoples‟ livelihoods

especially the rural poor. With 80% of Tanzania's population involved in agriculture, the

environment is of key importance to the livelihood of the vast majority of Tanzanians.

The government has made significant progress in setting up a basic policy and a

legislative and institutional framework for environmental management that is, the

National Environment Policy (1997) and the Environmental Management Act (EMA -

2004). The Act specifies the role of actors at various levels of government, from local

government authorities to line ministries in environmental management. It also outlines

the various environmental management tools such as Environmental Assessments,

Environmental Standards and State of the Environment report.

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As explained, there is a clear cause-and-effect relationship between poverty and

environmental degradation. Environmental degradation leads to widespread poverty;

equally, poverty is a habitual cause of environmental degradation as it undermines

people's capacity to manage resources wisely. Tanzania has developed MKUKUTA

which is the centerpiece of government policy to address poverty in the medium term.

The strategy is strongly outcome focused with increased attention to growth and

governance and it emphasizes the central role played by environment in sustainable

growth and poverty reduction. MKUKUTA makes explicit mention of sustainable

development as an underlying principle and has specific goals on environmental

sustainability and 15 environmental targets. The Vice President's Office is taking the lead

in mainstreaming environment into poverty reduction processes and sector plans and

budgets. The long term challenge is how to sustaining the economic growth as well as

initiatives for achieving poverty reduction objectives through better management and use

of the available environmental resources.

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CHAPTER ONE: SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND INSTITUTIONAL ISSUES

PART 1: INSTITUIONAL ISSUES

1.0 Location and Administrative Boundaries I.1 Location The United Republic of Tanzania is the largest country in the East Africa. It is located

between 1 degrees South and 12 degrees South latitude and 30 degrees East and 40

degrees East. It is constituted by Mainland Tanzania and Tanzania Zanzibar. It is a vast

country with a total area of 945,087 Sq. km comprised of land area of 883,749 sq. km

(881,289sq.km mainland and 2,460sq.km Zanzibar), plus 59,050 sq. km inland water

bodies (URT, 2002a). It shares borders with eight countries. Its neighbours include

Kenya and Uganda in the North, Rwanda, Burundi and Democratic Republic of Congo in

the West, Zambia and Malawi in the South West and Mozambique in the South. Tanzania

Mainland borders the main water bodies of Africa. To the east is the Indian Ocean, to the

north Lake Victoria, to the west Lake Tanganyika and to the south-west Lake Nyasa.

Mainland Tanzania also has the highest point in Africa. The snow caped Mount

Kilimanjaro is 5,950 metres high.

Tanzania shares important ecosystems with its neighbours. Important natural resources

straddle across national boundaries and their management present great challenges, which

require closer cooperation with neighbouring states. It shares Lake Victoria with Kenya

and Uganda, Lake Tanganyika with Burundi, the Democratic Republic of Congo and

Zambia and Lake Nyasa with Malawi and Mozambique. It is also part of the Nile Basin

with nine other countries. The existence of substantial transboundary natural resources

necessitate Tanzania and its neighbours to put in place protocols, agreements or

mechanisms for the conservation, sustainable use and equitable sharing of benefits of the

transboundary resources. Already regional instruments and mechanisms have been put in

place for the management of some of the transboundary resources.

1.2 Administrative Boundaries Mainland Tanzania is divided into 20 regions and 123 Districts. The regions are: Arusha,

Kilimanjaro, Manyara, Tanga, Pwani, Lindi, Mtwara, Ruvuma, Rukwa, Kigoma, Tabora,

Shinyanga, Mwanza, Singida, Dodoma, Morogoro, Kagera, Mara, Iringa and Mbeya.

2.0 People and Population Dynamics 2.1 People of Tanzania The people of Tanzania who constitute the most peaceful, politically stable and vibrant

democracy in Africa are drawn from more than 120 major ethnic groups, which can be

identified culturally speaking different languages or dialects. If the sub-ethnic groups are

also included then the figure goes over 150 different groups. Majority of them are

composed of Bantu speaking people but there are also Cushites and Nilotic speaking

ethnic groups and a few thousand Khoisan people. There are also Tanzanians who belong

to the Asian Tanzanians, Arab Tanzanians and European Tanzanians. Therefore it can be

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surmised that Tanzania is one of the least homogeneous nation with an estimated seven

percent homogeneity.

However in the past 45 years of independence in managing this heterogeneity, Tanzania

has been able to forge a sense of nationhood and discarded negative tendencies of

tribalism that has plagued other African countries leading to internecine wars and

genocide. The cultural and linguistic diversity of the Tanzanian people has blended a

unique sense of togetherness and solidarity consolidated by the use of Kiswahili by all the

people as the national language.

People of different races and religions live side by side without acrimony respecting each

other and cooperating in social events and activities. It is a taboo in Tanzania to use or

exploit ethnicity or religious identifies for political or public gains.

The peace and stability of the country has made it also a haven of peace to other Africans

who have found asylum in Tanzania as freedom fighters or refugees running away from

oppression, tyranny or killings in their countries. The influx of refugees has nevertheless

posed a serious stress to the environment and in some areas to catastrophic environmental

degradation.

2.2 Population Dynamics Based on the 2002 Population and Housing Census, the country was reported to have

about 34,569, 232 people: 33,584,607 from mainland Tanzania and 984,625 from

Zanzibar with an annual average intercensal growth rate (1988 – 2002) of 2.9 (URT,

2002b). By 2005 the country has about 36.2 million people (17.7 million people were

males and 18.5 million people were females). The average household size was estimated

at 4.9 overall and 4.9 and 5.3 in mainland Tanzania and Zanzibar respectively. The

population density was estimated to be 39 persons per sq.km overall and, 38 and 40

persons per sq. km in mainland Tanzania and Zanzibar respectively. An increase in

population has always been associated to rapid degradation of the environment

particularly deforestation, pollution and soil erosion. Both population growth and

environmental degradation have become global problems of concern.

3.0 Policies, Institutional and Legal Framework in Relation to Environmental Management

3.1 Policies The Government has promulgated a number of national policies on different aspects

including environmental and natural resources management in the 1990s. There are

number of existing policies that relate to environmental management in Tanzania. These

are policies that provide guidance or impact the implementation of management at

different levels of governance in the country. Environmental management is complex,

multi-sectoral and cross-sectoral it requires a holistic approach and multi-level operation.

Effective environmental management involves many actors and incorporates many

different and sometimes overlapping institutional and legal mandates, which require

cooperation and coordination.

17

Tanzania has promulgated the National Environmental Management Policy, 1997 and

other sector specific policies, which provide the policy guidance on how its environment

and natural resources will be sustainably managed. There is in place a solid institutional

framework mandated among institutions to coordinate the implementation of policies and

enforce laws that have been enacted by the Parliament for the conservation and

management of the environment and natural resources.

The role of National Environmental Policy, 1997 (NEP) can be summarized to include

the following:

i. Developing consensual agreement at all levels for the challenge of making trade-

offs and the right choices between immediate economic benefits to meet short

term and urgent development needs, and long term sustainability benefits;

ii. Developing a unifying set of principles and objectives for integrated multisectoral

approaches necessary in addressing the totality of the environment;

iii. Fostering Government-wide commitment to the integration of environmental

concerns in the sectoral policies, strategies and investment decisions, and to the

development and use of relevant policy instruments which can do the most to

achieve this objective;

iv. Creating the context for planning and coordinating at a multisectoral level, to

ensure a more systematic approach, focus and consistency, for the ever-increasing

variety of players and intensity of environmental activities.

One of the major thrusts of NEP is that it provides for the need to develop ways for

encouraging a holistic multi-sectoral approach to environmental management by

integrating environmental concerns in sectoral policies, strategies and decisions. In that

way it creates the context for cross-sectoral planning and coordination.

NEP articulates the concept of shared responsibility and distinct accountability for

environmental management so as to inculcate collective responsibility in environmental

management without blurring specific mandates and responsibilities that have been

assigned to each institution.

That NEP is comprehensive and covers environmental mandates assigned to other

sectors. Paragraphs 45 to 60 of the National Environmental Policy provides on Sectoral

policies covering agriculture, livestock, water and sanitation, health, transport, energy,

mining, human settlement, industry, tourism, wildlife, forestry and fisheries. This

position is also reciprocated and reflected in Sectoral policies by including paragraphs on

environment management in general and specifically on the requirement of undertaking

an EIA.

The National Environmental Policy, 1997 in its diagnosis of the state of the environment

in Tanzania identified six major problems that require urgent attention. These are

problems of:-

i. Land degradation;

ii. Lack of accessible, good quality water for both urban and rural

inhabitants;

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iii. Environmental pollution;

iv. Loss of wildlife habitats and biodiversity;

v. Deterioration of aquatic systems; and

vi. Deforestation.

In finding solutions and tackling these problems the National Environmental Policy, 1997

outlines its overall objectives as follows:-

i. to ensure sustainability, security and equitable use of resources for

meeting the basic needs of the present and future generations without

degrading the environment or risking health or safety;

ii. to prevent and control degradation of land, water, vegetation, and air

which constitute life support systems;

iii. to conserve and enhance our natural and man made heritage, including the

biological diversity of the unique ecosystems of Tanzania;

iv. to improve the condition and productivity of degraded areas including

rural and urban settlements in order that all Tanzanians and aesthetically

pleasing surroundings;

v. to raise public awareness and understanding of the essential linkages

between environment and development, and to promote individual and

community participation in environmental action;

vi. to promote international cooperation on the environment agenda, and

expand our participation and contribution to relevant bilateral, sub-

regional, regional, and global organizations and programs, including

implementation of Treaties.

Challenges and problems identified in the National Environmental Policy as well as the

overall objectives have informed the enactment of the Environmental Management Act,

2004.

3.2 Institutional and Legal Framework Institutional arrangement for the management of the environment in Tanzania has two

basic types of environmental management. These are:

Type A: Sectoral Environmental Management Functions

This concerns the management of specific natural resources or environmental services,

such as agriculture, fisheries, mining and waste management.

Type B: Coordinating and Supporting Environmental Management Functions

This concerns the task of coordinating the different and sometimes conflicting Type A

activities and integrating them into overall sustainable system, and providing the central

support functions.

Type A functions are to a large extent directly operational and these are also guided by

sector specific policies and sector pieces of legislation such as the Forest Act, 2002,

Fisheries Act, 2003, and Wildlife Conservation Act, 1974, Mining Act, 1998 and other

relevant pieces legislation.

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Type B functions concern the overall organisation, rules and coordination and the

establishment of a coherent general context for environmental management. The National

Environmental Policy, 1997 and the Environmental Management Act, 2004, guide type B

functions by providing a policy and legislative framework for coordination of

implementation of policies and laws on environmental and natural resources

management.

The Environmental Management Act, 2004 has been enacted by the Parliament in order

to provide for legal and institutional framework for sustainable management of the

environment and natural resources in implementation of the National Environmental

Policy. The following discussion outlines the institutional as well as legal instruments

and systems that have been established or recognised by the Act. Specifically the Act

creates a legal and institutional framework for coordination of environmental

management functions.

3.2.1 Institutional Framework Tanzania did not and does not lack institutions established by the Constitution and other

pieces of legislation, which in one way or the other deal or participate in the management

of the environment and natural resources. What needed to be done was to identify such

institutions and their mandates and put in place a coordination mechanism to ensure that

each institution plays its role. The aspect of coordination as one of the major objectives of

the Act is aptly reflected in the EMA where in section 7 (2) states that:

“ In the promotion of the objective referred to under subsection (1), this Act provides a

legal framework necessary for coordinating harmonious and conflicting activities with a

view to integrating such activities into overall sustainable environmental management

system by providing key technical support to Sectoral Ministries.”

Minister responsible for Environment

The institutional framework ingrained in EMA places the Minister responsible for

environment as the focal coordination institution for the implementation and enforcement

of the Act. EMA clearly states that the Minister shall be overall responsible for fostering

co-ordination between the Government, Local Government Authorities and other bodies

engaged in environmental management as a cross-cutting issue and shall in that respect

maintain a system of collaboration, consultation and co-operation with any person having

functions provided under the Act. The Act outlines the powers of the Minister in various

aspects geared at ensuring proper management of the environment. The powers include

issuing guidelines and making regulations for the proper implementation of the Act.

National Environmental Advisory Committee

EMA creates the National Environmental Advisory Committee (NEAC) as the advisory

body to the Minister. NEAC is composed of members whose experience shall reflect the

various fields of environmental management in the public service, private sector, the

academia and the civil society. In the public service it draws its members from directors

of government departments and agencies that are involved in sectors relevant to

environmental and natural resources management.

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Director of Environment

EMA recognises the Director of Environment who is a public servant as the head of the

Division of Environment which is the working level cell of the Ministry responsible for

environment providing policy and technical back-up, and executing the oversight

mandate of the Ministry, as required in Government systems and procedures.

National Environment Management Council

EMA repealed the National Environment Management Act, 1983 which established the

National Environment Management Council (NEMC) as an advisory and policy making

parastatal organisation. Despite the repeal of that Act the new Environmental

Management Act, 2004 has retained NEMC as a statutory body under the Act now

charged with, among others, the following functions: carrying environmental audit;

coordinate survey, and research in the field of environment and disseminate the

information; review EIAs and recommend for their approval; enforcing and ensuring

compliance to the the national environmental quality standards; in cooperation with

relevant sector Ministries undertake programmes intended to enhance environmental

education and public awareness; render advice and technical support to entities engaged

in natural resources management and environmental protection; publishing and

disseminating manuals, codes or guidelines relating to environmental management;

establishing and operating a Central Environmental Information System which may bring

together any findings, data and statistics generated by both public and private institutions

in the course of environmental observation and management; and managing

Environmental Protected Areas that may be established under the EMA, 2004.

Sector Environment Sections

EMA has recognized the existence of other sector Ministries and their mandates in

relations to environmental management. In order to enhance coordination the Act has

provided for the establishment in each Ministry of a Sector Environmental Section, which

has, among others been assigned duties of coordinating implementation of the Act in that

respective Minstry. The Sector Environment Section is to be headed by a Sector

Environment Coordinator who shall be appointed or designated to that post by the

Ministry from among its officers who possesses adequate knowledge in environmental

management.

Regional Secretariat

The Local Government Reform Programme has resulted in the restructuring of the

Regional and Local Government structures and functions. It has created a Regional

Secretariat headed by the Regional Administrative Secretary (RAS) assisted by regional

experts and advisors. In recognition of that EMA states that it is the Regional Secretariat

that will be responsible for coordination of all advice on environmental management in

their respective regions. In order to ensure effectiveness EMA provides for the

appointment or designation by the Minister responsible for Regional Administration an

officer to be known as the Regional Environment Management Expert. The Expert would

be responsible for advising local government authorities on matters relating to the

implementation and enforcement of the Act. The Regional Secretariat and the Regional

21

Expert links the regional and local government administration with the Director of

Environment and NEMC.

Local Government Authorities

The bulk of implementation of Government functions under the policy of decentralisation

by devolution espoused in the LGRP and provided for under the Local Government Laws

lies with Local Government Authorities. It is recognition of that fact that EMA has given

the responsibility of implementation of the Act at the local government level to the same

institutions that have been established under the Local Government (District Authorities)

Act, 1982 and the Local Government (Urban Authorities) Act, 1982 as amended to effect

changes introduced by LGRP. At the local government level is it the standing committees

dealing with environment that have been designated as environmental management

committees under EMA. The cross-referencing to the Local Government Acts makes sure

that all the existing committees at that level existing now and which will be created in

future are automatically committees under EMA. That ensures that there is no

discrepancy or gap of the existence of committees responsible for environmental

management under EMA and Local Government Acts.

In view of that the Standing Committee on Urban Planning and Environment established

under subsection (1) of section 42 of the Local Government (Urban Authorities) Act,

1982 as well as the Standing Committee on Economic Affairs Works and Environment

established under subsection (1) of section 74 of the Local Government (District

Authorities) Act, 1982 shall each be the City, Municipal or District Environment

Management Committee in respect of the City, Municipal or District to which each of

such Standing Committee is established. Also each Each Standing Committee of

Economic Affairs, Works and Environment of a township established under subsection

(1) of section 96 of the Local Government (District Authorities) Act, 1982, a special

committee formed pursuant to section 107 of the Local Government (District Authorities)

Act, 1982 as well as the Ward Development Committee established under subsection (1)

of section 31 of the Local Government (District Authorities) Act, 1982. In the case of a

village it is the Village Development Committee of each village shall be responsible for

the proper management of the environment in respect of the area in which it is

established.

The same applies to town councils where the committee that deals with environmental

matters under the Local Government (Urban Authorities) Act, 1982 will also be the Town

Environment Management Committee. EMA 2004 requires each Local Government

Authority to designate or appoint an Environment Management Officer who will be a

public officer. This Environmental management officer will among others be responsible

for coordinating implementation of the Act in that respective authority.

3.2.2 Legal Framework The Constitution of the United Republic of Tanzania, 1977 contains a provision on the

protection of natural resources, which covers the environment. Natural resources include

forests, vegetation, landscape and geographical layout of the country, lakes, rivers and

22

other water bodies, land and minerals beneath and flora and fauna. . Article 27(1) of the

Constitution of Tanzania stipulates that:

“Every person is obliged to safeguard and protect the natural resources of the

United Republic, State property and all property jointly owned y the people, as

well as to respect another person’s property.”

The Directive Principles of State Policy in the Constitution obliges the state and all its

organs to ensure that the natural resources and heritage are harnessed, preserved and

applied to the common good of Tanzanians. This shows that the Constitution, which is

the above, all laws lays a firm constitutional foundation for the sustainable management

of the environment in Tanzania.

All along, Tanzania had several pieces of legislation on natural resources, which touched

on some issues of environment. Most of these pieces of legislation are aimed at

regulating use and management of natural resources, have evolved along sector lines

governing specific environmental media. Nevertheless, a notable development in

Tanzania has been the change in approach in legislating on management of natural

resources and the environment. There is a shift from the solely using the “command and

control” approach. The recent pieces of legislation have provisions on conservation of

biodiversity and the use of environmental management instruments such as General

Management Plans and Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) in most of the pieces of

legislation enacted after the Rio Conference in 1992. Such recent pieces of legislation

include the Marine Parks and Reserves Act, 1994, the Mining Act, 1998, the Forest Act,

2002, the Beekeeping Act, 2002, Industrial and Consumer Chemicals (Management and

Control) Act, 2003 and the Fisheries Act, 2003.

However, it is truism that before 2004 there was no specific law for the holistic

management of the environment in Mainland Tanzania unlike the repealed National

Environment Management Act, 1983 that basically created NEMC and provided for its

functions. It is the enactment of the Environmental Management Act, 2004 that has

provided framework legislation for environmental management in Mainland Tanzania.

This is a comprehensive piece of legislation providing for mechanisms and forums of

coordination as well as tools/instruments of environmental management. There are

instruments or tools of modern environmental management, which are now universally

accepted and included in legislation taking into account the specific situation of each

country.

3.3 International Co-operation in Environment Environment being a global agenda, Tanzania cooperates with other nations in managing

the global environment. In that regard, the United Republic of Tanzania is a party to

various international treaties aimed at the protection of the environment. The treaties are

divided between those having a universal application and those limited to the Africa

Region. Some of the treaties and conventions on environmental issues that Tanzania is a

party are as follows:

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i. The convention relative to the Preservation of Fauna and Flora in their

Natural state, London, 1993

ii. The convention on the African Migratory Locust, Kano, 1962

iii. The African convention on the conservation on nature and Natural

Resources, Algiers.

iv. The convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially as

Waterfowl Habitat (the Ramsar Convention), 1971

v. The convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of

Wastes and other matters, London, 1972.

vi. The convention concerning the Protection of World Cultural and Natural

Heritage, Paris, 1972.

vii. The convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution from ships

(MARPOL) 1973.

viii. The convention on International Trade and Endangered species of Wild

Fauna and Flora (CITES), Washington, 1973.

ix. The United Nations Convention on Law of the Sea, Montego Bay, 1982.

x. The Montreal Protocol on substances that deplete the Ozone layer,

Montreal, 1987.

xi. The Basel convention on the control of Transboundary Movements of

Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal, 1989.

xii. Bamako convention on the Ban of the Import into Africa and the control

of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes within Africa, 1990.

xiii. Convention on Biological Diversity, 1992.

xiv. The United Nations Framework convention on climate change, 1992.

xv. Convention to combat Desertification, particular Africa, Paris, 1994.

xvi. The Kyoto Protocol

xvii. The Cartagena Protocol

xviii. Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants, 2001

xix. Rotterdam Convention of Prior Informed Consent Chemicals, 1998

International convention on natural resources and environment had an impact in the

enactment and approach adopted in national legislation on similar matters in Tanzania.

The Environmental Management Act, 2004 empowers the Minister responsible for

environment to initiate and prepare legislative proposals for implementation of

international or regional agreements concerning the management of the environment.

That includes identification of appropriate measures necessary for the implementation of

agreements, which Tanzania is a party. The responsibility of creating mechanism for

working closely with international and regional communities in ensuring a peaceful,

healthier and better global environment is again vested in the Minister responsible for

environment.

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PART II: SOCIO-ECONOMIC ISSUES

1.0 The State of the Economy 1.1 National Gross Domestic Product (GDP) The Gross Domestic Product in real terms grew by 6.8 percent in 2005, compared to 6.7

percent in 2004 (URT 2005). The increase in growth rate was mainly attributed to an

increase in the growth of the whole sale and retail trade, hotels and restaurants (including

tourism); mining and quarrying; manufacturing; construction; and transport and

communication sectors. Likewise, the growth rates of electricity and water, financial and

business services, public administration and other services sectors increased. The average

annual GDP growth rate (per cent) increased from 2.5% between 1990 and 1994 to 4.0%

between 1995 and 1999 to 5.8% between 2000 and 2004 (URT 2005). The average

annual GDP growth (per cent) for Sub-Saharan Africa in 1990, 1995 and 1999 were 1.1,

3.7 and 2.0 respectively (World Bank, 2001: 14p). Therefore, the Tanzania‟s GDP

growth rates are relatively higher than the average for the Sub-Saharan Africa in the same

years. In 2005, the Gross domestic Product amounted to Tshs 13,063,317 million at

current prices or Tshs. 2,237,079 at 1992 constant prices, while the per capita income, at

1992 prices was Tshs. 61,798 in 2005, compared to Tshs. 59,335 in 2004, equivalent to

an increase of 4.2 percent.

1.1.1 Contribution of Natural Resources to National GDP The natural resource sectors contributed an average of about 5.7 percent of GDP, with

fisheries showing the highest growth rate and substantial increases in export earnings of

combined total of over US$ 1.3 billion (NSGRP, 2005). However, in the National

accounts of Tanzania, the revenues from forest, hunting and fishing are all treated as sub-

sectors of agriculture. Hence, the contribution of natural resources to national GDP will

only appear to include agriculture, mining, tourism and water (Table 1.1). Mining is one

of the fastest growing economic sectors in Tanzania today. In 2003, it grew by 17 percent

compared to 15 percent in 2002. Likewise, tourism has developed rapidly since the mid-

eighties. It is now economically significant sector as it accounts about 12 percent GDP

that has grown at an average of 6.7 percent over the last four years (NSGRP, 2005).

Table 1.1: Contribution of Natural Resources to National GDP (percentage)

Natural resource sectors Percentage contribution

to GDP

Agriculture (crop production, livestock,

forestry, wildlife/hunting & fishing)

51.0

Mining 17.0

Tourism 12.0

Water 3.0

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Trade 17.0

Total 100.0

Sources: NSGRP, 2005 and Tanzania website

In the medium term and long-term horizon, agriculture will continue to play a central role

in Tanzanian‟s economy. A key area of the economy in which the contribution of

agriculture is decisive is the country Gross Domestic Product (GDP). The sector

contributes to both export earnings and employment, which accounts for 60 percent and

84per cent respectively. Crucial components of the agricultural sector are food crops,

livestock and traditional export of crops whose contribution currently stands at 55

percent, 30 per cent and 8 per cent respectively of the total GDP.

The water sector contribution to GDP has remained at 0.2 per cent for some years, a

proportion which is insignificant considering the importance of the sector to the

economy. Hence the government is encouraging private investment in the water sector.

Measure by its share of contribution to GDP, water features among the smallest sectors in

Tanzania. For some years the water sector contribution to GDP remained at 0.2 percent

which is very insignificant compared to what other sectors contribute e.g. agriculture

which in 1999 accounted for 48.9 percent of the national GDP. Fortunately water in

Tanzania is among the sectors with a greater growth potential. In 1999 waters

contribution to GDP recorded a handsome increase of 3.0 percent. However, water as a

resource and as an area of activity plays a more important role to social economic

development in Tanzania when are take into consideration the linkage effects of this

sector. For example even agriculture which is the greatest sector in all important aspects

cannot tick without water.

1.2 Price Trends

Inflation rate has been declining continuously since 1994 from 35.5 percent to 4.4 percent

in 2003 at constant 1994 prices. However, the trend changed in 2004 and increased by 5.9

percent. On the other hand, inflation rate increased by 4.2 percent in 2004 compared to

3.5 percent in 2003, based on the new 2001 basket and weight. The increase in inflation

in 2004 was caused by the increase in the average price of food following the prevalence

of food shortages in some areas at the end of 2003 and the beginning of 2004.

Furthermore, the increase in the relative prices of petroleum products caused an increase

in transportation costs and thus induced the upward trend in the average price of other

goods and services.

In 2004, the price indices of groups of goods and services comprising of food and

clothing and footwear increased; and by considering their total weights in the NCPI (62.3

percent), these groups contributed immensely in the increase of national average

inflation. The price indices of these groups increased by 5.9 and 5.1 percent in 2004

compared to 4.5 and 2.0 percent in 2003, respectively. The price index of transport,

which also has a substantial weight in the new NCPI increased by a small rate of 1.0

percent in 2004 compared to 1.2 percent in 2003. The price index of rent increased by 2.2

percent in 2004 compared to 2.0 percent in 2003. Notwithstanding the reduced weight in

the new NCPI, the price index of health services increased marginally by 0.5 percent in

26

2004 compared to 2.9 percent in 2003. The rate of increase in prices declined only in

drinks and tobacco group in 2004 by 0.5 percent compared to the increase of 1.5 percent

in 2003. The average rates of increase in the prices of other groups of goods and services

increased at lower rates in 2004 compared to the prevailing situation in 2003. The

average is as follows: (the rate for 2003 in parenthesis): fuel, power and water, 2.3

percent (5.9 percent); furniture and household equipment, 0.2 percent (2.1 percent);

household operation and maintenance 0.9 percent (1.1 percent); and education 0.6 percent

(2.2 percent).

The analysis of the price indices of goods and services consumed by various income

groups showed that the lower income group has been affected significantly by the

increase in inflation rate. The index in this income group increased at a rate of 8.2 percent

in 2004 compared to 4.9 percent in 2003. Furthermore, the rate of increase in prices of

many goods and services (including food and household operations and maintenance)

increased in this group in 2004 compared to 2003. Those goods and services are highly

consumed by this income group. The price indices of food and household operations and

maintenance increased by 8.2 and 19.9 percent in 2004 compared to 3.3 and 6.4 percent

in 2003, respectively in this low income group. For the middle and high income groups,

the overall price indices increased by 8.2 and 7.1 percent in 2004 compared to 7.1 and 6.8

percent in 2003, respectively.

The trend in the prices of goods and services for the Dar es Salaam residents was mixed.

However, the overall average price indices for the low, middle and high income groups

increased by 8.2, 8.2 and 7.1 percent in 2004 compared to the increase of 3.4, 7.2 and 6.8

percent in 2003, respectively. The increased transport costs following the increase in the

average price of petroleum products has greatly affected Dar es Salaam residents

belonging to middle and high income groups who are the main consumers of these

products. The price index of transport in these groups increased by 25.5 and 6.2 percent

in 2004 compared to 4.8 and 3.7 percent in 2003, respectively. For the low income

residents, the price index for transport decreased by 0.7 percent in 2004 compared to an

increase of 0.6 percent in 2003. However, the impact of the increased relative price of

petroleum products reflected much in the increased average price of food for the Dar es

Salaam residents of all income status. The average price of food for the residents of Dar

es Salaam of high, middle and low income groups increased by 13.6, 10.8 and 8.2 percent

in 2004 compared to 4.7, 6.6 and 3.3 percent in 2003, respectively.

1.3 Balance of Payment During 2005, the overall balance of payment indicated a deficit of USD 437.5 million

compared to a surplus of USD 43.4 million during 2004. The deficit was a result of

increased deficit in the trade account balance that widened to USD 985.5 in 2005,

equivalent to 13.7 percent higher than the deficit of USD 866.6 registered in 2004.

1.4 Public Finance The fiscal policies for 2004/05 aimed at implementing the Tanzania Development Vision

2025 and the Poverty Reduction Strategy as well as catalyzing development in the

country. On the basis of that policy thrust, the government budget for 2004/05 targeted to

raise domestic revenue to Tshs.1,739,288 million, equivalent to 14.4 percent of GDP,

compared to 13.3 percent of GDP during 2003/04. Tax revenue was estimated at Tshs.

27

1,599,165 million and non-tax revenue at Tshs. 140,122 million. Grants and loans,

including proceeds from HIPC debt relief, were estimated to amount to Tshs. 1,233,578

million.

1.4.1 Domestic Revenue Domestic revenue collection for the period July 2004 – March 2005 amounted to Tshs.

1,314,523.8 million compared to an estimate of Tshs. 1,089,261.9 million collected over

the same period in the previous year, equivalent to an increase of 20.7 percent. The

amount collected is also equivalent to 102 percent of the estimates of Tshs. 1,292,843

million. Out of the total amount collected Tshs. 1,205,492.8 million was tax revenue,

equivalent to 91.7 percent of total revenue while non-tax revenue amounted to Tshs.109,

031.0 million, equivalent to 8.3 percent for that period.

During July 2004 – March 2005, the trend of domestic revenue was satisfactory mainly

on account of improved performance in tax collection, particularly Value Added Tax

(VAT) on imported petroleum products and income tax. In addition, customs and excise

duties on domestic goods during this period was also satisfactory, compared to the same

period during 2003/04, mainly on account of a substantial increase in importation of

goods during that period.

1.4.2 Foreign Grants and Loans During the period of July 2004 – March 2005, foreign grants and loans including HIPC

debt relief inflows amounted to Tshs. 1,132,450 million. Out of this, foreign grants were

Tshs. 595,238 million, external loans, Tshs. 490,592 million and debt relief under HIPC

arrangement, Tshs. 46, 620 million. In that period, grants and loans for the development

budget amounted to Tshs. 719,817 million, an excess of 23.0 percent of the estimates of

Tshs. 585,375 million.

1.5 Government Expenditure Government expenditure policies for 2004/05 focused on enhancing and sustaining good

financial management in order to facilitate achievements of national objectives of

promoting economic growth and poverty reduction, as outlined in the Poverty Reduction

Strategy. The government planned to spend a total of Tshs. 3,347,538 million (including

amortization of Tshs. 149,386 million), equivalent to 28.3 percent of GDP. Out of this

amount, Tshs. 1,774,773 million (excluding CFS) and Tshs. 1,091,590 million were

earmarked for recurrent and development expenditures, being a proportion of 67.0

percent and 33.0 percent, respectively. With regard to recurrent expenditure, Tshs.551,

159 million, equivalent to 31.1 percent, were allocated to wages and salaries; Tshs.374,

358 million, equivalent to 21.1 percent to priority sectors as defined in the Poverty

Reduction Strategy; and Tshs. 849,256 million or 47.8 percent to other charges. A total of

Tshs. 331,789 million were set aside for Consolidated

The period between July 2004 - March 2005, total expenditure amounted to Tshs.

2,429,269 million, equivalent to 97.5 percent of estimates of Tshs. 2,486,892 million.

Recurrent and development expenditures reached Tshs. 1,248,105 million and Tshs.

869,202 million, equivalent to 51.4 percent and 35.8 percent of total expenditure,

28

respectively. Expenditure through CFS was Tshs. 311,962 million, equivalent to 12.7

percent of the total expenditure in that period.

In 2004/05, budgetary allocation to health sector was 7.8 percent compared to 7.0 percent

in 2003/04. The agriculture sector including forestry, fishing and hunting was allocated

4.6 percent of the total budget in 2004/05 compared to 3.5 percent in 2003/04. The

budget allocated to agriculture research was 3.7 percent of the total budget allocated to

the agriculture sector. The allocation to defence affairs and services decreased to 3.9

percent in 2004/05 from 4.5 percent in 2003/04. The allocation to other economic affairs

and services (trade, tourism, labour services etc) decreased from 4.4 percent in 2003/04 to

4.0 percent in 2004/05. The allocation to the mining, manufacturing and construction

sectors decreased to 5.4 percent in 2004/05 from 6.0 percent in 2003/04, due to the

decrease in number of construction projects. Out of this amount, 83.0 percent was

allocated to construction sector alone. The budgetary allocation to education sector

continued to decrease from 17.3 percent in 2003/04 to 11.8 percent in 2004/05. The

allocation to transportation and communication sector declined to 7.8 percent in 2004/05

from 8.3 percent in 2003/04.

The fuel and energy sector was allotted 3.0 percent. The allocation to the social security

and community services decreased to 1.0 percent in 2004/05 from 1.6 percent in 2003/04.

Other social services were allotted 0.1 percent in 2004/05, the same rate as that of

2003/04. The allocations to other public economic and social services increased from

17.7 percent in 2003/04 to 22.9 percent in 2004/05.

1.6 National Debt As at end-December 2004, national debt stock stood at USD 9,219.3 million compared to

USD 8,793.2 million at end-December 2003, equivalent to an increase of 4.9 percent. Out

of which, domestic debt was USD 928.3 million, equivalent to 10.1 percent, while

external debt amounted to USD 8,291.0 million, equivalent to 89.9 percent.

1.6.1 International Debt Management and External Assistance As at end-December 2004, total external debt amounted to USD 8,291.0 million,

compared to USD 7,890.7 million in the period ended December 2003, equivalent to an

increase of 5.1 percent. Out of this amount, USD 6,990.6 million was disbursed

outstanding debt and USD 1,300.4 million was interest arrears. Out of the disbursed

outstanding debt, the Central Government was the largest borrower, owing USD 6,374

million, equivalent to 91.2 percent of the total debt, while parastatal and private sector

owed 149.2 million (2.1 percent) and USD 467.4 million (6.7 percent), respectively. The

increase of external debt stock was mainly attributed to accumulation of interest arrears

for Non-Paris Club debt, exchange rate fluctuations, and disbursements of new and

outstanding loans from donors.

As at end-December 2004, the overall total external debt committed reached USD

8,740.3 million. Out of that amount, USD 6,990.6 million was disbursed outstanding debt

and USD 1,749.7 million was un-disbursed balance. The profile of disbursed outstanding

debt by creditor category shows that USD 4,820.5 million (69.0 percent) was owed to

29

multilateral creditors, USD 1,520.1 million (21.7 percent) was owed to bilateral creditors,

whereas, commercial and export creditors were USD 401.7 million (5.7 percent) and

USD 248.2 million (3.6 percent), respectively. The share of multilateral debt was higher,

reflecting the Government policy of borrowing concessional loans, offered mainly by

multilateral institutions.

The distribution of external debt to various sectors (excluding interest) by end-December

2004 was as follows: 19.5 percent of the total debt was in the form of balance of

payments support; transport sector accounted for 16.2 percent; agriculture, and energy

and mining accounted for 15.3 and 13.6 percent, respectively. Industrial sector received

6.0 percent; while education, finance, and tourism received 5.0 percent, 1.2 percent and

1.2 percent, respectively. The remaining 22.1 percent was absorbed by other sectors.

1.6.2 External Debt Services As at end-December 2004, total debt service declined to USD 149.9 million from USD

238.1 million at end-December 2003. The decline was attributed to implementation of

Paris Club debt agreement and HIPC debt measures. Out of total debt service, USD 126.3

million was paid to multilateral creditors, while USD 4.1 million and USD 19.5 million

went to bilateral and commercial creditors respectively.

1.6.3 Highly Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) Initiative Tanzania continued to receive debt relief under the enhanced HIPC initiative. As at end-

December 2004, the Government had received debt relief from multilateral institutions

amounted to USD 329.7 million as indicated in the bracket: International Development

Association (USD 205.1 million), International Monetary Fund (USD 65.6 million),

African Development Bank (USD 37.2 million), European Investment Bank (USD 8.3

million), International Fund for Agricultural Development (USD 8.0 million), Norwegian

Trust Fund (USD 5.5 million) and Nordic Development Fund (USD 0.11 million). Total

debt relief received from Paris Club bilateral creditors was USD 858.7 million. The debt

relief was received from the following creditors: Austria, Belgium, Canada, Germany,

France, Italy, Russia, Japan, the Netherlands, Norway, United Kingdom and USA.

In 2004, the Government received debt relief from Non-Paris Club bilateral creditors

amounting to USD 104.3 million under HIPC relief from Bulgaria, India and Kuwait.

However, Kuwait had offered debt relief by rescheduling debt amounting to USD 31.8

million, while China had offered debt relief outside the HIPC framework by cancelling

debt worth USD 37.7 million. However, the Government has initiated dialogue with

Hungary, Libya and Abu Dhabi for debt relief. The savings from debt relief were

allocated to priority sectors as identified in the Poverty Reduction Strategy (PRS), which

include; education, water, health, agriculture, rural roads, and good governance.

1.7 Human Development The concept of human development is much broader and more complex than any

summary measure can capture, even when supplemented by other indices. The human

development index (HDI) focuses on three measurable dimensions of human

development: living a long and healthy life, being educated and having a decent standard

30

of living. Thus it combines measures of life expectancy, school enrolment, literacy and

income to allow a broader view of a country‟s development than does income alone.

Despite of the large land size and population, the country is among 34 least developed

countries in Africa. It has a HDI of 0.418 and ranked 164th

in the 2005 Human

Development Report of 2005. In 1999, the country ranked 156th

out of 174 countries,

down from 126th

in 1990. This interprets into downfall in terms of human development in

general from a position of 126th

in 1990 to a position of 156th

in 2005.

Life expectancy is another human development indicator, which is 46 years. The

combined primary, secondary and tertiary gross enrolment ratio of the country is 41 per

cent. However, gross Enrolment Rate reached 105.3 percent and 106.3 percent in 2003

and 2004 respectively. In relation to the combined gross enrolment rate (41 percent), the

pace of transition to secondary and tertiary schools is low, despite the growth in private

secondary schools. Illiteracy remains high. About 28.6 percent of Tanzanians cannot read

and write in any language. The real income per capita has risen only 30 percent higher

than that at independence. The bottom line under human development aspects of the

national strategy for growth and reduction pf poverty (NSGRP, 2005) is the need to bring

about sustainable human development. That is, use of country‟s natural resources and

avoiding harmful effects on the environment and on people‟s livelihood. The strategy

also advocates for people-centred development.

31

CHAPTER 2: LAND AND TERRESTRIAL ISSUES

PART I: LAND ISSUES

1.0 General Land Use The present land use is categorized into eight major land types, namely, forests,

woodland, bushland, grassland, cultivated land, open land, water features and others.

Table 2.1 shows the distribution of land cover in Tanzania mainland. Forests and

woodland occupies more than 40 percent of the total land area of mainland. In some

regions such as Mara and Mwanza, the area covered by forest and woodland is less than

10 percent. On the other hand in regions such as Kigoma, Lindi, Rukwa and Singida, the

cultivated land occupies less than 5 per cent of the area. Bushland and grassland occupies

around 20 percent of the total land area respectively.

Table 2.1: Distribution of Land Cover in Tanzania Mainland

Land Cover Area in ‘000 ha Percentage

Forest 2,697.5 2.8

Woodland 37,629.3 39.7

Bushland 17,390.4 18.3

Grassland 19,472.0 20.5

Cultivated land 10,065.1 10.6

Open Land 131.6 0.1

Water Features 7,392.2 7.8

Others 67.9 0.1

Total 94,846.0 100.0

Protected areas occupy nearly 30 percent of the whole area of the country and contribute

to the promotion of the tourism industry. In regions like Rukwa, Shinyanga and Singida,

these areas constitute nearly 50 percent of the total land. These protected areas should

carefully be conserved according to the proper natural resource management policy.

1.1 Household Characteristics 1.1.1 Area of Land Utilised

The total area of land allotted to smallholders is 11,997,071 ha (11,885,132 ha (99%) on

Mainland and 111,939 ha (1%) in Zanzibar). The total utilized land area is 9,521,592

which is 79 percent of the total allocated land area. This is equivalent to 2.4 hectares per

household. However, the utilizable area per household (which includes area utilized plus

area usable but not used) is 2.3 ha. The national average land area utilized for agriculture

per household is 2.0 ha (includes are under fallow, if fallow is excluded the land area per

household is only 1.9 percent). This implies that 0.3 hectares of usable land per

household of usable land was not cultivated during the 2002/03 agriculture year.

32

The total area allocate to smallholders has not changed significantly over the last 10yrs

and if any, there has been a reduction in the allocated area. This implies that smallholders

are not encroaching into land which has not been designated for agriculture purposes and

the major change is in the area of allocated land that is utilized. The area of land utilized

per household has increased by 186 percent since 1993/94. Most of the increase was

between 1994 and 1999 and the rate of increase diminished sharply over the period 1999

to 2003.

Large differences in land area utilized per house hold exist between regions with

Shinyanga utilizing more than three hectares per household and Ruvuma, Tabora,

Dodoma and Manyara utilizing between 2.0 and 3.0 ha per household. In other regions

the percentage utilization is lower as in Rukwa, Ruvuma, Tabora, Mara and Kigoma. The

smallest land area utilized per household is found in Zanzibar, Kilimanjaro and Kagera

where the utilization is only between 1.0 and 1.2 ha per household. In Zanzibar, Mtwara,

Dodoma, Arusha, Mbeya and Dar es Salaam regions the percentage utilization is

approaching maximum.

1.1.2 Land Sufficiency Although Tanzania, with its relatively low population coupled with its large land

resources, it has problems with land access in many areas, with 2,201,773 households

(46% of total agriculture households) reported having insufficient land. There are large

differences in land pressure between regions with over 70% of the households in Arusha

and Kilimanjaro reporting insufficiency of land, whilst in Ruvuma, Lindi and Mtwara it

is under 35%.

Type of Land Use of the land area with crops (9,531,592ha), the area with annual crops

only (including fallow) is 7,228,745 ha (76% of the total land area with crops) whilst the

land area with permanent crops only (including planted trees) is 1,295,050 ha or 14

percent of the total area with crops. Permanent –annnual mixed stands occupy 997,970 ha

(10% of total land area under crops).

The area of land under temporary mono-crops is the most common type of agriculture

land use in Tanzania constituting 4,436,177 ha (37% of the land allocated to small

holders) and cultivated by 3,293,663 households. This is followed by temporary mixed

crops (17.6%). Planted trees, land rented to other and least common types of land use

(less than 2.5%). Ninety four percent of the total land available to smallholders is

utilized. Only 11.6 percent of usable land available to smallholders was not used. About

5.7 percent of the total usable land was fallow. The area under planted trees is small at

1.2 percent.

1.1.3 Area Planted The total area planted with annul crops during the 2002/2003 was 7,818,620 ha

(7,740,344 ha on the Mainland and 78,276ha in Zanzibar) of which 6,349,707 ha were

planted in the long rainy season (18% of the total area planted) and 1,468,913 ha, in the

short rainy season. The overall average planted area of annuals per crop growing

33

households is 1.61 ha. Mwanza has the highest planted area in the country as a result of it

having good long and short rainy seasons. A comparison of seasonal annual crop planted

area with land area of annual crops in the previous section indicates that, smallholders

mostly plant crops on the same land during both season as there is only a different of

196,280 ha, (6,545,987 ha – 6,349,707 ha) between the area planted in the long rainy

season and the physical land area planted with annual crops during the year.

The area planted during the short rainy season was higher than the area in the long rainy

season in three regions. These regions are located in the North West of Tanzania

(Mwanza, Kagera and Kigoma). Shinyanga, Dodoma,Tabora, Mbeya and Iringa had the

largest planted area during 2002/03 long rainy season. The smallest area planted during

the long rainy season was in Dar es Salaam, Zanzibar, Kigoma, Pwani, Kagera and Mara.

In the regions with short rainy season the largest area planted was in Mwanza (438,177

ha), followed by Kagera (242,812 ha), Tanga (160,820 ha), Kigoma (145,143 ha),

Morogoro (127,604 ha).

The average area planted per household during the long rainy season was 1.57 ha;

however there were large regional differences. Shinyanga had the largest area planted per

household (2.6 ha) followed by Tabora (2.3 ha), Dodoma (2.0 ha), Mwanza (2.0 ha),

Singida (1.8 ha) and Rukwa (1.8 ha). The smallest area planted per household during the

rainy season was found in Kilimanjaro, Kagera, Dar es Salaam, Zanzibar, Kigoma,

Arusha, Mtwara, and Mbeya. For the regions that have short rainy season,the average

area plannted per household was 1.1ha. The region with the largest area planted per

household during the short rainy season was Mwanza (1.4 ha) followed by Morogoro (1.0

ha) and Mara (0.9 ha).

1.2 Land Tenure System and Land Utilization 1.2.1 Land Tenure and Land Use Policy

The land tenure system in Tanzania finds roots in the legislation composed of the Land

Acts (Land Act and Village Land Act 1998). The Forest Ordinance Cap.389, the

National Resource Ordinance Cap.259, the Rural Lands (Planning and Utilization) Act

No. 14 of 1973 and the Local Government (District Authorities) Act of 1982. The

legislation classifies the land tenure system in Tanzania into four categories (Mnzava and

Riihinen 1989) outlined as follows:

a. The public sector or state leasehold: under this system the state leases land to

individuals and communities for a specified period of time, say, 33, 66 or even 99

years.

b. Private or rights of occupancy: this arrangement concerns the parcels of land

owned by individuals for the purpose developing them into agriculture, livestock

keeping or for the purpose of service industry.

c. Traditional or customary land tenure: under this system the ownership of land is

gained through inheritance or customary rules among tribes, clans or kinships.

34

d. Collective or village land ownership: the land ownership by a village is based on

law. The land must be surveyed and demarcated before a certificate of ownership

is issued. Villages are then entitled to use the granted parcel of land according to

their own best interests.

Land use policy encourages individuals or villages to acquire lease title deeds for their

land from the central government in recognition to their right of occupancy. Basically

the legal contentions of land tenure, as stipulated in the Land use Act of 1973 pursuant to

the Limitation Act of 1971, are clear and embody the principle of proper land use. That

are individuals hold only use rights on land. Hence they are entitled to exclude other

potential users from a parcel of land as long as the parcel is used in someway or put under

long-term crop. In practice, however, there have been disputes' associated with improper

interpretation of the Act itself. Disputes occur between villages and between households,

and between individual landowners. Some village leaders allocate land to outsiders

without the consent of the villagers, who under customary arrangements are the

custodians of the land in their respective areas (Mwalyosi 1990). Perhaps one of the

reasons for the increased disputes on land is the abolition of chiefs who were responsible

for land administration within their respective chiefdoms. The chiefs were more capable

of resolving local land disputes.

In the quest to reform the land use situation, the National Five-Year Development Plan

covering 1988/89 to 1992/93 puts an emphasis on essentially four aspects related to land

use planning. First, land use plans at village and zonal level should be prepared and

implemented. Second, village boundaries and residential-commercial areas for

individuals and the public should be surveyed and demarcated. Third farmlands should

be surveyed and clearly demarcated. Fourth, land title deeds for village cooperatives,

companies, registered trustees and individuals (subtitles) should be prepared and

registered. At the same time there must exist legal and administrative processes to ensure

the implementation of these provisions. However, little action appears to have been

taken so far. Only 1450 out of about 8,200 registered villages have been issued with title

deeds to their land and village land use plans have so far been approved by the respective

authorities.

1.3 Land Resources 1.3.1 Area Suitable for Cropping and Grazing As already mentioned, the percentage of cultivated area varies from region to region

ranging from 38.4 percent in Mtwara to 2.7 percent in Kigoma, excluding Dar es Salaam.

However, when looking at land classified as suitable for cropping it is said that there is

over 7 million ha. of land suitable for cropping which is unused. Such an unused

cultivable land is mainly distributed in regions including Ruvuma, Iringa, Mbeya, Rukwa

and Morogoro. In the regions such as Dodoma, Singida and Kilimanjaro, on the other

hand, their suitable area is almost fully utilized. It is thus deemed that Tanzania has

comparatively abundant land resources unlike most of its neighboring countries. It is also

mentioned previously, livestock activities are important in some of the regions and the

grazing land should be managed properly in such regions. Expansion of cropping area,

however, is likely to be into areas presently utilized as grazing area. This could bring in

35

conflicts with pastoralists and this issue should always be considered for any expansion

of cropping area.

The suitable area for cropping and grazing, however, is not precisely defined based on the

appropriate criteria. It will be an important task to define on regional or district basis how

much suitable land for cropping and grazing is available for future agricultural

development. Since the districts with lower population density have generally poorer soil

and lower rainfall, any strategy to develop agriculture would need to enhance

technologies for sustainable land management including irrigation technology.

1.3.2 Irrigation Land and Areas Suitable for Irrigation About 33 percent of cultivated land is actually utilized for crop production as planted

land. Only 6 percent of the planted land which is equivalent to about 200,000 ha. is being

irrigated. The substantial areas were managed by small holder farmers through traditional

irrigation systems of flood recession or water harvesting. When the other available

information is considered, it is said that around 157,000 ha. is developed or improved for

irrigation up to now. The total irrigation potential is so far estimated as 1 million ha.

Similar to the suitable area for cropping and grazing, the irrigation potential is not

precisely defined based on the appropriate criteria. Therefore, it will be also an important

task to define accurate irrigation potential on regional or district basis.

PART II: AGRICULTURE:

1.0 Background information The agricultural sector is the main source of employment and livelihood for more than

two-thirds of the Tanzanian population. It is an important economic sector in terms of

food production, employment generation, production of raw material for industries, and

generation of foreign exchange earnings. The agricultural sector is the leading sector of

the economy and accounts for about 45.6 percent of GDP (Economic Survey, 2005), and

about 50 percent of foreign exchange earnings. However in 2005, the sector grew by

5.2% compared to 5.8% in 2004. The decrease in growth rate was attributed to drought in

some parts of the country. The contribution of crop production to GDP was 36.5 percent

during the 2004 year. Almost all the food (95 – 97 percent) consumed in the country is

grown locally. The government all along has been putting in place enabling environment

for increased private investment in the agricultural sector. In 2005, the number of private

investors in the sector increased to 169 from 145 in 2004, equivalent to an increase of

16.6 percent.

Having a diversity of climatic and geographical zones, Tanzania‟s farmers grow a wide

range of varieties of annual and permanent crops. The country grows a large number of

food crops including maize, cassava, beans, banana, paddy, sorghum and millet. In

addition smallholders produce a variety of fruits and vegetables such as mangoes,

oranges, water melon, tomatoes, potatoes, egg plants, etc. Permanent crops like coffee,

tea, spices, etc. are also grown by smallholders for export. Smallholders in Tanzania

mainly carry out rain-fed agriculture for subsistence purposes. The commercial large

36

scale sub sector is very small (1206 holdings) and produces some of the export crops in

the country (coffee, tea, sisal, sugar, etc).

2.0 Agro-ecological zones

Agro-ecological Zones (AEZ) are land resource mapping units, defined in terms of

climate, landform and soils, and/or land cover, and having a specific range of potentials

and constraints for land use (FAO). The present Agro-ecological Zone Map of Tanzania

provides data on climate, physiography, soils and vegetation/land use and tsetse

occurrence, which are the main physical factors that influence potential and constraints

for crop and livestock production. The following are the major Agro-ecological Zones of

Tanzania (Currently, AEZ map s not in a digital form).

i. Zone 1 Coastal. Below 750 m a.s.l with soils of variable fertility, rainfall

ranging from 750 to 1,200 mm per year. In the north is usually bi-modal while

in the south is unimodal.

ii. Zone 11 Arid lands: Range from 500-1,800 m a.s.l, with relatively infertile

soils highly susceptible to erosion, which characteristically low and unreliable

unimodal rainfall (below 600 mm per year).

iii. Zone 111 Semi-Arid Lands: Low to medium undulating plains (200-1,500m

asl), with rocky hills and low scarps in central and south-eastern areas, with

soils of variable fertility, localised salinity and hard-pan problems, and

unreliable unimodal rainfall (500-800 mm/year).

iv. Zone IV Plateaux: Medium altitude plains (800-1,500 m a.s.l) in western and

southern areas with some rocky hills, Rift Valley scarps and swamps,

characterised by marked variations in fertility (eg. High fertility soils in

alluvial plains, and infertile soils on sandy plains), and generally reliable

unimodal rainfall (800-1,300 mm per year).

v. Zone V Southern, South-western & Western Highlands: High altitude

plateaux (1,200-2,300 m a.s.l) and dissected hills and mountains with soils of

low to moderate fertility, rainfall in the southern and south-western areas are

generally reliable and unimodal (800-1,400 mm per year), rainfall in the

western areas is bimodal and higher (1,000-2000 mm per year).

vi. Zone VI Northern Highlands and Granitic Mountains: These are volcanic

uplands, and high plateaux (1,000-2,500 m a.s.l). They have deep and

moderately fertile to fertile soils, with bimodal rainfall of variable reliability

(1,000-2,000 mm per year).

vii. Zone VII Alluvial Plains: Flooded plains with alluvial fans and swamps

comprising seasonally flooded alluvial and lacustrine sediments, rainfall is

unimodal of variable reliability and ranges between 500-1,800 mm/year.

37

Figure 2.1: Agro-ecological zones Figure

Agro-ecological zones map thus provides valuable information for the selection of

suitable crops under rain-fed condition, for the evaluation of the area to be proposed for

irrigation scheme and also for the investigation of the suitable crop and intensity in each

scheme.

2.1 Soils According to the soil map of Tanzania, there are about 30 main types of soils in Tanzania

mainland (Figure 1). The dominant soil type is Ferralic Cambisol which is distributed in

almost the entire country from east, south, central north-west and western Tanzania. The

second dominant soil type is Chromic Luvisol followed by Haplic Phaeozems. Haplic

Lixisols are most common in the south-eastern and to some extent in the western parts of

Tanzania. It is also important to note that Haplic Ferrasols are only common around

western Lake Zones.

According to FAO (2004) soil acidification process is currently one of the problems in

southern coastal areas of Tanzania. This is associated with the dusting of large quantities

of elemental sulphur upon cashew trees aimed at controlling powdery mildew disease

(Majule et al., 1997; Majule, 1999). Soil acidification has been associated with leaching

or removal of basic cation such as Ca, Mg and K. This is common in Mtwara and Lindi

38

regions in the southern coastal areas of Tanzania. This acidification is likely to reduce the

productivity of poor and fragile soils.

Figure 2.2: Soil map of Tanzania [source: Tanzania National Resources Information Center] http://www.fao.org/ag/agl/swlwpnr/reports/y_sf/z_tz/tzmp221.htm

Soil acidification has also been reported to be associated with an excessive use of

nitrogenous fertilizers in Songea and Iringa regions particularly in maize fields.

Generally, declining in soil fertility in most fields has been reported to accelerate the soil

acidification process. There is soil erosion problem in Kondoa (Dodoma region) and

Shinyanga where livestock keeping and encroachment of forest has been reported to be

major causes. Soil erosion is also very common on steep slopes where there is vegetation

clearing, intensive cultivation and poor land management practices (Kaihura, 1991; Lat,

1995 and Dejene, 1996).

http://www.fao.org/ag/agl/swlwpnr/reports/y_sf/z_tz/tzmp221.htm

39

2.2 Crop Production The main food crops grown in the country are maize, sorghum, millet, paddy, wheat,

sweet potato, cassava, pulses and bananas. Maize is the dominant crop with the planted

area of over 1.5 million ha. Sorghum is the second largest food crop with the planted area

of 0.6 to 0.7 million ha. In 2005, the production of some food crops particularly wheat,

maize, millet and bananas declined. However there was an increase in the production of

cassava, beans and paddy as indicated in the table below:

Table 2.2: Food Crops Production 2004 and 2005 (tons’ 000)

Crop 2004 2005 % change 200/05

Maize 4,286 3131 -26.95

Paddy 1030 1077 4.56

Wheat 66 44 -33.33

Millet 937 721 -23.05

Cassava 2470 2851 15.43

Beans 603 650 7.79

Bananas 2576 2007 -22.09

Sweet Potatoes 1245 1300 4.42

Source: Ministry of Aagriculture, Cooperatives & Food Security (2005)

Cash crops grown are sugarcane, coffee, tea, tobacco, sisal, cotton, cashew and

pyrethrum. In 2005, there was an increase in production of pyrethrum, tobacco and

cotton, while production of cashewnuts decreased as shown in the table below.

Table 2.3: Cash Crops production 2004 and 2005 (Tons’ 000)

Crop 2004 2005 % Change 2004/05

Cotton 344207 378000 9.82

Tobacco 51972 56500 8.71

Sugar 223889 263317 17.61

Tea 30249 30,000 -0.86

Pyretrhum 897 2,500 178.71

Coffee 51970 34,334 -33.94

Sisal 26800 27,794 3.71

Cashew nuts 100,000 90,385 -9.62

Source: Ministry of Aagriculture, Cooperatives & Food Security (2005)

In addition to such major crops, Tanzania‟s climatic growing conditions are favorable for

the production of a wide range of fruits, vegetables and even flowers. The most important

fruits include pineapples, passion fruits, citrus fruits, mangoes, peaches, pears and

bananas while vegetables include tomatoes, spinach, cabbages and okra. The cropping

pattern varies considerably from region to region. Maize dominates the cropping in most

of the regions accounting for more than 50 percent of the food crop area in Iringa.

Sorghum, with its drought resistant characteristics, dominates in dry regions such as

Dodoma and Singida. Quite considerable part of the land area is allocated for paddy in

40

Morogoro, Tabora, Mwanza and Mbeya. Similarly, cassava is important in Mtwara,

Coast and Lindi and also pulses are important in Kagera.

2.2.1 Research on Crops Research centres and higher learning institutions continued with research in cereals, peas,

fruit, vegetable, spices, roots and oil producing seed which are drought, pest and disease

resistant, and which are high yielding. In 2005, 34 types of new seeds were developed

including 9 new varieties for maize; 2 for millet; 3 for sunflower; 2 for wheat; 5 for

cassava; and 6 for sweet potatoes varieties.

2.3 Farm Management Tanzania has an estimated 40 million hectares of arable land, out of which only 6 million

hectares or 15 percent being cultivated. Small-scale subsistence farming is dominant in

Tanzania and characterized by depende on rainfall and use of hand hoes as main

cultivating tool. Overall performance of small-scale subsistence farming has been low

productivity due to inappropriate land husbandry practices. There are two production

systems that follow seasonality of rainfall modals. The first type is the unimodal type and

the rainfall is usually from October/November to April in central, southern and

southwestern highlands. The second type is bimodal type which occurs in the coast belt,

northeastern highlands and Lake Victoria Basin. The bimodal type comprises two

seasons, the short rains (Vuli) falls from October to December. The long rains (Masika)

fall from March to June. The production systems depending on short and long rains are

called Vuli and Masika respectively. Major production depends on Masika for most of

the cereals but Vuli production is important in some regions. When irrigation is

introduced, the cropping intensity can be increased through the achievement of dry

season cropping. In addition to the kind of crop, therefore, the cropping pattern should

carefully be designed. Since the market price fluctuates according to the season in case

of vegetables specially an appropriate cropping season should also be investigated.

The major major constraints related to farm management are improved varieties, late

transplanting, low plant density, poor weeding and low inputs. These constraints should

be improved through strengthening of farmers supporting systems such as research,

extension, input supply, marketing and access to available loans. In case of irrigation

development, even more careful support might be needed for proper operation of

irrigation system and maintenance practices for sustainable utilization of the facilities.

The comprehensive strategy on farmers supporting system should thus be organized.

2.4 Irrigation System The traditional irrigation crops are rice, maize, beans, onions, horticulture, bananas,

sugarcane, coffee, tea and cotton. Out of these irrigated crops rice is by far the most

important crop in Tanzania. Purely rain-fed rice is not common and rice is produced

twice or three times per year in some regions mainly by using water harvesting method or

simple river diversions. In the report of NIDP, the typical rain-fed and irrigated paddy

yields were compared and the result is shown as below.

41

Table 2.4: Typical Rain-fed and Irrigated Paddy Yields in Tanzania

IRRIGATION

SYSTEM

YIELD

(Ton/ha)

REMARKS

Rain-fed 1.0- 1.8 Hand cultivaton

Traditionally irrigated 1.0-2.0 Water harvesting/River diversions

Improved traditional 4.0 River diversions/Improved land

development

New Small Holder

Scheme

2.0-6.0 Mechanization/High inputs/Modern

varieties

State Farms 2.8 Mechanization/High inputs/Modern

varieties

Source: NIDP 2000

In 2005, an irrigated area of 22, 506 ha was developed compared to 23,970 ha in 2004,

thereby increasing the irrigated area to 249,992 ha. The increase was due to the

development of 83 irrigation schemes, construction of 12 irrigation dams, and 12 rain-

harvest irrigation schemes.

It is clear that irrigation can contribute to the increase of yield per unit area. The effect

will be upheld when accompanied with mechanization high inputs and modern varieties.

Irrigation is also important to stabilize the production of perishable commodities like

vegetables, Furthermore, since Tanzania has a long standing production deficit of sugar,

the production of sugarcane should also be promoted through irrigation development.

The irrigation development for rice and vegetables can contribute to secure food security

and also to improve rural incomes. In case of cash crops, such as sugarcane, however, the

necessary to carefully investigate the contribution of irrigation development according to

the general agriculture and livestock policy.

2.5 Input Use In 2005, Agricultural Input Trust Fund continued to offer credits for purchase, repair and

maintanace of tractors. During the period of July to October 2005, the Fund provided 44

credits worth tTshs 1,278,192,000 out of which, 18 credits worth tTshs 922,392,250 were

for agriculture inputs and livestock drugs, 10 credits worth tTshs 313,800,000 for

purchase of new tractors, and 16 credits worth tTshs 42,000,000 for repair of tractors.

2.5.1 Improved varieties Cereals have the largest planted area with improved seeds (693,817 ha, 54%), followed

by cash crops (325.032 ha, 26% Pulses (110,411 ha, 9%) fruit and vegetables (45,9336

ha, 4%), oilseeds (52.902 ha, 4%) and roots and tubers (39.75Oh, 3%). However, the

percent of improved seed use in cash crops and fruit is much greater than in other crop

types (82% and 66% respectively). Only 11 percent of cereal crops use improved seed.

2.5.2 Fertilizer Use

42

Fertilizer application is based on use and area of application and not on the quantity

application. Most annual crop growing households do not use any inorganic fertilizer.

The number of households using fertilizers has decreased dramatically since the last

census and to this is the case for both inorganic fertilizer and farm yard manure. The

reduction in the number of households using fertilizers happened during the period 1995

to 1998 with the number of households using fertilizers remaining constant at this very

low level since then. The order magnitude of this decline if around 50 percent for both

organic and inorganic fertilizer. Both declines has been with compost/manure as opposed

to inorganic fertilizers, however the status of fertilizer use as of 2003 is that only 8

percent of crop growing households use inorganic fertilizer whereas 20 percent use farm

yard manure.

The area planted without fertilizer for annual crops is 5,952,048 hectares (5,884,799 ha

on the mainland and 59,396 ha in Zanzibar) representing 77 percent of the total planted

area with annual crops. Of the planted area with fertilizers application (23%), Farm Yard

Manure was applied to 1,207,465 ha which represents 15 percent of the total planted area

or 64 percent of the area planted with fertilisers. This is followed by inorganic fertiliser

(487,934 ha, 6 percent). Compost is used on a very small area and represents only 2

percent of the total planted area.

Most of the planted area with permanent crops are without fertiliser (986,528 ha; 75%).

On the Mainland, the area of crops with fertiliser follows the same trend as annual crops

with only 341,383 ha with applied fertiliser representing 25.7 percent of the total area

planted with permanent crops. This is followed by compost (55,265 ha, 4%) and then

inorganic fertiliser (42,538 ha, 3%). Most of the fertiliser used in permanent crops is

applied to bananas (34.6% of the total area using fertilizer), followed by coffee (29.8%),

cassava (13.2%) and cashew nuts (5.3%) and most of this is organic fertiliser

2.5.3 Farm Yard Manure The number of households using farm yard manure on their annual crops is 989,425 and

it is applied to 1,207,465 ha representing 16 percent of the total area planted. Most of the

farm yard manure is used on cereals (77%), followed by pulses (10%) and oil seeds (5%).

However, the proportion of fruit and vegetables with farm yard manure application is

higher than other crop types (37%) followed by cereals (19%) and roots and tubers

(16%).

Yard Manure Farm yard manure is mostly used in Singida region (38 % of the total

planted area), Kilimanjaro (30%), Arusha (28%), Dodoma (24%) and Dar es salaam

(19%). Very little farm yard manure is used in Lindi, Pwani, Mtwara and Morogoro

regions.

2.5.4 Inorganic fertilizer

43

The number of households using inorganic fertiliser on annual crops is 452,881 (443,099

on the mainland and 9,712 Zanzibar) and it is applied to 487,935 ha representing 6

percent of the total area planted. Most of it is applied to cereals (71%), followed by cash

crops (11%) and pulses (7%). However, as is the case with farm-yard-manure, a higher

proportion of inorganic fertiliser is applied to fruit and vegetables than other crop types

(32% of the fruit and vegetables planted area). This is followed by cash crops (13%) and

roots and tubers (9%) In-organic fertilisers are used mostly in Ruvuma (37% of the total

planted area), followed by Iringa (26%), Kilimanjaro (22%), Mbeya (18%) and Tabora

(13%) regions. Most other regions use very little inorganic fertilizer. In permanent crops,

inorganic fertiliser is mostly used on coffee (56.5%), followed by cashew nut (10.4%),

cassava (8.24%), sugar-cane (7.79%) and banana (6.28%).

2.5.5 Compost. The number of households using compost is 167,205 and it is applied to 171,157 ha

(169,993 on the Mainland and 1,159 in Zanzibar) representing 2 percent of the total area

planted. The area of application is very low for each type of crop (2 to 3%), however, the

distribution of the total area using compost shows that 68 percent of this area is cultivated

with cereals, followed pulses (19%) and oil seeds and oil nuts (6%). In permanent crops,

compost is mostly used on banana 38.93%), cashew nut (15.5%), coffee (15.3%) and

cassava (13.1%).

2.5.6 Pesticide Use Pesticides are chemicals which are used for controlling insects, diseases and weeds on

crops. For Annual crops, pesticides are applied to 1,180,450 ha on the Mainland and

3,756 ha in Zanzibar (Note that this is application area. In some cases all three chemicals

are applied to the same crop. Insecticides are the most common pesticide used in

Tanzania (72% of the total applied area with pesticides). This is followed by fungicides

(15%) and herbicides (13%).

2.5.7 Insecticide Insecticides are applied to 810,211 ha (only 9% of the total planted area) (808,569 on the

Mainland and 1,642 in Zanzibar). In terms of total planted area with insecticides

application, more insecticides are used on cereals than other crop types (426,584 ha,

53%). This is followed by cash crops (227,029, 28%), pulses (73,940, 9%) and fruit and

vegetables (41,247, 5%). However, in terms of insecticide use by crop type, fruit and

vegetables and cash crops receive a higher percent of insecticide than other crops. Of the

total area planted with fruit and vegetables, 59 percent received insecticides and for cash

crops is 57 percent.

2.5.8 Fungicides

Fungicides are rarely used on annual crops in Tanzania with an applied planted area of

only 191,626 hectares ha on the Mainland and 64 in Zanzibar) 2 percent of the total

planted area. In terms of total planted area more fungicides are used than other crop types

(89,441 ha, 47%). This is followed by cash crops (28,940 ha, 15%), fruit and vegetables

(27,571 ha, 15%) and roots and tubers (23,l9l ha, 12%). However, of the total area

planted with fruit and vegetables 40 percent received insecticide applications. The

44

regions with the largest planted area with fungicides were Shinyanga (27,060 ha, 3% of

the planted area in the region), Iringa (22,214 ha, 5%), Tabora (20,484 ha, 4%) and

Mwanza.

2.5.9 Herbicides Herbicides are the least used pesticide in Tanzania with an applied planted area of only

176,563 ha. In terms of total planted area more herbicides are used on cereals than other

crop types (133,779 ha, 75% of the total planted area with herbicide application). This is

followed by pulses (13.752 ha, 8%) and cash crops (10,407. 6%). Very little was applied

to other crop types. Of the total area planted with fruit and vegetables only 7 percent

received herbicide application and the planted area with herbicide application for other

crop types was very low. 2.5.10 Pesticide Use on Permanent Crops The use of fungicides, herbicides and insecticides on permanent crops is very low.

However, smallholders that used pesticides applied more fungicides (204,880 ha, 62% of

the total planted area with pesticides) than insecticides (102.632 ha. 31%) and herbicides

(24.553 ha 7%). Fungicides are mainly used on cashew nut (75% of the total area planted

with permanent using pesticide). Herbicides are mostly used on coffee (45%), cashew nut

(18%) and cassava (13%). Whilst insecticides are mostly used on coffee (61%) and

cashew nut (24%).

2.6 Crop marketing During 2005, an Act on Warehouse Receipt System was passed by the Parliament.

Moreover, the construction of modern markets in small towns of Kibaigwa in Kongwa

district, and Nyandira, Tawa and Kinole villages in Morogoro were completed. In 2003,

the number of households that reported selling crops in Tanzania was estimated at

3,409,427 which represent 70 percent of the total number of crop growing households.

Kagera and Mbeya have the largest number of households‟ crops. However, the percent

of households selling crops is highest in Ruvuma (93%), Kagera (89%), Kigoma (86%),

Rukwa (82%), Mbeya (79%) and Kilimanjaro (78%). Singida, Tabora, Dodoma and

Shinyanga have the smallest number of households selling crops.

The average prices for major crops in domestic market showed a mixed trend depending

on the supply and demand. The average price for maize decreased from Tshs 18,470 in

2004 to Tshs 16,774 per 100 kg. in 2005, equivalent to a decline of 9 percent. However,

from October 2005, it increased to Tshs 19,101 due to delayed rainfall in many parts of

the country. The average price for beans increased from Tshs 39,060 in 2004 to Tshs

47,637 per 100 kg. in 2005, equivalent to a rise of 22 percent. The price of Arabica coffee

was Tshs 800 compared to Tshs 500 in 2004, equivalent to an increase of 60 percent.

Meanwhile price of a kilogram of robusta coffee was tTshs 240 compared to tTshs 180 in

2004, equivalent to an increase of 33 percent. The same trend was observed for

cashewnuts. The price of cashewnuts increased from Tshs 500 in 2004 to Tshs 700 prt

kilogram in 2005. Price of cotton decreased from Tshs 280 in 2004 to Tshs 250 per

kilogram in 2005.

45

2.7 Farming, livestock keeping activities and their environmental implications Majority of the Tanzanians live in rural areas and mostly engaged in the above-

mentioned activities. Experience shows that farming or livestock keeping practices are

poorly done leading to critical land degradation. Very often farming is undertaken

through use of hand hoes and to a very limited extent using tractors or other farming

implements like oxen operated ploughs for a long time majority of the peasants in the

rural sector have operated on small piece of woodland (1-2 hectares) practicing the slash

and burn system.

Tilling the soils using hand-hoes and crop planting done also manually normally follows

after burning trashes. The household operate on land for 2-3 years before shifting to

adjacent woodland once they detect that crop yields have declined.

Such practices were sustainable when the population was low and sparsely located. It was

possible for the cropped land to fallow because cropped land was left idle for enough

time, which allowed it to recover in terms of fertility improvements before the farmer

was able to return to it for cropping purposes. But because of population pressure arable

land to remain idle to permit fertility recovery is no longer a variable option. Not many

farmers are still practicing this but in some villages adjacent to wide spread woodland s

the practicing slash and burn system cannot be ruled out.

Nowadays agricultural lands are over-cropped and therefore in the event of inadequate

land amendments practices particularly through application of fertilizers, nutrients in

cropland are quickly exhausted resulting into significant decline in productivity (i.e from

about 40 to less than 5 bags of maize per ha).Once this happens a farmer has no other

options expect to look for another fertile land thus virgin woodlands in general land in

Tanzania are used for practicing shifting cultivation: a practice responsible for

widespread deforestation. According to FAO (2002) Tanzania is loosing about 92,000 ha

forests and woodland per annum. According to Doggart et al.(2004)the principle cause of

forest loss in the Uluguru Mountains is the expansion of agricultural land and this is

intense below 1800m asl.

Apart from unsustainable farming practices, uncontrolled charcoal production and

logging as well as annual bush fires have contributed to, a great extent, to loss of forests

and woodlands in general land. Also the forest adjacent communities do extend their

activities into some gazetted forest and woodland reserves (FBD, 2005, 2006).

Most of land degradation in Tanzania is the result of unsustainable farming (e.g. tobacco

cultivation contributing to deforestation i.e. 12m3 of solid wood needed to flue cure

1,000 kg) and livestock keeping practices (freelance grazing). Incidences of serious land

degradation in Tanzania are not new. For instance, Tanzania has experienced serious land

degradation in Dodoma region especially Kondoa district and in the Shinyanga region

where HADO and HASHI programmes have been undertaken respectively. In Shinyanga

region extensive clearing of forests and woodlands for the purpose cotton farms and high

densities of livestock led to overgrazing leaving bare and seriously degraded land.

Because land was devoid of vegetation cover, it became susceptible to various agents of

46

erosion including wind and rainfall resulting into plain and various agents of erosion

including wind and rainfall resulting into splash and sheet erosion. The same sad story

occurred in Kondoa district. High concentrations of livestock coupled with unsustainable

cropping practices turned some areas in Kondoa into unmanageable gullies. Such

devastated situation forced the government through the Ministry of Natural Resources

and Tourism (MNRT) to undertake activities that aimed at rehabilitating the serious

degraded land in Dodoma and Shinyanga Region.

The experiences around the lake zone particularly in Mwanza and Shinyanga show that

the tendency is keeping more cattle than grazing land can hold. The same tendency has

been observed in some areas in Arusha region (e.g. Kisongo area). Too many livestock

beyond the land carrying cause heavy land degradation and render it useless as far as

cropping and livestock grazing activities are concerned. Pressure for grazing land

continued to increase over the years and this forced some cattle keepers to migrate to

other areas within the region and to other regions. Over the last decade large numbers of

livestock migrated to Iringa, Mbeya, Morogoro and Rukwa Regons. This is because cattle

need more grazing land than could be available in their previous localities. An average of

3 ha/SU is needed for sustainable cattle grazing throughout the year. However, keeping

more livestock than the land carrying capacity often leads to environmental destruction.

Deforestation and depletion grass cover are the most important environmental

conservation problems (NBS, 2002). Serious degradation of grazing areas sometimes

becomes the source of conflicts between the livestock keepers and farmer‟s whereby the

former encroach and graze their animals on agricultural farms. (E.g. the case of livestock

keeper‟s and farmers conflicts in Kilosa District, Morogoro region)

PART III: FOREST RESOURCES

1.0 Natural Forests and Products There are three types of natural forests in Tanzania namely miombo woodlands, montane

forests and mangroves. Miombo woodlands are the most extensive woodland area of

about 270 million ha; 257.3 million ha as indicated by Millington et. al., 1994 and WWF,

2001, respectively. These cover large part of the Southern; Central and Eastern African

countries and dominated by the genera Brachystegia, Julbernadia and/or Isoberlinia.

These are three closely related genera from the legume family Fabaceae, subfamily

Caesalpinioideae (Campbell et. al., (1996). According to White (1983) there are 21

species of Brachystegia throughout the Miombo Ecoregion in Africa. In Tanzania

Miombo woodlands cover more than 20 million ha. Ecologically this ecosystem can be

categorized into wet and dry woodlands. Annual rainfall is more than 1000mm with high

degree of reliability. The wet Miombo woodlands usually occur in areas that are

geologically old, yet nutrient-poor soils but For instance, in Tanzania such woodlands are

found around Lake Rukwa and most areas in Kigoma region including parts of

Biharamuro District in Kagera region. Also some parts of Mbeya region along the Lake

Nyasa fall under this category. In the wettest sites dominant trees are only briefly

deciduous but usually remain with closed canopy. In the dry Miombo woodlands floristic

composition is poor compared to Wet-Miombo woodlands and found in areas with

47

shallow soils, which are relatively dry with rainfall below 1000mm and often unreliable.

The canopy is less than 15 meters with dominant species being Brachystegia spiciformis,

B. boehmii, and Julbernardia globiflora. The areas adjacent to the coastal forests

covering greater parts of Morogoro and Ruvuma regions and some parts of Handeni

district in Tanga region fall under the dry Miombo category. The dry miombo if

undisturbed has a basal area of about 10m2 ha

-1 and above ground biomass of about 35m

3

ha-1

.

According to the National Forest Programme-NFP (2001) Tanzania possess about 33.5

million hectares (ha) of natural forest. Existing records in the FBD show that there are

815 FRs with legal status and these are scattered throughout the mainland. These forests,

which are legally protected, cover about 15 million ha, (about 45% of the mainland forest

estate). Majority of the FRs (approximately 11 million ha) are managed for production

purposes while the remaining (approximately 4 million ha) are secured for protection of

environmental services mainly as catchment forests (see the Table 2.5 below). A large

part of the natural forests (about 18.4 million ha or 55% of mainland forest estate) are

managed without legal backing.

Table 2.5: Distribution of Forest and Woodland Resources by Category and Use on the mainland

Forest Use Number of

FRs

Area (ha) % Of total

Forest Estate

Comments

Production 394 11,134,558 33.2

Protection

421

3,956,210

11.8

Mainly protecting

critical water sources

and fragile land

Sub-Total 815 15,090,798 45 Forests with legal

status

Production and

protection

No legal

status

18,401,231

55

These are the forests

& woodlands that

exist in general lands

Total Forest

Estate

- 33,500,000 100

Source: MNRT (2002).

Tanzania is endowed with several valuable terrestrial resources that are also unique not

only to Tanzania but also to the rest of the world. Such resources include the Eastern Arc

Mountain forests, the Coastal forests as well as Mount Kilimanjaro, with the highest peak

in Africa. Other areas include: the Ngorongoro Conservation area (NCA), Serengeti

National Park, Selous Game reserve (the largest in Africa) and spectacular wetlands like

Lake Natron, Moyowosi/Kigosi and Kilombero Valley without forgetting the Rufiji

Delta. Nationally the montane catchment forests and other watershed areas throughout

the country play an important role by conserving not only important biodiversity

resources but also ensuring that water is available and flowing in streams and rivers

throughout the year. Major rivers in Tanzania include Kilombero, Kihansi, Pangani,

Ruvu, Wami, Rufiji, Malagalasi, Kagera, Ruvuma and Zigi. Many Tanzanian obtain

48

water for domestic, industrial, irrigation and commercial uses from these and other rivers

not mentioned here.

The Eastern Arc Mountain forests are of exceptional global importance because of their

high biodiversity values. The forests in the Eastern Arc area possess high endemism for

instance about 100 vertebrates (10 mammals, 20 birds, 38 Amphibians, 29 reptiles) are

endemic to the Eastern Arc Mountain forests. Also and about 1500 plant species

including some 68 tree species, are known to be endemic to the Eastern Arc Mountains.

The Uluguru Mountains alone has about 135 plant species that are confined to that single

mountain block. More than 100 endemic species are known to exist in West and East

Usambara Mountains and Udzungwa Ranges.

Recent surveys have indicated that the number of endemic species is even higher than

was previously recorded. For instance, in year 2005 a large Monkey “Sanje Mangabey”–

Lophocebus kipunji was spotted in the West Kilombero Scarp, which is part of

Udzungwa Mountains. During the same year another species of shrew-Congosorex

phillipsorum was also spotted and described from the same forest area. Records indicate

that another five species of Amphibians have been recently spotted and described

including the Callulina species that has been found in the South Nguru Mountains. It is

against such values that the Conservation International included the Eastern Arc

Mountain forests together with the Coastal forests amongst the World‟s 25 Biodiversity

“Hotspots”. Recent global classifications by Conservation International have increased

from 25 to 34 biological diversity “Hotspots”. The Eastern Arc Mountain forests have

been separated from the Coastal forests but joined with the Lift Valley area including the

Rungwe and Livingstone Mountain blocks in the southern highlands of Tanzania to form

a single hotspot.

The Government of Tanzania recognizes these biodiversity values and that is why,

through the Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism (MNRT), in 2003 formulated a

project “Conservation and Management of Eastern Arc mountain Forests”-CMEAMF,

with the view “to develop and implement conservation strategies that ensure the

sustainable conservation of the Eastern Arc Mountain forests, both for the conservation

of forests and biodiversity.

The coastal forests including about 115,000 ha of mangroves found along the India

Ocean stretching from Mtwara region in the south to Tanga region in the north covering

about 800 km are essential forest resources for conservation and sustainable use. The

coastal forests are habits for important bird species and support fauna, which are

dominated by locally endemic species. The coastal forests are centers for the valuable

species such as D. melanoxylon, which exceptional valuable tree for wood curving and

production of other important products like music clarinets.

Conservation and management of coastal forests has been a challenging task. Due to

increased human pressure the coastal forests for instances Pugu, Kazimzumbwi,

Zaraninge, Pande, Matumbi hill, Rondo and other forests in Coast, Lindi, Mtwara and

49

Tanga regions have been subjected to high intensities of forest resources utilization.

Some forests like Pugu and Kazimzumbwi despite being central government Forest

Reserves (FRs) they have been reduced to almost nothing due to high encroachment

rates. Pressure on coastal forests is due to more demands for cultivation, timber

harvesting and export of logs, production of charcoal to feed the city of Dar-es-Salaam

consuming between 200,000-300,000 bags (average weight of 50 kgs) of charcoal month-

1 grazing. Bush fires that are burnt annual are another hindrance to sustainable forests

management in coastal areas. Thousands of hectares of coast forests are set to fire every

year thereby reducing their biodiversity values through killing of various flora and fauna

and retarding growth rate to some of the tree species. Several initiatives to reduce

degradation in coastal forests are being have been put in place in with government

collaborating with sectors ministries, local governments, NGOs and development

partners.

1.1 The status of natural forests The East Usambara, Uluguru and Udzungwa Mountain blocks rank high in terms of

biodiversity values. Prioritization of the mountain blocks is based on existing records

otherwise based on new discoveries, it is possible for other blocks such as Nguru South

or Rubeho to have significant biodiversity values and hence become priority sites for

conservation. In terms of endemic tree and other biodiversity values the East Usambara

ranks high followed by Udzungwa and Uluguru mountain blocks. Nguru South, West

Usambara and Rubeho follow. Not very much is known about Rungwe and the

Livingstone Mountains in southern Tanzania but if more surveys could be conducted, it

most likely to uncover the biodiversity resources in those areas. However, due to their

catchment value and as the main sources of water that flow to Mtera dam, it is clear that

these mountain blocks are of significant values to the nation hence deserve the attention

of policy/decision makers and conservationists.

Some forests like those in the Eastern Arc Mountains despite being centers of endemism

they have been severely disturbed. Recent surveys conducted by the Sokoine University

of Agriculture, through the CMEAMF programme, and undertaken in 25 Forest Reserves

throughout the Eastern Arc have demonstrated that most of the forests are seriously

disturbed. Thus, the disturbance and management effectiveness assessment has

demonstrated that the ability of the cloud forests in the Eastern Arc Mountains and others

areas such as Rungwe and Livingstone mountain forests, to trap rainwater and slowly

discharge it into the rivers, even during the dry season has been severely impeded. It is

anticipated that through the Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM)

techniques and adoption of water use efficiency plans as well as increasing efforts in law

enforcement some positive impacts could be registered.

Since the management effectiveness is poor and levels of disturbances within the forests

throughout the mainland are high, it is most likely that endemic and near endemic species

is threatened to extinction. The habitats are so disturbed to the extent that species like the

genus Saintpaulia (African Violets) that are endemic to the Eastern Arc are threatened

with extinction. Unfortunately about 70% of the original forests and other vegetation in

the Eastern Arc and other parts of Tanzania have been converted to settlements and

50

agricultural lands, especially over the last 200 years. For instance, the forest area in East

Usambara has declined from about 33,000 ha in 1970 to about 26,000 ha in year 2000

demonstrating about 21% forest loss over the years. The Uluguru Mountains lost about

13% of the forest cover for the same period: declining from about 31,000 ha in 1970 to

about 27,000 ha in year 2000. Generally it is known that by year 2000 only about

323,720 ha of forests with 150 Forest Reserves, remain as the main water catchments and

habitat for various biodiversity resources within the Eastern Arc area.

1.2 Plantation Forests and Products 1.2.1 Plantation Forests There are 16 industrial plantations with a total of 80,000 ha throughout the country. The

largest plantation (about 42,000 ha) is Sao Hill in Mufindi district, Iringa Region. Tree

planting is an activity that requires use of resources including human labour and time.

That means the costs related to this activity are indeed substantial. Tree planting is

considered an important activity on Tanzania‟s development agenda because of the need

to improve and enhance environmental conservation. Between 1985 and 1995 millions of

seedlings were produced annually and given to villages and individuals free of charge but

the impact was marginally felt. The private sector initiatives in tree planting have not

made big impact as well. It is estimated that the private companies and individuals have

establishes about 250,000 ha throughout the country.

The lesson learnt is that people in villages did not value tree planting when done

communally. This is because the ownership (tree tenure) and management responsibility

in community operations did not surface well hence in the business as usual scenario

villagers worked on their private lands. But even though not many trees have been

planted on households‟ farmlands except in Iringa region particularly in Njombe and

Mufindi Districts where many farmers planted trees (Eucalyptus spp, Pinus patula and

Cupressus lusitanica). A substantial amount of sawn timber from those areas is brought

to Dar-es-Salaam through the TAZARA railway hence a good source of income for those

who seriously ventured in tree planting. The primary schools have planted 1 to 3 ha of

woodlots with about 75% survival rate, which is a good performance.

At the turn of the new millennium about 100 million seedlings (more than 50,000 ha)

were anticipated for planting throughout Tanzania. Records at the FBD show that more

than 150 million seedlings were raised and planted. However, this does not correspond to

the reality on ground. The overall tree planting throughout the country is, on average,

rated at 25,000 ha year-1. When this is compared with the national deforestation rate of

about 92,000 ha year-1

it implies a net deforestation rate of about 67,000 ha annually.

This is not a small gap, which indicates that tree planting initiatives have not helped

Tanzania to contain environmental degradation hence more efforts and different

strategies/approaches are needed in order to make significant impacts.

51

1.3 Forest Products Forests and woodlands are sources for various products including the tangibles and

intangible benefits as indicated hereunder:

1.3.1 Tangible Forest products Forests and woodlands are the sources for most of the wood and non-wood products.

Wood products include timber, poles, firewood and charcoal. Non-wood products include

ropes, raisins, tie and dye colorings, game meat, fruits, traditional/natural medicines,

natural vegetables, palm leaves for making baskets/mats, honey and beeswax,

mushrooms. Furthermore, forests and woodlands do provide other goods and services to

people such as food, natural herbs for medicine and water

1.3.2 Intangible Products A number of intangible benefits do exist as outcomes of presence of forests and

woodlands. Such benefits include depository of biodiversity; amelioration of climate

(microclimate), Carbon sequestration, habitat to wildlife and cultural and religious

values.

1.4 Importance of Forests/woodlands in the National Economy Natural resources sector comprises of forestry and beekeeping, wildlife and fisheries sub-

sectors. In 2005, forestry and hunting sub-sector grew by 45 percent compared to 3.8

percent in 2004. Apart from producing tangible and intangible benefits to people, forests

and woodlands in Tanzania are also managed for economic gains. A recent study by the

MNRT regarding economic conservation of catchment forests indicates that the total

value of catchment forests in the Eastern Arc Mountains (timber, NTFP, eco-tourism,

carbon sink and performing other ecological functions) is about USD 496 million and

potential use rated at USD 620 million per ha-1

year-1

.

In 1989 forestry and beekeeping sector contributed to about 3% of the Gross Domestic

products (GDP) and 10% of Tanzania‟s registered export earnings (MNRT, 1998).

Unfortunately the national accounting system does not consider consumption of

woodfuels, which account for 92% of the national energy balance, bee products

(especially honey) and poles as important elements in national accounts. If the value of

these resources were calculated and recorded into the national accounts, the contribution

of the forestry and beekeeping sector into the national economy would increase

significantly. Additionally, the catchment (water and other ecological values) is not

captured. For instance, the Eastern Arc Mountains cloud forests have a big influence on

rainfall patterns in the areas and also conserve and subsequently discharge water into the

rivers, which is used in hydropower generation.

1.5 Threats to the environment In the Tanzania‟s context environmental degradation is highly linked to destruction of the

country‟s forest and woodland resources base. Experiences show that human activities in

forests and woodlands have been very difficult to control due to inadequate capacity in

the designated institutions both in central government (FBD) and District Councils. This

has led to over utilization of forest and woodland resources (timber, firewood, charcoal

52

and poles) because law enforcement is hardly done. Uncontrolled human activities in

most forest and woodlands have threatened existence of valuable timber species like

Mvule (Milicia excelsa) and Mninga (Pterocarpus angolensis). Other economically and

ecologically important species under threat include: Allanblackia stulmanii,

Cephalosphaera usambarensis, or Dalbergia melanoxylon.

Furthermore, availability of species like sandalwood (Osyris lanceolata) has been

seriously threatened by high industrial demand. The demand for this species is so

enormous to the extent of uprooting and using roots. Assessment conducted by FBD

(Malimbwi et. al., 2005) shows that field stocks of O. lanceolata have greatly diminished

and currently 80% of industrial uses are obtained as roots with the stems accounting for

only 20%. This signals that human pressure over this species is massive to the extent of

threatening to wipe out the species unless urgent silvicultural treatments are carried out to

enable its natural and/or artificial regeneration (domestication) to take place and at the

same time control harvesting operations aggravated by the sandalwood processing

industries.

PART IV: WILDLIFE RESOURCES

1.0 Habitats Tanzania is endowed with significant amount of wildlife whose habitats are mainly

within the Savannah grasslands characterized by dry miombo woodlands dominated by

the genera of Acacia and Combretum with A. tortilis beatifying the landscape. About

25% of total mainland area is dedicated to conservation and protection of wildlife

habitats (Table 2.5). The habitats further include 14 National Parks (NPs); 34 Game

Reserves (GRs) as indicated in 2.6 and 2.7, respectively and 34 Game Controlled Areas

(GCAs) (Table 2.9). The NPs include the Ngorongoro crater, which is the world‟s eighth

wonder also listed as the world heritage site and Serengeti NP, which is also a world

heritage but again famous for its endless plains signifying the wonders‟ of nature. In

addition to savannah woodlands some national parks such as Katavi, Gombe and Mahale

Mountain National Park are found in the famous wet-miombo woodlands in the Western

parts of Tanzania. Tourists and other visitors can enjoy the beauties of nature whereby

the Goliras and Chimpanzees are easily located in Gombe and Mahale Mountain National

Park respectively.

53

Table 2.6: Categories of Protected Areas under Wildlife Conservation

S/no CATEGORY No Area (hectares

(ha))

%of total area

1 National Parks 14 3,842,800 4.1

2 Game Reserves 28 10,401,250 10.4

3 Game Controlled Areas 38 9,086,502 9.6

4 Ngorongoro Conservation Area

1 828,800 1

Total 24,660,552 25

On the other hand, Udzungwa National Park (160,000 ha) being part of the Eastern Arc

chain of Mountain blocks is an important montane forest park possessing very critical

endemic species of flora and fauna. The Udzungwa Park provides essential habitats to

some of the rare and endemic species of primates such as the Sanje Mangabey

(Lophocebus kipunji) while in the Kitulo NP it is referred to as the Highland Mangabey

mostly found within the forests of the Livingstone Mountains. The Udzungwa NP also is

the home for the Iringa Red Colobus monkey. The forests of Udzungwa Mountains are

among the top ten important birds‟ conservation areas in Africa whereby endemic species

like the Udzungwa Partridge and Kufous Winged Sunbird find their refuge.

Table 2.7: National parks (NPs) and Ngorongoro Conservation Area (NCA)

S/NO Name of National Park Area (ha) When established

1 Serengeti 1,467,300 1951

2 Ruaha 1,296,000 1964

3 Mikumi 323,000 1964

4 Tarangire 260,000 1970

5 Katavi 225,300 1974

6 Mahale Mountain 157,700 1984

7 Kilimanjaro 75,600 1973

8 Rubondo 73,600 1977

9 Lake Manyara 32,500 1960

10 Arusha 13,700 1960

11 Gombe 5,200 1968

12 Udzungwa 199,000 1992

13 Saadani 2004

15 Kitulo 41,200 2005

5 Ngorongoro Conservation Area (NCA)** 828,800 1959

** Ngorongoro Conservation Area is not a national park but included in this table for convenience and

easy reference. It is not managed by TANAPA but managed by the Ngorongoro Conservation Area

Authority (NCAA).

54

Table 2.8: Game Reserves (Mainland)

S/NO Name of Game Reserve Area (ha) When established

1 Selous * 5,000,000 1905

2 Rungwa* 900,000 1951

3 Kigosi 700,000 1983

4 Moyowosi* 600,000 1981

5 Uwanda 500,000 1959

6 Ugala River 500,000 1965

7 Kizigo 400,000 1972

8 Maswa* 220,000 1969

9 Burigi* 220,000 1973

10 Umba* 150,000 1974

11 Biharamuro 130,000 1959

12 Mkomazi* 100,000 1951

13 Rumanyika 80,000 1965

14 Mt. Kilimanjaro 76,000 1951

15 Mt. Meru 30,000 1951

16 Ibanda* 20,000 1972

17 Saa Nane Island 50 1964

* National projects managed by the Wildlife Division, MNRT.

Total area of Game Reserves 10,300,000 ha

1.1 Species Diversity More than 300 terrestrial mammals exist in Africa and most of them are found in

Tanzania. The number could increase or decrease depending on a number of factors such

as prolonged drought or over-cropping during the hunting season (July to December).

The key species include the larger carnivores such as Lions, Leopards, Cheetahs, and

wild dogs. The herbivores group includes population of Elephants, Giraffe, Zebras,

Buffalos Antelopes, Wildebeests and others but including the declining number of black

Rhinoceros. Furthermore, some additional critical species include Chimpanzee, red and

blue Colobus and Mangabey monkeys including the Lophocebus kipunji, which are

endemic to the Eastern Arc Mountain forests. Furthermore, the mammalian fauna

includes the rich assemblage of species of Antelopes and Giraffes are also numerous and

found in most the NPs and GRs. Endemism within the wildlife resources is high i.e. 4%

(about 13 species) of terrestrial mammals and five sub-species are endemic to Tanzania.

Majority of the endemic species are found only in natural forests: duikers, primates and

shrews. The Eastern Arc Mountain forests (North and South Pare; East and West

Usambara; Uluguru and Udzungwa) and the Coastal forests are areas of high biodiversity

including endemic species. The extent of Endemism in Tanzania is shown in Table 2.9

Tanzania is rich in small mammal species such as Bats (97 species), shrews (32 species)

and rodents (100 species). Tanzania has 293 species of reptiles in 104 genera and 21

families and most species has a wide distribution range. The number of bird is 1065 of

which 25 (2%) are endemic and mostly are forest-based species.

55

Table 2.9: Endemic Species among the Groups and Category and their Numbers in Costal Forests

Endemism of various groups Endemism in Coastal Forests (biological groups) Type of Spp Endemic Biological group No. of Endemic Species %

Duikers Abbot‟s Duiker Plants 400 80.8

Shrews Peter‟s musk Shrew, Amani

Musk shrew, Uluguru Musk

Shrew, Usambara Musk Shrew, Tanzania Mouse Shrew and

Uluguru Forest Shrew

Mammals

5

1.01

Fruit-eating bats Pemba flying fox Birds 5 10.1

Insect-eating bats Tanzania Woolly bat, Dar-es-Salaam Pipistreslle

Reptiles 20 4.04

Primates Sanje Crested Mangabey

(endemic subspecies), Uhehe

(Gordon‟s Bay) Colobus,

Zanzibar Colobus

Frogs

5

1.01

Rodents Mt. Kilimanjaro Mole Rat,

Swynnerton‟s Bush Squirrel

Butterflies

Millipedes

40

20

8.08

4.04

Source: Burgess and Muir, 1994

1.2 Protection Status Total area for both the NPs and the GRs is 24,326,750 ha. No permanent human

settlements are allowed in PAs especially in NPs and GRs. Despite this condition some

10% of human settlements are allowed in PAs where wildlife co-exist with human beings

for instance in the NCA and GCAs. There are 815 FRs which amount to about 15 million

ha (about 45% of forest estate) legally protected under the forest laws, but internationally

they are not categorized as protected areas. However, efforts are underway to rectify this

shortfall so that the FRs are coded according to the IUCN criterion and eventually be

recognized as PAs. Over 100 forest reserves that are within the Eastern Arc Mountains

area have been coded. The intention is to code all the forest reserves on the mainland in

order to conform to IUCN categories of protected areas and therefore enable Tanzania‟s

FRs to appear on the world map of protected areas. This will definitely increase the area

of PAs to about 38% when the NPs, GRs, NCA, and FRs are combined and recognized as

one category of protected areas.

Management of PAs in Tanzania is entrusted in three different institutions namely the

Wildlife Division in the Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism (MNRT), conserving

and managing the GRs, GCAs and the Wildlife Management Areas (WMAs); the

Tanzania National Parks Authority (TANAPA) that is responsible for managing all the

current 14 NPs and the Ngorongoro Conservation Area Authority (NCAA) entrusted to

conserve and manage wildlife resources within the NCA. The role of NCAA is

challenging as it caters for a conservation area that deals with multiple uses whereby

human activities are integrated with conservation. This means that pastoralism; wildlife

protection and tourism activities are simultaneously undertaken and managed for the

benefits of both the people living within the area, wildlife and the nation as a whole. In

addition other institutions (Table 2.10) are involved in provision of services that are

deemed essential for attaining effective conservation and management of wildlife

resources through research, training, wildlife resources assessment, processing of trophies

and law enforcement.

56

Table 2.10: Wildlife Protection and Management Institutions in Tanzania

NO NAME OF INSTITUTION RESPONSILITY

1 Wildlife Division (i) Management of national project game reserves;

(ii) Protection of wildlife in controlled and open areas;

(iii) Government representation in all wildlife conservation

issues at home and abroad;

(iv) Provision of technical assistance in management of

game reserves under the regional administration.

2 Tanzania National Parks (TANAPA) Management of all national parks in the country.

3 Ngorongoro Conservation Area

Authority (NCAA)

Management of Ngorongoro Conservation Area.

4 Regional Secretariat and District

Council Authorities

Management of all game reserves other than national

projects.

5 Serengeti Research Institute Conducting and coordinating wildlife research in the

country.

6 Mweka Wildlife College (i) Training of wildlife managers and assistants;

(ii) Wildlife research

7 Pasiansi Wildlife Institute Training Game Scouts and Rangers

8 Anti-poaching Unit Law enforcement operations

9 Tanzania Wildlife Corporation (i) Tourist Hunting

(ii) Processing of Trophies

10 Malihai Club (i) Conducting conservation education programmes

mainly for young people,

(ii) Funding of wildlife conservation project

11 Faculty of Forestry and Nature

Conservation (SUA)

Training wildlife managers at degree level

12 Institute of Resources Assessment

(IRA) of University of Dar-es-Salaam

Wildlife resources assessment

1.3 Utilization and Conservation Utilization of wildlife resources in Tanzania depends on the demand for the goods and

services that are generated as a result of conservation efforts and basing on consumptive

and non-consumptive values. Basically consumptive uses hinge on harvesting of game

for meat or trophies. This is popular activity for professional hunters or tourist hunting.

The Wildlife Division allocates hunting blocks in game reserves and game controlled

areas to reputable professional hunters. The NPs are designated protected areas that are

strictly meant for game conservation and protection of nature. No consumptive uses are

allowed in NPs except tourism activities that are based on non-consumptive values like

game viewing or photographic tourism. Additional uses of PAs include research and

educational activities where both local and global communities are the beneficiaries.

Tanzania is benefiting from her wildlife resources through both consumptive and non-

consumptive uses. A substantial amount of foreign currencies is obtained annually

through wildlife-based conventional tourism although cultural and ecological tourism

activities are progressively increasing. Generally the NPs and GRs are the main habitats

providing refuge grounds for sustaining large population of game those are essential

resources for tourism. The need to promote tourism in Tanzania cannot be

overemphasized as the potential for earning substantial income and enable Tanzania to

respond well to poverty eradication initiatives is quite high.

57

According to “KAKUONA” No. 27 of 2002, tourists coming to Tanzania from world

over have increased by, on average annual rate of 12%; from 326,188 (1996) to 525,122

(2001). It is expected that by 2010 Tanzania will register over 1 million visitors.

Furthermore, international tourism receipts grew from USD 322.47 million in 1996 to

USD 739 million in 2001, which indicates an annual growth of about 19% over the last 5

years. Again tourism receipts have accounted for, on average, 43% of all goods and

services over the same period. The sector also provided direct and indirect employment to

about 160,000 people. It is therefore evident that tourism is among the major economic

sectors in Tanzania.

Conservation of wildlife resources and its utilization is great challenge to

conservationists. In most cases PAs are in the rural areas surrounded by local

communities. Experiences show that perception of the majority of the people in the

villages is that wildlife resources in the country should benefit the rural poor. That means

conservation and management of wildlife should be done in a way that will greatly

benefit local people. Those communities adjacent to PAs attach more value to the wildlife

than those local communities at a distant and values differ from species to species. For

instance, larges sized herbivores are more valued than those of small sized. In villages

hunting animals for meat and rarely for trophies, is undertaken illegally (poaching) and

mostly for subsistence and to some limited extent for sale (source of income). Wildlife as

a source of food (meat) is the most important benefit to local communities compared to

income or existence value and ritual/cultural values. Illegal hunting or poaching is the

result of increasing demand for meat coupled with persistent and widespread poverty

among the local communities adjacent to PAs. Poaching is one of the threats facing

effective wildlife management. For instance, a total of 773 poachers were arrested for the

last 10 years (about 77 poachers‟ year-1

) in the Udzungwa NP alone. Also some 5,000-

wire snares set by poachers to trap animals were uncovered and removed from the park

during the same period (some 500 wire snares year-1

). This demonstrates that poaching in

PAs is a serious problem though the Government is trying hard to contain it.

PART V: RANGELANDS

1.0 Range lands and Carrying capacity Tanzania possess about 60 mill hectares of rangelands which is ideal for livestock

grazing with carrying capacity potential of 20 mill Livestock Units (Table 2.11). Out of

the 4,901, 837 smallholder households in Tanzania 174,745 776 keep livestock. In

additional to that 580 large scale farmers keep livestock (URT, 2006). The number of

cattle increased to 18.5 million from 17.1 million in 2004, goats increased from 12.5

million in 2004 to 13.1 million in 2005. However 63 percent of these farmers are not

fully dependant on livestock as they also grow crops. In relation to population cattle are

the most important type of livestock, followed by goats. Sheep and pig are much less

important. However, due to tsetse infestation, which is estimated to occupy 40% of the

total land, the full potential has not been fully realized.

58

Five main rangelands types have been identified according to ecological zones as

follows:-

1. Semi-arid to sub-humid rangelands:

These cover nearly 30% of the grazing areas and are mainly found in the Central plains of

the country and include the typically pastoral systems of Arusha, Dodoma, Shinyanga

and Singida. About 43.3% of the national cattle herd is found here at a density of less

than three hectares per head. The area receives between 200 and 600 mm of rainfall per

year. Seasonality of production, drought and overgrazing are the major problems.

2. Humid Plateau lands:

These lands represent nearly 30% of the grazing land areas and support nearly 50% of the

cattle herd. The agro-pastoral areas of Mwanza, Mara and Mbeya typify them.

3. Humid lowlands:

These represents 20% of the grazing areas, but are grossly under utilized and only 2% of

the herd is found here. The regions covering this type and offering the most potential are

Mtwara and Lindi.

4. Very Humid Highlands:

These cover 9% of total area and support 5% of the cattle. They are typical of parts of

Kilimanjaro, Mbeya, Ruvuma and Kagera and most of the exotic and crossbred cattle are

found there.

5. Very Humid Lowlands:

This type covers a limited area of about 1%, and is restricted to coast regions.

It includes moorland and grassland or barren land and is most suitable as water

catchments. However, livestock production, especially crossbreed is of increasing

importance.

59

Table 2.11: Some climatic and carrying capacity characteristics of the Rangeland Vegetation regions

60

Source: Rangelands Resource in Eastern Africa

KEY: 1. Grass height: Short = <25 cm, Mid=<150 cm, Tall = 150 – 300 cm and Giant = >300 cm

2. Climate: H = Humid, SH = Sub - Humud, SA = Semi – Arid, A = Arid, HA = Hyper Arid.

3. Mean annual rainfall: VH = very high = >1500 mm/year, H = High = 1000 – 1500 mm/year, M= medium = 500 – 1000 mm/year, L = LOW = 250 – 500 mm/year, vl = very low = <250

mm/year, 4. Dry season length = Average number of dry months per year

5. Potential estimated carrying livestock capacity = Ha/Tropical livestock unit = 250 kg / TLU

1.1 Livestock resources Livestock production is one of the major agricultural activities in Tanzania. The sub

sector contributes to national food supply, converts rangelands resources into products

suitable for human consumption and is a source of cash incomes and an inflation – free

store of value. The sector contributed abour 4.1 percent of the GDP in 2004. Out of the

sector‟s contribution to GDP, about 40 percent originates from beef production, 30

percent from Milk production and another 30 percent from poultry and small stock

production.

Livestock production originates from a large resource base composed of the different

livestock species, breeds and types whose ownership and distribution differ from region

to region. Three livestock production systems are commonly distinguished in the

61

rangeland areas; commercial ranching, pastoralism and agro-pastoralism. Commercial

ranching accounts for about 2 percent of the total cattle herd. It is practised mainly by

National Ranching Company (NARCO), now in the process of being privatised. National

ranching company is state owned established in the 1970s with the support from

IDA/world Bank and NARCO is responsible for managing all ranches in the country.

The company operates a total of 15 ranches with a land holding of 623,000 ha and stock

holding capacity of 155,300 head. Private Commercial ranching exists in different

regions of the country with small stock numbers. Pastoralism is concentrated in the

northern plains and is practised in traditional grazing areas where climatic and soil

conditions do not favour crop production. The main roles of livestock in this system are

subsistence, store of wealth and source of cash incomes.

Agro-pastoralism, comprising a range of combination of crop cultivation with livestock

keeping is thriving, as livestock sector number have continued to increase at a rate of

more than 2 per cent per annum. The government is adopting a strategy for range

development by formal recognition of associations and organizations of livestock keepers

through active collaboration between the government and the pastoral organisations.

Action is taken to ensure that livestock keepers obtain formal legal recognition of

traditional grazing rights as envisaged in the new Land Act.

The livestock numbers have been increasing steadily (ranking third in Africa) in recent

decades at roughly the same rate as the human population growth. Out of 3.7 million

households in the country, 3 percent are pastoralists and 7 percent are agro-pastoralists.

The livestock sub-sector generates over one-quarter of agricultural GDP. Cattle are

dominant species, they account for about 75 percent of total livestock production, there

are sheep and goats, poultry, and the pigs. Approximately 99 percent of livestock sub-

sector belongs to traditional (small) owners, with big ranches and dairy farms constituting

the remaining 1 percent.

1.2.2 Livestock feed resources In Tanzania livestock feed resources can be grouped into four main categories, namely,

natural grasslands, established pastures, cereals and root crops, and agricultural by-

products. The following account attempts to describe them and assess their potential.

Pastures:

Seasonal fluctuations of pastures during wet and dry seasons necessitate migration of

pastoralists from one area to another in search of pasture and water resulting into

conflicts with other land users. In addition a lot of pasture and fodder biomass is lost

every year through trampling and uncontrolled burning of grazing lands. The situation is

being addressed through better land use policies, proper grazing management plans,

formation of livestock keepers associations, enacting and enforcing by laws and

regulations pertaining to range resource management and utilization, sensitization on

fodder harvesting and conservation, utilization of crop residues and promotion of in situ

fodder conservation methods locally known as “ngitiris” in the West, “alalili” in the

North and milaaga in central parts of the country. For a long time, the promotion of

fodder production has been implemented by availing quality pasture seeds to livestock

keepers from Government farms. Currently, private farmers are also a major source of the

same. The list of pasture farms in the country are as shown below.

62

Natural Grasslands: Natural grasslands are the most important feed resources for

ruminant livestock in Tanzania. It has been estimated that the country has 451,903 square

kilometres (or 51% of the total land-area) of natural pastures which support over 90% of

the total ruminant livestock population (UNDP/FAO 1967; Ministry of Agriculture

1982a). These areas, which correspond to ecological-climatic zones IV and V of Pratt,

Greenway and Gwynne (1966), are represented by grazing lands on the low eastern

plateau between the coastal plains and the eastern rift valley, and on the central plateau.

They are characterized by low and seasonal rainfall (usually 760 mm or less annually)

and high evapotranspiration potential (over 1,800 mm). The vegetation is characterized

by the dominance over most areas of Themeda and Hyparrhenia grass species and the

conspicuously meagre content of herbaceous forage legumes (Thomas 1973).

Considering both their size and their role as the source of feed for most of the country's

ruminant livestock population, national grasslands are, nevertheless, an important

resource in Tanzania. Their improvement through better management and utilization,

bush and tsetse control, increasing the content of forage legumes (including suitable

browse species), and provision of adequate water supplies could, by themselves,

considerably raise the production efficiency of ruminant livestock in the country.

Planted Pastures: There is a lack of information on the area of planted pastures in the

country, but it comprises a very small proportion of the total land area under cultivation.

These pastures are found on dairy farms and units mainly in areas of high crop-

production potential. Table 2 shows the various types of planted pastures and the plant

species grown. Overall, they are much more productive than natural grasslands and form

the basis of the nontraditional dairy industry in the country.

A major constraint to the development of planted pastures is the shortage of pasture seed.

There is no proper pasture-seed production programme and consequently the country has

had to rely on imported seed (Lwoga 1979). Another constraint has been the failure to

bring pasture research results to the point of application, even though much research on

pasture has been conducted in Tanzania (Lwoga 1979).

1.3 Land suitability and land management 1.3.1 Pastoralism

Purely pastoral systems are the principal means of livelihood in arid and semi-arid areas

where climatic and soil conditions do not favour sufficient food production. The Maasai

tribe forms the core of this semi-nomadic system in Tanzania. The main problems of

pastoralist systems are undocumented and therefore unrecognised tenure or user rights

and a lack of public understanding about this land use and the need to protect it.

Extensive grazing by the pastoralists is not perceived as a land use to which secure user

rights can be claimed. The land on which it is practiced is therefore treated as unoccupied

land that can be claimed by more permanent forms of land use. This problem has become

acute, particularly in the last few years due to an increase in instances of outright

grabbing of pastoral lands for private ranches as well as encroachment of farm areas into

previously marginal grazing areas. Furthermore, opportunity cropping accompanied by

soil mining in the most fertile pastoral areas and a significant reduction in the size of

pastoral areas available for grazing and watering adds to the problems in this area.

63

PART VI: HISTORICAL AND CULTURAL HERITAGE:

1.0 Cultural Heritage

Cultural heritage represents the identity of a community and its environment. Cultural

heritage can include monuments or other buildings that represent important events or eras

in local or national history, traditional lifestyles, such as the performing arts and

handicrafts, and even the everyday activities of local people as they farm, fish or prepare

food. Tourists are becoming increasingly interested in learning about the people that live

in and around tourist destinations in addition to more traditional tourist activities, such as

game viewing and sun bathing. This cultural heritage can be developed into tourist

attractions, which, in turn, can provide income- generating opportunities for people living

along the coast. The most prominent of the various potential cultural heritage attractions

are the physical buildings and monuments that represent the history of place. The Swahili

coast of Tanzania contains some world-class cultural sites that can be developed into

stand-alone tourist attractions in time. In particular, the ruins at Kilwa Kisiwani and

Songo Mnara, designated as UNESCO World Heritage Sites, have unlimited potential to

attract tourists. The major cultural heritage sites, including museums, and in 2005, a total

of 79,285 tourist visited antiquity attractions compared to 65,544 tourists in 2004,

whereby revenue of Tshs 208.2 million was collected compared to 187.1 million in 2004.

Recent visitation data are presented in the table below:

Table 2.12: Visitation at Selected Cultural Heritage Sites 1996- 2000

Site

2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

Resident

Non-resident

Resident

Non-resident

Resident

Non-resident

Resident

Non-resident

Resident

Non-resident

Kaole Ruins 3,08

9 119 6,684 342 6,437 442 2,003 155 3,674 153

Bagamoyo town

1,26

8 108 2630 192 6969 562 8903 759 -- -

Magomeni -310 -- 537- -- -853 8- 684- -- 1039 -

Kilwa Kisiwani

301 - 444 - 548 791 546 - - -

Kolo- Kondoa 283 85 286 123 120 122 105 148 334 227

Amboni Caves

- - - - 5281 391 6004 453 5110 391

Tongoni - - - - - - - - 70 28

64

Site

2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

Resident

Non-resident

Resident

Non-resident

Resident

Non-resident

Resident

Non-resident

Resident

Non-resident

Ruins

Kwihara –Tabora

154 99 246 73 172 60 180 108 - -

Kalenga - 443 42 637 94 351 158 548 122 571 64

Olduvai Gorge

440 42365 463 37638 1007 39835 2616 50619 3418 32227

Ujiji -Kigoma

1006 943 554 521 - - 905 478 - -

Isimila 633 570 933 457 849 588 1799 681 993 890

Source: Antiquities Department and National Museums, MNRT

The trend over the past five years is promising; however, these numbers are quite low in

relation to the potential of some of the sites. Other cultural attractions, such as local

taraab music performances, artisanal fishing and agriculture and traditional handicraft

production, exist but are not systematically managed or promoted so it is difficult to

assess how many tourists are enjoying these types of experiences. However, in at least

one coastal town, Pangani, a cultural tourism program has been developed to promote

local, village-based tourism in that area (see current initiatives section for more details).

This successful initiative could be replicated in other coastal areas to promote local

culture.

It is important to note, however, that the development of traditional performing arts and

culture into tourist attractions may have some impacts on the local culture itself. For

example, a local taraab group could begin performing for tourists on a regular basis, so

much that the original audience of the local community begins to feel that they are not as

important to the group as the fee-paying tourists. Conflicts could then emerge and what

was once a community event for the community has now changed into a group

performance for foreign tourists. These types of cultural changes are inevitable when

people of different backgrounds come together as they do in tourism. The degree of

acceptable change in local values and culture can only be determined by the local people

themselves. Education and awareness for both the local people and the tourists can help

to enable the local community to maintain a sense of control over the changes in their

unique culture and history.

65

In general, the cultural heritage sites along the coast are in poor condition and therefore

are not currently set up to handle tourists. Most sites under the supervision of the

Antiquities Department are supervised by one staff person; however, the necessary

infrastructure and information that tourism demands is not in place. As a result, much

work on the conservation and rehabilitation needs to be done, especially since these

important sites are under numerous threats from both human activities and natural

processes.

The deterioration and decay of various sites are due to the following:

• uncontrolled economic development - lack of Environmental Impact

Assessment that emphasizes cultural heritage assessment;

• Vegetation and plant growth;

• Rain water penetration and infiltration;

• Animals rubbing and jumping on ruins;

• Visitors walking on ruins;

• Natural degradation and structural failures

• Inadequate trained personnel to manage sites; and

• Lack of training institutions for conservation and management of cultural

heritage

The Department of Antiquities, MNRT, is the government agency that is responsible for

conserving and managing cultural heritage sites in the country. This institution was

formed in 1964 under the Antiquities Act of the same year (and subsequent amendments

made in 1979). For many years, the Antiquities Department has emphasized the

conservation of heritage sites with very little concern with tourism. This preservation-for-

the-sake-of-preservation approach effectively forced the Department to rely solely on its

own meager budget to maintain all the sites in the country. As a result, the majority of

sites were not conserved and managed very well.

Quite recently, the Government of Tanzania (GoT) has expanded its view of cultural

heritage and determined that these sites can also serve as important tourist attractions,

which could contribute much-needed financial revenue to conservation efforts. As a

result, the Department of Antiquities was recently transferred from the Ministry of

Education and Culture to the Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism. This move has

allowed both the Tourism Division and the Antiquities Department to benefit from closer

contact and a shared agenda. In addition, this new approach has also encouraged

cooperation between the GoT and other local and international institutions in carrying out

conservation and management projects in different parts of the country, particularly along

the coast. Major conservation projects include Kilwa Kisiwani and Songo Mnara

Conservation Project (joint effort of GoT, French and Japanese governments, with

UNESCO); Conservation of Mikindani Old Building (Trade Aid NGO with support from

GoT); preparation of a Conservation Master Plan for Bagamoyo historic town and the

66

rehabilitation of the old buildings in Bagamoyo (Swedish and Tanzanian governments);

and the conservation of Kaole Ruins (Urban Origin program under SAREC).

The government has introduced a policy encouraging community participation in the

conservation of cultural heritage. Under the policy, it is possible for individuals,

institutions or organizations to receive „wardenship‟ to manage the cultural sites under

the supervision and guidance of the Antiquities Department.

This type of public/private/local community partnership needs to be encouraged as many

potential attractions are in urgent need of rehabilitation, management and promotion.

Guidelines or standards for permitted and prohibited activities in and around cultural

heritage sites could be developed by the Antiquities Department, but the actual day-to-

day operation could be carried out by private operators or even the local communities or

governments.

The natural and cultural attractions along the coast present many opportunities and

challenges for sustainable tourism development. The potential for many areas to develop

into world-class tourism destinations is quite high. Many of the attractions, however,

need a great deal of work in terms of rehabilitation, management and promotion.

Since different attractions are under the supervision of many different government

agencies, it is important to take a comprehensive approach that creates and sustains

management constituencies. These management constituencies would be led by the

supervising agency, which would establish standards for how the attractions can be used.

67

All relevant stakeholders, including the local population, local and national governments,

and the private sector should be included in this participatory management regime and

share in the cests and benefits.

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CHAPTER 3: AQUATIC RESOURCES

PART 1: FRESH WATER RESOURCES

1.0 An Overview of Existing Water Uses The country's main water uses are domestic, industrial, irrigation, transportation,

agriculture, fisheries and hydroelectric power generation. The population of the country

is 33.6 million people as per National Census 2002, out of which, about 75% live in rural

areas and 25% in urban centres.

Currently irrigated agriculture covers about 150,000 hectares of which about 120,000 ha

or 80% are under traditional irrigation schemes. The remaining areas are large centrally

managed irrigation schemes owned by public and private institutions and individuals.

With regards to electric power supply in the country, about 90% is hydroelectric

generated power supply. Currently the generation is from the Great Ruaha and Pangani

rivers only. The sector has suffered due drought and the reservoir do no have water

1.2 Inter-Sectoral Considerations on Water Use Catchment degradation resulting from indiscriminate tree cutting for fuel and poor

agricultural practices have caused severe land degradation at many places resulting into

increased incidence of flooding in the lowland areas, sedimentation and reduced dry

season flows.

The ever-increasing population places an increasing demand on water for domestic, food

production, energy and other basic social and economic needs. Experience shows that

fragmented planning and management, lack of sectoral integrated approaches to

development are the main causes of conflicts in water use. These call for the need for

managing the available water resources in a comprehensive manner, which takes into

consideration integrated plans in cross-sectoral uses of water, land use, water quality, and

the environment including public health considerations on a basin wide basis.

2.0 Water Resources Management Water demand for various activities is continuously increasing, while the availability of

the resources is rather limited. For sustainable use of the resource, a Water Resources

Management Strategy for the country is being developed, to guide both the medium and

long term development and management plans. The process of strategy formulation is

meant to build an element of environmental sustainability and therefore involving and

encouraging cooperation among different relevant Ministries/Institutions, to attain this

objective.

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2.1 Water Resources Assessment The area framework adapted for the water resources assessment is the natural river basin

boundaries, and these are the boundaries of the area which is being drained by a

particular river system. Hydrologically river basins offer the best opportunity as an

appropriate planning unit. To this effect and in accordance with the Water Utilization and

Pollution Control Act No. 42 of 1974, and its Amendments of Act No. 10 of 1981 the

country is divided into nine Drainage River Basins (Table 3.1).

Table 3.1: River Basins

S/N River Basin Key Management Challenges

1 Pangani High population density; water shortages; water conflicts between

supply for hydropower generation and agricultural production;

resource degradation.

2 Rufiji High population density in the Ruaha Basin; water shortages; water

conflicts between supply for hydropower generation, agricultural

production, livestock needs, floods and environmental uses.

3 Wami/Ruvu Increased demand and acute water shortages for Dar es Salaam, low

flows in Upper Ruvu have affected reliability, unregulated river

source; vulnerable to drought and floods; catchment degradation,

inadequate hydrometric networks and poor baseline information.

4 Lake

Nyasa/

Songwe

River

Unstable Songwe River course leading to unstable international

border with Malawi; fisheries management in Lake Nyasa,

inadequate hydrometric networks and poor baseline information

5 Lake

Victoria

Water pollution; fisheries management; wetlands and catchment

degradation; and water hyacinth proliferation; local supply

shortages, inadequate hydrometric networks and poor baseline

information.

6 Lake

Tanganyika

Water pollution; catchment degradation; fisheries management,


7 Internal

Drainage

Frequent droughts, acute water shortages, catchment degradation,


8 Lake

Rukwa

Domestic water supply shortages, inadequate hydrometric networks

and poor baseline information.

9 Southern

Coast/

Ruvuma

Floods, land degradation, landslides, inadequate hydrometric

networks and poor baseline information.

Source: World Bank/DANIDA/ Ministry of Water, 1995.

All these basins have been established and planned based on the assessment of the scale

of the problem. What remains now is for the ministry to strengthen these basins so that

they operate as expected.

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3.0 Fresh water resources availability 3.1 Surface Water Resources About 50% of the surface runoff flows directly into the Indian Ocean, from the major

river systems of Pangani, Wami, Ruvu, Rufiji, Mbwemkuru, Matandu and Ruvuma. The

Rufiji contributes 50% of this. The remaining 50% is divided into surface water draining

northward into Lake Victoria, westward into Lake Tanganyika, southward into Lake

Nyasa and finally into the Zambezi and then into a number of drainage basins which have

no outlet to the sea. The principal of these are the Lake Rukwa drainage basin, the Bubu

complex, Lake Eyasi and Lake Manyara. The Lake Nyasa, Lake Victoria and Lake

Tanganyika basins drain into international water bodies.

Considerable water resources exist in the country's lakes, namely Lakes Victoria, Nyasa,

Rukwa, Eyasi and Natron. These lakes support diverse ecological communities that are

quite unique. Except for Lake Victoria, the usefulness of lake waters for water supply and

irrigation is limited.

3.2 Water Resources Monitoring For an effective assessment, planning and management of the water resources as well as

for effectively monitoring, instituting preparedness, response and remedial action against

adverse effects of environmental degradation such as pollution of water bodies, drought

and decertification and floods; meteorological and hydrological information is needed.

An efficient and effective network of water monitoring stations and climate observation

stations is required to provide such information. The assessment of the state of

hydrological network report by the World Bank/UNDP (1990) Sub-Saharan Africa is

correct and still valid. The network of river flow monitoring stations is now near collapse

state.

The first priority is the rehabilitation, rationalization and modernization of the basic

network of hydrometric and climatic stations. This should also include facilities to

process and analyze the data.

Sediment Transport in Rivers

The sediment transport characteristics of a stream are important for reservoir planning

and design. Concentration of sediment in the rivers is also an important water quality

parameter, and is required in the design of canals and their headworks. It also indicates

the magnitude of catchment soil erosion, which is influenced primarily by soil drainage

characteristics, cultivation practices, livestock population density and forest management.

In general proper land use management practices can reduce soil erosion drastically. This

is an issue which has to receive appropriate attention now than ever before.

There is a need to formulate and implement a programme to study soil erosion

mechanisms and the resulting sediment discharges and sedimentation of reservoirs and

wetlands. A sedimentation survey of existing reservoirs in the country will provide data

needed in planning and designing of new dams.

71

3.3 Ground water resources Groundwater potential varies from one locality to another and so does its development.

Over a wide part of the country groundwater development have concentrated on small

scale mainly shallow groundwater for domestic purposes. The country as whole has a

good potential of ground water resources. The Inland drainage basin is explored and

taped more for the use of domestic and industrial purposes. It is only in few localities in

Dodoma region, where groundwater is used for irrigation purposes.

In assessing groundwater availability in the basins, Pangani basin seems to be quite

potential and adequate supplies can be obtained for both domestic, industrial and

irrigation purposes. Adequate supplies can be extracted for Moshi, Arusha and Tanga city

water supplies. Utilization of groundwater for irrigation is possible in Sanya plains and

Kahe plains. At present 88% of groundwater extracted in Pangani basin is used for

irrigation purposes, 4% for Industrial use and 8% for domestic use. Sanya plains and

Kahe are the areas being irrigated using groundwater.

Ground Water Recharge: Groundwater recharge is mainly from rainfall. In Pangani

basin parasitic formations on the slopes of mountain Kilimanjaro plays a major role in the

recharge of plains as they are quite porous. Other areas of recharge are the fault zone in

Same near Usambara Mountains and at contact zones of the Usagaran belt and the

Karoo/volcanic areas. The recharge mechanism in Makutopora in the Wami/Ruvu basin

is still under study but it has been established that the recharge is through the major fault

lines which surround the basin. The established recharge rate is about 10 to 12 million

cubic meters per year.

4.0 Water resources utilization Major reforms are underway in the water supply and sanitation sectors, including

decentralisation, full cost recovery and an increased role for the private sector are being

taken care of. A strategy for managing water resources using river/lake basins as a unit of

planning and managing water resources is under implementation in all the nine basins

4.1 General Use and Demand Major uses of water in the country are domestic, hydropower production and irrigation.

Water demand varies from one place to another. A large part of the total water demand is

for domestic use and it is higher in highly populated cities and municipalities than in

small towns and rural areas. However, the demand is estimated from the population by

multiplying it with the per capita water use per day which is 45 litres per day for rural

areas.

(i) Groundwater Uses

Groundwater uses have been confined mainly for domestic purposes. In most of

the river basins except for Pangani and Inland drainage, groundwater mainly from

shallow aquifers is the source of water supplies to the rural community. Shallow

groundwater is extracted by means of hand pumps. Deep groundwater is also

used for supply in towns and in some of the rural areas. The inland drainage

basin areas are almost entirely dependent on groundwater for both domestic and

industrial use. In few areas of Dodoma Region, irrigation by utilizing

72

groundwater is being practiced on a small scale. In Pangani basin, groundwater is

used for domestic, industrial and irrigation purposes. More than 80% of water

extracted is used for irrigation in this basin.

(ii) Irrigation Water Use

The main objective of the Government's agricultural policy is the promotion of

self sufficiency and security of food production. Irrigation is seen as a protection

against drought, and a means of establishing and increasing smallholder

production. It is estimated that about five million hectares of land in Tanzania is

under cultivation. Irrigated agriculture however, covers only about 150,000

hectares of which about 120,000 hectares or 80% of the current irrigation takes

place on existing traditional irrigation schemes. The remaining area of about

30,000 hectares covers the centrally managed schemes including large parastatal

farms, private and public institution owned farms and modern smallholder

schemes. Most of the traditional irrigation activities are found in Pangani, Rufiji,

Wami-Ruvu Basins and in drier parts of Tanzania, notably in the Bubu, Wembere,

and Duma/Simiyu Valleys where irrigation is mainly through water harvesting

techniques. Most of the irrigated schemes in Tanzania are operating at an overall

efficiency of between 15% to 20%. Low water use efficiencies are caused by poor

irrigation water facilities and management skills.

(iii) Hydroelectric Power Generation The energy policy emphasizes the use of indigenous energy sources for the

country energy requirements. These sources include Hydropower, solar,

renewable bio-energy, coal and gas. While gas and coal exist in abundance in the

country, hydropower development has been given a high priority. Today about 85

- 90% of electric energy is from hydropower plants at Hale (installed 21MW),

Pangani Falls (17.5MW) on river Pangani, Kidatu (200MW) and Mtera (80MW)

on the Great Ruaha. However hydropower generation and irrigated agriculture in

these basins are in direct conflict due to the fact that all the hydropower

generating plants are situated at the most downstream of basins. The problem of

water conflicts, are also caused by lack of integrated and sound water resources

planning. Water allocation mechanisms have been on ad hoc basis and arbitrary.

(iv) Freshwater Fisheries

It is estimated that freshwater bodies cover about 58,000 km2. Lake Victoria,

Tanganyika, and Nyasa constitute the large area of freshwater with substantial

amount of fish production. Fish production from freshwater is estimated at

320,566 metric tones, as opposed to marine waters which is about 54,968 metric

tones (Table 3.2). In 2005, earning from fish and fish products exports (both

marine and freshwater) were US $ 141,597,362.2 whereas earnings from domestic

fish market (both marine and freshwater) were Tshs. 9,845,961,126 (URT, 2005).

Much of the earnings came from freshwater fish production.

73

Table 3.2: Freshwater Fish Production from 1995 to 2005

Year Number of Fisherman Fish Production

(M. Tonnes)

1995 61,799 207,139

1996 61,799 262,572

1997 61,799 306,750

1998 58,047 300,000

1999 58,047 260,000

2000 81,704 271,000

2001 101,195 283,354

2002 105,499 273,856

2003 105,499 301,855

2004 103,443 312,040

2005 103,443 320,566

Source: Fisheries Division Statistics - 2005

Lake Victoria contains the world‟s largest freshwater fishery with production estimated at

400,000 to 500,000 metric tones. Tanzania harvest around 40% of the total fish

production. The lake is also ecologically sensitive and important biodiversity zone

providing habitat for 350 endemic species of fish. Specific problems facing the lake were

identifies as:-

i. Exploitative and unsustainable use of fishery resources leading to changes

in fish biomass;

ii. Wetland encroachment and degradation and reduction in biodiversity,

including endemic fish species;

iii. Discharge of untreated industrial and municipal solid and liquid wastes

leading to deterioration of water quality;

iv. Discharge of untreated sewage into the lake leading to nutrient increases

and resultant phytoplankton bloom and oxygen depletion;

v. Infestation by weed and exotic species such as water hyacinth and nile

perch;

vi. Poor sanitation conditions in the lake side communities leading to human

health, environmental and thus economic impacts;

vii. Deforestation, overgrazing and increased runoff of water and eroded

topsoil together with organic matter and nutrients contributing to algal

growth and eutrophication of the lake; and

viii. Lake/water health problems such as bilharzia, malaria and intestinal

diseases.

To address problems facing the lake, Lake Victoria Environmental Project was prepared

and implemented from 1994 to 2006. This project made significant improvement in the

knowledge base and environmental management of the lake basin and its resources

including:-

i. Establishment of some 400 Beach Management Units to assist with

enforcement of fishing regulations and collection of data on fish catch;

74

ii. An estimated 80 to 90% reduction in surface coverage of water hyacinth in

the lake;

iii. Undertaking whole lake fishing pressure and water quality/limnology

surveys;

iv. Implementation of highly successful pilot projects involving soil

conservation, catchment afforestation, wetlands management, micro-

projects, and water quality components;

v. Improving beach sanitation; and

vi. Regaining export certification of fish from the lake to be shipped to

Europe markets.

Lake Tanganyika is outstanding for its extraordinary north-south extension (670 km) and

depth of about 1,470 m. Its very ancient origin, and a long period of isolation resulted in

the evolution of a great number of indigenous organisms, including coloured cichlid

fishes, well-known gastropods with the appearance of marine snails. Of the 214 species

of native fishes in the lake, 176 are endemic, the number of endemic genera amounts to

30 in cichlids and 8 in non-cichlid fishes.

Of many environmental threats facing Lake Tanganyika, the most immediate are

excessive loads of sediments and nutrients caused by erosion in the water shade. The

lake‟s basin is undergoing deforestation in an alarming rate, rapid erosion as a

consequence of this deforestation is resulting in the discharge of excessive load of

nutrients and sediment into normally clear-water littoral and sub-littoral environments.

Industrial and urban pollution and intensive fishing using inappropriate methods are also

imposing threat to the lake environment and its biodiversity.

Lake Nyasa possesses a number of features that make it unique among the lake of the

world. As one of the East African rift valley lakes, it is the ninth largest in the world and

the third largest in Africa. The most well known feature is the species-rich assemblage of

fishes whose diversity surpasses that of any other freshwater fish community in the

world. There is about 700 species belonging to the cichlid family of which all but five

are endemic to the lake. This unique biodiversity of the lake forms the basis for

economic survival and livelihoods of communities living on the lakeshore, while

contributing nutritionally and economically to the communities of the lake catchment

areas.

Development pressures on the lake ecosystem are increasing because population growth

and the multi-purpose role of the lake that is becoming increasingly important even as its

capacity to cope being threatened. Near-shore resources are heavily exploited and habitat

destruction around the lake and land based pollution represent key challenges for

management of the lake.

Lake Jipe is situated south-east of Mt. Kilimanjaro in the Coast Province of Kenya and in

the Kilimanjaro Region of Tanzania. The open area of the lake water area is

approximately 10 km long and 3 km wide. Lake Jipe has an area of about 4047 ha and an

average depth of 2 metres. The lake and its wetlands are of international importance as a

75

home to a diverse fauna (including Palaearctic migrant‟s birds, intra-African migrants

and large mammals) and flora as well as providing support to many people on both sides

of Kenya and Tanzania. Lake Jipe is also well known for its waterbirds and is one of the

few places in this part of Eastern Africa where the Lasser Jacaca and the Purple Gallinule

are commom and where the Madagascar Squacco Horon, Balck Heron, African Darter

and African Skimmers are often seen. Many Palaearctic migrant waders visit these

wetlands, as do inter-African migrant water birds. The lake shares the endemic tilapia

Oreochromis jipe with the Pangani river system and has and has significant fishery based

upon this species as a barbell fish and the sardines Rastrineobola argentea.

Hippopotamus are present in Lake Jipe and Waterbuck occur on its margins.

Lake Jipe is beset with management with management problems that include runoff,

increased siltation, decreasing water quality, a shrinking fishery and advancing wetland

plants that threaten the existence of the open waters.

There are other freshwater bodies which contribute to freshwater fish production such as

Lake Rukwa, Lake Manyara, Lake Chala, Mtera dam, and Nyumba ya Mungu Dam.

However, information on the status of biodiversity in these water bodies is scanty.

5.0 Water quality and pollution 5.1 Surface Water Quality The physical, chemical and bacteriological quality of water in the water sources in the

country changes with time, area of the country, type of water source and season of the

year.

(i) Physical Quality

The physical quality of the water from many surface water sources is greatly

affected by colour and turbidity especially during the rainy seasons. In the

semiarid regions of Dodoma, Singida, Tabora, Shinyanga and Arusha during the

rainy season the colour of water in perennial and seasonal rivers increases up to

more than 200 mg Pt/L. Apart from the semiarid regions, the colour of water in

rivers and dams in other parts of the country normally increases to a maximum of

400 mg Pt/L during the rainy season. During the dry seasons average colour

levels in surface water sources of 60 mg Pt/L normally prevail in many water

sources in the country. High turbidity values of more than 500 NTU are common

in many surface water sources during the rainy season. Rivers in the semiarid

regions are the most affected. Turbidity of about 80 NTU is normally observed

during the dry seasons in most rivers in the country.

(ii) Chemical Quality

The chemical quality of the surface waters is mainly affected by the geology of

the area in the case of rivers, streams and dams. Some rivers and streams in the

"fluoride belt" which include Kilimanjaro, Arusha, Singida and Shinyanga

regions tend to have higher concentrations of fluoride. These water sources tend

to pick up fluoride as they flow thorough fluoride rich geological formations. In

Arusha region where the research where research was carried out the fluoride

76

levels in drinking waters are high ranging up to 22 mg/L in surface waters and up

to 70 mg/L in ground waters. The severe fluorosis

has been observed in

Ngurudoto village, Arumeru district.

In Tanzania high fluoride water sources are found in Kilimanjaro, Arusha, Mara

and Mwanza regions. Other regions include Shinyanga, Singida and Manyara and

Mbeya as shown in figure 3.2.

The chemical quality of lake waters and dams is generally good in that it falls

within the Tanzanian Drinking Water Quality Standards; exceptions are lakes

Kitangari, Eyasi, Natron and Manyara which are very salty, alkaline and have

excessive levels of fluoride.

Figure 3.1: A map showing regions affected by excessive fluoride (hatched) in their water

sources.

(iii) Bacteriological Quality

Bacteriological water quality is a major problem in most surface water sources in

Tanzania. Non observance of personal hygiene at water sources and minimal

enforcement of water sources protection legislation has led to 95 percent of surface water

sources being bacteriologically polluted by faecal matter.

77

5.2 Ground Water Quality (i) Chemical Quality

The presence of Iron and Manganese in groundwater affects the physical quality

of the water. Iron and manganese presence has been observed along the coastline

of Tanga, Coast and Mtwara regions. The problem also prevails in the semiarid

regions of Dodoma, Shinyanga, Singida and Tabora. Apart from these regions,

Rukwa region has also groundwater with high levels of iron in some areas. The

presence of higher levels of iron and manganese in groundwater, results in

coloured turbid water immediately the water gets into contact with air e.g. at the

time of drilling. In such cases, colour and turbidity levels are well above the

Tanzanian Drinking Water Quality Standards. The groundwater mineralization

process in various geological formations has resulted in differences in chemical

water quality in different parts of the country. Along the coast that is Tanga, Dar-

es-Salaam, Lindi and Mtwara, their groundwater are in most areas salty, where

electrical conductivity values exceeds 2,000 µS/cm. These high concentrations

make the water undrinkable and certainly not fit for irrigation. Such situations

occur when boreholes are sunk into basement rocks. High levels of iron, colour,

and turbidity are a major problem in many water sources.

In the North Eastern regions of Arusha and Kilimanjaro there are substantial

number of water sources which have high fluoride concentrations. Fluoride

concentrations above 8.0 mg/L have been observed in springs, rivers and

boreholes. Due to the extensive use of fertilizers, some boreholes have been

observed to have excessive nitrate nitrogen greater than 100 mg/L. Concentration

of nitrate nitrogen in the springs varies from 1.0 - 2.0 mg/L.

Some boreholes have also indicated the presence of high levels of sulphate

especially those which had been drilled in sulphate bearing rocks such as barite.

In the Central part of the country, a common water quality problem being

experienced is high salt content and elevated levels of fluoride in the ground

water. In the lake regions the chemical water quality of groundwater is generally

within the Tanzanian Temporary Drinking Water Quality Standards. In Rungwe

District of Mbeya Region, however, some of the water sources such as boreholes

and springs have excessive levels of fluoride.

The groundwater quality in Mtwara and Lindi regions especially along the coast is

corrosive due to the presence of carbon dioxide thus pH values of 4.0 have been

observed. Low pH values have also been observed in Dar es Salaam and Coast

Regions.

(ii) Bacteriological Quality

The bacteriological quality of deep groundwater in the country is generally better

than that of shallow well and surface water. In most cases it does not need to be

disinfected unless it had been contaminated mostly by faecal matter.

78

5.3 Water Quality Standards Water Pollution is regulated through the Water Utilization (Control and regulation) Act

No. 42 of 1974 and its amendments of 1981, 1989 and 1997. The effluent and receiving

water standards contained in the Water Utilization (Control and Regulation) Amendment

Act No. 10 of 1981 were formulated in 1977. According to the amendment, no person

may discharge effluents from any commercial, industrial or other waste systems into

receiving water without consent, duly granted by a Basin Water Officer. Moreover,

standards in respect of effluent and receiving waters are specified. It further state that

these standards “shall be complied with by users of water before or during discharge into

water courses, receiving waters or sewers”. The standards prescribed in the Water

Utilization Act include standards for receiving waters bodies, effluent standards, and

drinking water standards.

5.4 Water Quality Monitoring Programme (i) Water Quality Monitoring Situation

To date, 15 out of 20 regions have not been provided with water quality analytical

laboratories. These regions are: Dar es Salaam, Morogoro, Dodoma, Mtwara,

Kigoma, Arusha, Tanga, Singida, Shinyanga, Mwanza, Musoma, Bukoba, Mbeya,

Iringa, and Songea. Efforts are being made by the Government strengthening

these water analytical laboratories.

Presently there is no well defined water quality monitoring programme. Water

sources are generally monitored irregularly. First priority is to carry out full

analysis of water samples from newly developed water sources such as shallow

wells, boreholes, gravity water schemes etc. Second priority is to carry out

bacteriological water quality monitoring of regional and district urban water

supplies and large rural water schemes. For urban and large rural water schemes,

emphasis is put on bacteriological water quality analysis.

Generally with the exception of Dar es Salaam, other urban water supplies are

monitored once a month while the pipeline distribution network is monitored

weekly when considering bacteriological aspects. A third priority is given to the

monitoring of water sources which are liable to pollution be either industrial or

domestic sewerage. Agrochemical pollution monitoring is not being carried due

to lack of equipments and personnel to carry out the analysis.

(ii) Parameters Analyzed

Major water quality problems as explained earlier in this chapter include pH,

turbidity, colour, iron and manganese, fluoride, nitrate, hardness, dissolved

oxygen, and faecal coliform. All the regional laboratories are able to analyze

most of them. The Water Quality Monitoring Programme is severely affected by

lack of operational funds, transport, equipments and chemicals.

6.0 Rain water harvesting Rainwater harvesting is a technology used for collecting and storing rainwater from

rooftops, the land surface or rock catchments using simple techniques such as constructed

79

water storage tanks drums and pots as well as more complex techniques such as

underground check dams. Various forms of rain water harvesting in micro-catchments and

other techniques are used in Tanzania in order to try and capture and concentrate rainfall.

Rainwater harvesting is a feasible option for improving the living conditions of millions

of Tanzanians currently facing serious water supply problems.

It is a known fact that successful implementation of large scale rainwater harvesting

relies on number factors. To mention a few these include among others a suitable

climate, an enabling environment that supports rainwater harvesting, key planning and

technical skills at all levels particularly in local implementing agencies recognition of the

different roles that water plays in men and women‟s livelihoods.

Household rainwater harvesting has number of potential benefits these include a

reduction of burden of collecting water over long distances particularly women, improved

health due to clean water, improved sanitation and improved nutrition, reduction in

vulnerability to external shocks and poverty reduction through productive use of water.

Figure 3.2: Demonstration rooftop catchments system at Mburahati dispensary,

Dar es Salaam

Efforts are being made to sensitize and create awareness among relevant people at

national, district and village levels on the importance and potential of the rainwater

harvesting technology. Furthermore the technology has considered in the Water Sector

Development Programme.

80

PART II: COASTAL AND MARINE RESOURCES AND ECOSYSTEMS

1.0 Geography of setting Tanzania has a coastline which stretches for about 800 km along the Western Indian

Ocean from the Mozambique border in the South to the Kenya border in the North. The

coast includes all areas bordering the Ocean in the five regions of Tanga, Coast, Dar es

Salaam, Lindi and Mtwara as well as three large islands of Unguja and Pemba (which

make up Zanzibar), Mafia and numerous islets. About two thirds of the coastline has

fringing reef, often close to the shoreline, broken by river outlets like the Rufiji delta,

Pangani, Ruvuma, Wami and Ruvu (Fig. 1). It is characterized by a very narrow

continental shelf which is 5.8 km wide except the Zanzibar and Mafia channel, where the

continental shelf reaches a width of about 62 km. Most of the continental shelf bed is

covered with coral outgrowths and some parts of the coastal margin have extensive

mangrove stands. The continental shelf has on estimated area of 17,500 km2. The

Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) (Shared with Zanzibar) has an estimated area of

223,000 km2 (TCMP Working Document No. 5008, 1998).

Figure 3.3: Tanzania Exclusive Economic Zone

81

1.1 Physical characteristics 1.1.1 Climate TThhee cclliimmaattee ooff ccooaassttaall aarreeaass iiss hhoott aanndd hhuummiidd.. TThhee mmoonnssoooonnss hhaavvee tthheeee ddoommiinnaanntt

iinnfflluueennccee oonn wwiinndd ddiirreeccttiioonn aanndd ssttrreennggtthh,, tteemmppeerraattuurree aanndd rraaiinnffaallll.. TThheerree aarree ttwwoo

mmoonnssoooonn sseeaassoonnss nnaammeellyy tthhee nnoorrtthheeaasstt mmoonnssoooonn ((KKaasskkaazzii)) wwhhiicchh pprreevvaaiillss ffrroomm

NNoovveemmbbeerr ttoo FFeebbrruuaarryy aanndd iiss cchhaarraacctteerriizzeedd bbyy hhiigghh aaiirr tteemmppeerraattuurreess ((>>3300ooCC)) aanndd wweeaakkeerr

wwiinnddss aanndd tthhee SSoouutthheeaasstt mmoonnssoooonn ((KKuussii)) wwhhiicchh llaassttss ffrroomm AApprriill ttoo SSeepptteemmbbeerr aanndd iiss

mmaarrkkeedd bbyy lloowweerr tteemmppeerraattuurreess ((aapppprrooxxiimmaatteellyy 2255ooCC)) aass wweellll aass ssttrroonngg wwiinnddss..

OOccccaassiioonnaallllyy,, tthhee SSoouutthheeaasstt mmoonnssoooonnss aarree aassssoocciiaatteedd wwiitthh eeppiiddeemmiicc eevveennttss ssuucchh aass

ssttoorrmmss aanndd ccyycclloonneess.. TTaabbllee 33..22 iinnddiiccaattee rreeccoorrddeedd ccyycclloonneess iinn TTaannzzaanniiaa..

Table 3.3: Recorded Cyclones in Tanzania

DDaattee EEvveenntt AAffffeecctteedd PPllaacceess NNoo.. ooff HHuummaann

DDeeaatthh

44 AApprriill 11887722 CCyycclloonnee ZZaannzziibbaarr,, BBaaggaammooyyoo NNoott ssppeecciiffiieedd

1155 AApprriill 11995522 CCyycclloonnee LLiinnddii,,MMttwwaarraa,, MMiikkiinnddaannii,, 3344

11998899 TTrrooppiiccaall SSttoorrmm DDaarr eess SSaallaaaamm 77

AAuugguusstt 11999944 CCyycclloonnee ZZaannzziibbaarr 55

SSoouurrccee:: SSttaattee ooff tthhee CCooaasstt RReeppoorrtt -- 22000033

1.1.2 Rainfall TTwwoo ttyyppeess ooff rraaiinnffaallll rreeggiimmee pprreevvaaiill oonn tthhee TTaannzzaanniiaa ccooaasstt..

AA uunniimmooddaall ttyyppee wwiitthh aa ssiinnggllee aannnnuuaall mmaaxxiimmuumm,, ggeenneerraall bbeettwweeeenn DDeecceemmbbeerr

llaanndd AApprriill,, wwhhiicchh pprreevvaaiillss iinn tthhee SSoouutthheerrnn aarreeaass ssuucchh aass MMttwwaarraa,, LLiinnddii aanndd

MMaaffiiaa..

AA bbiimmooddaall ttyyppee ccoommppoosseedd ooff aa lloonngg rraaiinnyy sseeaassoonn ((MMaarrcchh –– MMaayy)) aanndd aa sshhoorrtt

oonnee ((NNoovveemmbbeerr –– DDeecceemmbbeerr)) wwhhiicchh pprreevvaaiillss iinn tthhee nnoorrtthheerrnn aarreeaass ssuucchh aass

TTaannggaa aanndd DDaarr eess SSaallaaaamm..

1.2 Geology and Soils MMoosstt ooff tthhee ccoouunnttrryy lliieess oonn tthhee GGrreeaatt AAffrriiccaann PPllaatteeaauu wwiitthh aallttiittuuddeess bbeettwweeeenn 11000000 aanndd

22000000mm aabboovvee mmeeaann sseeaa lleevveell,, tthhee eexxcceeppttiioonn bbeeiinngg tthhee nnaarrrrooww ccooaassttaall bbeelltt.. TThhee ccooaassttaall

ppllaaiinnss aarree ccoommppoosseedd ooff bbootthh mmaarriinnee aanndd tteerrrreessttrriiaall sseeddiimmeennttss.. IIff wwee rreeffeerr ttoo tthhee GGeeoollooggiicc

TTiimmee SSccaallee,, wwhhiicchh iiss ssiimmppllyy aa lliisstt ooff aaggeess ooff tthhee eeaarrtthh aanndd iittss ppaasstt lliiffee ffoorrmmss,, tthhee aaggeess ooff

tthhee sseeddiimmeennttss rraannggee ffrroomm JJuurraassssiicc tthhrroouugghh ccrreettaacceeoouuss ttoo TTeerrttiiaarryy aanndd QQuuaatteerrnnaarryy.. TThhee

mmaarriinnee rroocckkss ccoonnssiisstt mmaaiinnllyy ooff mmaarrllss,, lliimmeessttoonnee aanndd sshheellllss..

TThhee ssooiill ttyyppee ooff ccooaassttaall aarreeaass iinn TTaannzzaanniiaa iinncclluuddee ddeeppoossiitteedd aalllluuvviiuumm tthhaatt iiss mmoossttllyy ffoouunndd

iinn rriivveerr eessttuuaarriieess,, ddaarrkk ccllaayyss oonn oollddeerr aalllluuvviiaall ddeeppoossiittss wwhhiicchh aarree ffoouunndd aalloonngg tthhee RRuuffiijjii

DDeellttaa aanndd TTaannggaa,, ggrreeyy bboottttoommllaanndd ssooiillss ffoouunndd mmaaiinnllyy iinn ccooaassttaall ppllaaiinnss.. TThhee mmoosstt ffeerrttiillee

ssooiillss aarree ffoouunndd oonn rriivveerr bbaassiinnss,, iinn tthhee vvoollccaanniicc aarreeaass aanndd oonn aalllluuvviiaall ddeeppoossiittss ooff vvoollccaanniicc

oorriiggiinn..

82

1.3 Hydrology

TThhee ccooaasstt iiss ssttrroonnggllyy iinnfflluueenncceedd bbyy rriivveerrss tthhaatt bbrriinngg ttoo iitt wwaatteerr,, sseeddiimmeenntt,, nnuuttrriieennttss aanndd

ppoolllluuttaannttss.. TTaannzzaanniiaa iiss ttrraavveerrsseedd bbyy aa nnuummbbeerr ooff rriivveerrss aanndd ssttrreeaammss,, wwhhiicchh ccoouulldd bbrrooaaddllyy

bbee ddiivviiddeedd iinnttoo ffoouurr ddrraaiinnaaggee bbaassiinnss,, nnaammeellyy tthhee IInnddiiaann OOcceeaann ddrraaiinnaaggee,, tthhee AAttllaannttiicc

OOcceeaann vviiaa LLaakkee TTaannggaannyyiikkaa,, tthhee LLaakkee VViiccttoorriiaa –– NNiillee ccoommpplleexx tthhaatt ddrraaiinnss iinnttoo tthhee

MMeeddiitteerrrraanneeaann sseeaa aanndd tthhee RRiifftt VVaalllleeyy ddeepprreessssiioonn.. TThhee IInnddiiaann OOcceeaann ddrraaiinnaaggee ssyysstteemm iiss

tthheeee llaarrggeesstt ddrraaiinnaaggee bbaassiinn,, ccoovveerriinngg aallmmoosstt 2200%% ooff tthhee ccoouunnttrryy aanndd ccoonnssttiittuuttiinngg aabboouutt

5500%% ooff tthhee ssuurrffaaccee,, rruunnooffff.. TThhee RRuuffiijjii,, oonnee ooff tthhee llaarrggeesstt rriivveerr iinn AAffrriiccaa,, ccoonnttrriibbuutteess 5500%%

ooff tthhiiss rruunnooffff..

TThhee ssuurrffaaccee rriivveerr ffllooww rreeggiimmee aanndd mmooiissttuurree ccoonnddiittiioonnss iinn tthhee ccoouunnttrryy ccoorrrreessppoonndd ttoo tthhee

ggeenneerraall rraaiinnffaallll ppaatttteerrnn.. TThhee ppeeaakk oouuttffllooww ffrroomm mmaajjoorr rriivveerrss tthhaatt ddiisscchhaarrggee iinnttoo tthhee

IInnddiiaann OOcceeaann ooccccuurrss bbeettwweeeenn MMaarrcchh aanndd MMaayy.. RRiivveerrss aanndd llaakkeess ssttaarrtt rriissiinngg iinn

NNoovveemmbbeerr//DDeecceemmbbeerr aanndd eexxppeerriieennccee mmaaxxiimmuumm iinn MMaarrcchh –– AApprriill,, wwiitthh aa rreecceessssiioonn ppeerriioodd

ffrroomm MMaayy ttoo OOccttoobbeerr//NNoovveemmbbeerr.. TThhee hhyyddrroollooggiiccaall yyeeaarr ssttaarrttss iinn OOccttoobbeerr//NNoovveemmbbeerr aanndd

eennddss iinn SSeepptteemmbbeerr//OOccttoobbeerr ((UUNNEEPP 22000011))..

1.4 Currents and Tidal Regime OOcceeaann ccuurrrreennttss aanndd ttiiddeess aarree iimmppoorrttaanntt ffeeaattuurreess tthhaatt ssttrroonnggllyy iinnfflluueennccee tthhee ddiissttrriibbuuttiioonn ooff

mmaarriinnee oorrggaanniissmmss aanndd tthhee aavvaaiillaabbiilliittyy ooff nnuuttrriieennttss.. TThhee ddoommiinnaanntt mmaajjoorr ccuurrrreennttss

pprreevvaaiilliinngg iinn tthhee ccooaassttaall wwaatteerrss ooff TTaannzzaanniiaa aarree tthhee ssoouutthh EEqquuaattoorriiaall ccuurrrreenntt,, wwhhiicchh fflloowwss

wweessttwwaarrddss aanndd tthhee nnoorrtthhwwaarrddss fflloowwiinngg EEaasstt AAffrriiccaa CCooaassttaall CCuurrrreenntt ((EEAACCCC))..

TThhrreeee mmaaiinn wwaatteerr mmaasssseess hhaavvee bbeeeenn iiddeennttiiffiieedd ooffff tthhee TTaannzzaanniiaa ccooaasstt.. FFiirrssttllyy,, ssuurrffaaccee

wwaatteerr ((ddeepptthh <<110000mm)) bbrroouugghhtt ttoo tthhee WWeesstt ffrroomm tthhee BBaayy ooff BBeennggaall aanndd tthhee eeaasstteerrnn IInnddiiaa

OOcceeaann aarreeaa bbyy tthhee SSoouutthh EEqquuaattoorriiaall ccuurrrreenntt.. TThhee sseeccoonndd iiss tthhee hhiigghh ssaalliinniittyy wwaatteerr ffoouunndd

aatt aa ddeepptthh ooff 115500--225500mm.. TThhee tthhiirrddss iiss tthhee IInnddiiaann OOcceeaann CCeennttrraall wwaatteerr,, wwhhiicchh iiss ffoouunndd ooff

aatt 225500--550000mm ddeepptthh..

TThhee ttiiddeess aalloonngg tthhee TTaannzzaanniiaa ccooaasstt aarree sseemmii--ddiiuurrnnaall ttyyppee,, cchhaarraacctteerriizzeedd bbyy ttwwoo

ooccccuurrrreenncceess ooff bbootthh hhiigghh aanndd llooww wwaatteerrss wwiitthhiinn aa ddaayy.. TThheessee aarree tthhee mmeeaann sspprriinngg ttiiddee ooff

aabboouutt 33..55mm aanndd mmeeaann nneeaapp ttiiddee ooff aabboouutt 22..55mm.. TThhee aaggee ooff tthhee ttiiddee iinn mmoosstt aarreeaass rraannggeess

ffrroomm oonnee ttoo ttwwoo ddaayyss..

1.5 Sea surface temperature

SSeeaa ssuurrffaaccee tteemmppeerraattuurreess eexxhhiibbiitt sseeaassoonnaalliittyy tthhaatt iiss iinnfflluueenncceedd bbyy cchhaannggeess iinn tthhee wwaatteerr

mmoosssseess ooff tthhee IInnddiiaann OOcceeaann aanndd bbyy cclliimmaattee ffaaccttoorrss.. DDuurriinngg tthhee SSoouutthheeaasstt mmoonnssoooonn,, tthhee

SSoouutthh eeqquuaattoorriiaall ccuurrrreenntt bbrriinngg wwaatteerr ooff rreellaattiivveellyy llooww tteemmppeerraattuurreess ffrroomm tthhee PPaacciiffiicc

OOcceeaann,, wwhhiillee dduurriinngg tthhee NNoorrtthheeaasstt mmoonnssoooonn,, tthhee SSoouutthh EEqquuaattoorriiaall ccuurrrreenntt ddrraawwss wwaatteerrss

ooff hhiigghh tteemmppeerraattuurree ffrroomm tthhee ssaammee..

TThhee SSeeaa ssuurrffaaccee tteemmppeerraattuurree ooff tthhee ccooaassttaall wwaatteerrss ooff TTaannzzaanniiaa aavveerraaggeess aatt 2277ooCC bbuutt mmaannyy

rreeaacchh 2255ooCC dduurriinngg JJuullyy ttoo SSeepptteemmbbeerr aanndd rriissee ttoo 2288

ooCC 2299

ooCC iinn sshhaallllooww aarreeaass dduurriinngg

JJaannuuaarryy ttoo MMaarrcchh.. TTeemmppeerraattuurree vvaarriiaattiioonnss,, ppaarrttiiccuullaarr ooffffsshhoorree aarree mmaaiinnllyy ddiiuurrnnaall aass tthheeyy

aarree ccoonnttrroolllleedd bbyy ddaayy hheeaattiinngg bbyy ssoo llooww rraaddiiaattiioonn aanndd nniigghhtt ccoooolliinngg.. IInn nneeaarr--sshhoorree

wwaatteerrss,, tteemmppeerraattuurreess aarree sseemmiiddiiuurrnnaall dduuee ttoo eeffffeeccttss ooff tthheeee ttiiddeess..

83

1.6 Salinity

SSaalliinniittyy vvaalluueess aarree lloowweerr dduurriinngg MMaayy ffoolllloowwiinngg tthhee ppeeaakk ffrreesshhwwaatteerr oouuttffllooww aanndd tthhee

hhiigghheesstt iinn NNoovveemmbbeerr.. TThhee ssaalliinniittyy vvaalluueess ssttaarrttss ttoo ddeeccrreeaassee iinn FFeebbrruuaarryy bbeeffoorree tthhee

bbeeggiinnnniinngg ooff rraaiinnss.. IInn ooppeenn oocceeaann ssaalliinniittyy vvaalluuee nnoorrmmaallllyy rraannggee ffrroomm 3344..00 ttoo 3355..5500//0000..

HHoowweevveerr,, tthhee ssaalliinniittyy iiss llooww nneeaarr tthhee ccooaasstt dduuee ttoo ffrreesshhwwaatteerr rruunnooffff..

2.0 Coastal Ecosystem, Resources and Their Utilization 2.1 Coral Reefs

CCoorraall rreeeeffss aarree ttrrooppiiccaall sshhaallllooww––wwaatteerr eeccoossyysstteemm tthhaatt hhaass hhiigghh pprroodduuccttiivviittyy aanndd

bbiiooddiivveerrssiittyy.. HHaarrdd ccoorraall wwhhiicchh pprroodduuccee ccaallcciiuumm ccaarrbboonnaattee aass tthheeyy ggrrooww aarree tthhee mmaaiinn

bbuuiillddiinngg bblloocckkss ooff tthheessee eeccoossyysstteemmss.. AA ffeeww ootthheerr oorrggaanniissmmss,, ssuucchh aass ccoorraalllliinnee aallggaaee

ccoonnttrriibbuuttee ttoo rreeeeff bbuuiillddiinngg.. TThhee vvaarriiaabbllee ttooppooggrraapphhyy ooff tthhee rreeeeff ssttrruuccttuurree ccrreeaatteess

nnuummeerroouuss mmiiccrroohhaabbiittaattss wwhhiicchh iinn ttuurrnn,, ssuuppppoorrtt aa hhiigghh ddiivveerrssiittyy ooff aallggaaee,, sseeaa ggrraassss,,

ssppoonnggeess,, sseeaa aanneemmoonneess,, ssoofftt ccoorraallss,, ccrruussttaacceeaannss,, ggaassttrrooppooddss,, bbiivvaallvveess,, eecchhiinnooddeerrmmss,, ffiisshh

aanndd mmaarriinnee ttuurrttlleess.. TThhee ggrreeaatteesstt ccoonncceennttrraattiioonnss ooff wweellll –– ddeevveellooppeedd ccoorraall rreeeeffss aarree aalloonngg

tthhee ccooaasstt ooff TTaannggaa,, PPeemmbbaa,, UUnngguujjaa,, MMaaffiiaa,, KKiillwwaa ((SSoonnggoo SSoonnggoo AArrcchhiippeellaaggoo)) aanndd

MMttwwaarraa..

CCoorraall rreeeeffss aarree ccrriittiiccaall hhaabbiittaattss dduuee ttoo tthheeiirr eeccoollooggiiccaall aanndd ssoocciioo--eeccoonnoommiicc iimmppoorrttaannccee..

BBeessiiddeess hhaavviinngg hhiigghh pprroodduuccttiivviittyy aanndd bbiiooddiivveerrssiittyy ccoorraall rreeeeffss pprroovviiddee sshheelltteerr aass wweellll aass

ffeeeeddiinngg,, bbrreeeeddiinngg aanndd nnuurrsseerryy ggrroouunndd ffoorr aa ggrreeaatt vvaarriieettyy ooff iinnvveerrtteebbrraatteess aanndd ffiisshh.. TThhuuss,,

ccoorraall rreeeeffss ppllaayy aa rroollee aass kkeeyyssttoonnee eeccoossyysstteemm iinn tthhee oocceeaann bbyy pprroovviinngg eeccoollooggiiccaall sseerrvviicceess

tthhaatt eexxtteennddss ffaarr bbeeyyoonndd tthhee aarreeaa ooff ccoovveerraaggee.. DDuuee ttoo tthheeiirr eeccoollooggiiccaall iimmppoorrttaannccee,, ccoorraall

rreeeeffss aallssoo hhaavvee ggrreeaatt eeccoonnoommiicc iimmppoorrttaannccee,, ssuuppppoorrttiinngg 7700%% ooff tthhee aarrttiissaannaall ffiisshh

pprroodduuccttiioonn iinn TTaannzzaanniiaa.. IInn aaddddiittiioonn,, ccoorraall rreeeeffss aarree oonnee ooff tthhee mmoosstt iimmppoorrttaanntt ttoouurriisstt

aattttrraaccttiioonnss iinn TTaannzzaanniiaa bbrriinnggiinngg ffoorreeiiggnn ccuurrrreennccyy iinnttoo tthhee ccoouunnttrryy.. AAtt tthhee ssaammee ttiimmee,, dduuee

ttoo tthhee uunniiqquueenneessss,, ccoommpplleexxiittyy aanndd hhiigghh bbiiooddiivveerrssiittyy ooff ccoorraall rreeeeffss,, tthheeyy hhaavvee ssiiggnniiffiiccaanntt

eedduuccaattiioonnaall aanndd sscciieennttiiffiicc vvaalluuee..

2.2 Mangrove Forests

MMaannggrroovveess aarree ssaalltt ttoolleerraanntt ttrreeeess oorr sshhrruubbss tthhaatt ffoorrmm tthhee mmaajjoorr ccoommpplleexx ttrrooppiiccaall aanndd

ssuubbttrrooppiiccaall mmaannggrroovvee eeccoossyysstteemmss.. TThheessee eeccoossyysstteemmss ooccccuuppyy tthhee iinntteerrttiiddaall zzoonnee,,

pprriimmaarriillyy iinn mmuuddddyy,, sshheelltteerreedd aarreeaass ooff tthhee ccooaasstt ssuucchh aass bbaayyss,, iinnlleettss,, eessttuuaarriieess,, cchhaannnneellss

aanndd tthhee IIeeeewwaarrdd ssiiddeess ooff iissllaannddss.. TThheeyy ssoommeettiimmee ccoovveerr vvaasstt aarreeaass iinn llaarrggee rriivveerr ddeellttaass..

TThhee ootthheerr ccoommppoonneennttss ooff mmaannggrroovvee eeccoossyysstteemmss iinncclluuddee aallggaaee,, mmaarriinnee ffaauunnaa lliivviinngg iinn

mmuudd,, oonn tthhee bbaasseess ooff ttrreeeess aanndd iinn ttiiddaall wwaatteerr;; aanndd tteerrrreessttrriiaall aanniimmaallss lliivviinngg iinn tthhee ttrreeee

ccaannooppyy..

MMaannggrroovvee ffoorreessttss aarree ffoouunndd iinn aallll ccooaassttaall ddiissttrriiccttss ooff TTaannzzaanniiaa.. TThheerree aarree eeiigghhtt ssppeecciieess ooff

mmaannggrroovveess iinn mmaaiinnllaanndd TTaannzzaanniiaa.. TThheessee aarree AAvviicceenniiaa mmaarriinnaa,, BBrruugguuiieerraa ggyymmnnoorrrrhhiizzaa,,

CCeerriiooppss ttaaggaall,, HHeerriittiieerraa lliittttoorraalliiss,, LLuummnniittzzeerraa rraacceemmoossaa,, RRhhiizzoopphhoorraa mmuuccrroonnaattaa,,

SSoonnnneerraattiiaa aallbbaa,, aanndd XXllooccaarrppuuss ggrraannuuttuumm.. TThhee llaarrggeesstt ccoonnttiinnuuoouuss mmaannggrroovvee ffoorreessttss

ooccccuurr iinn RRuuffiijjii,, KKiillwwaa,, TTaannggaa,, MMuuhheezzaa nnaa MMttwwaarraa ddiissttrriiccttss.. TTaabbllee 33..33 sshhoowwss tthhee

MMaaiinnllaanndd mmaannggrroovvee sspppp..

84

SSiimmiillaarr ttoo ccoorraall rreeeeffss,, mmaannggrroovvee ffoorreessttss aarree ccoonnssiiddeerreedd ccrriittiiccaall hhaabbiittaattss wwiitthh ggrreeaatt

eeccoollooggiiccaall aanndd ssoocciioo--eeccoonnoommiicc vvaalluuee.. TThheeyy aarree aallssoo kkeeyyssttoonnee eeccoossyysstteemmss wwiitthh hhiigghh

pprroodduuccttiivviittyy,, pprroodduucciinngg llaarrggee qquuaannttiittiieess ooff oorrggaanniicc mmaatttteerr tthhaatt sseerrvvee aass ffoooodd ffoorr mmaannyy

oorrggaanniissmmss.. TThhiiss iinncclluuddeess tthhoossee lliivviinngg wwiitthhiinn tthhee ffoorreesstt aanndd aallssoo oouuttssiiddee iitt,, ssiinnccee mmuucchh ooff

oorrggaanniicc mmaatttteerr pprroodduucceedd iiss eexxppoorrtteedd ttoo ootthheerr aarreeaass ooff tthhee mmaarriinnee eennvviirroonnmmeenntt..

MMaannggrroovveess aallssoo sseerrvvee aass ffeeeeddiinngg,, bbrreeeeddiinngg aanndd nnuurrsseerryy ggrroouunnddss ffoorr aa ggrreeaatt vvaarriieettyy ooff

iinnvveerrtteebbrraatteess aanndd ffiisshh,, mmaannyy ooff wwhhiicchh mmoovvee oouutt iinnttoo tthhee oocceeaann dduurriinngg tthheeiirr aadduulltt ssttaaggee..

IInn aaddddiittiioonn,, mmaannggrroovveess ffiilltteerr rriivveerr wwaatteerr aanndd ffaacciilliittaattee tthhee sseettttlleemmeenntt ooff sseeddiimmeennttss,, wwhhiicchh

wwoouulldd ootthheerrwwiissee bbee ddeettrriimmeennttaall ttoo ssuurrrroouunnddiinngg sseeaaggrraassss bbeeddss aanndd ccoorraall rreeeeffss.. MMaannggrroovveess

aallssoo ppllaayy oonn iimmppoorrttaanntt rroollee iinn ssttaabbiilliizziinngg tthhee ccooaassttlliinnee,, tthhuuss pprreevveennttiinngg sshhoorreelliinnee eerroossiioonn..

EEccoonnoommiiccaallllyy,, mmaannggrroovveess aarree ssoouurrccee ooff ffiirreewwoooodd,, cchhaarrccooaall,, bbuuiillddiinngg ppoolleess,, mmaatteerriiaallss ffoorr

bbooaatt ccoonnssttrruuccttiioonn,, ttaannnniinn aanndd ttrraaddiittiioonnaall mmeeddiicciinneess.. MMoorree oovveerr mmaannggrroovvee ffoorreessttss sseerrvveess

aass ggrreeaatt ttoouurriisstt aattttrraaccttiioonn aanndd hhaavvee iimmppoorrttaanntt sscciieennttiiffiicc vvaalluuee.. TThhee aarreeaa ccoovveerreedd bbyy

mmaannggrroovveess iinn mmaaiinnllaanndd TTaannzzaanniiaa wwaass aapppprrooxxiimmaatteellyy 110099,,559933 hhaa ffrroomm 11998888 –– 11999900 aanndd

aabboouutt 110088,,113388 iinn hhaa 22000000 ((TTCCMMPP CCooaassttaall MMaannaaggeemmeenntt RReeppoorrtt NNoo.. 22000022,, 22000033))..

Table 3.4: Mainland Mangrove Species

Mangrove Species Preferred Habitat

Avicernia marina Exposed area facing the sea

Bruguiera gymorhiza Middle of the mangrove forest extending into the seaward

area

Ceriops tagal Inner part of mangrove forest on well drained soil

Hiritiera litoralis River banks, tidal estuaries and mangrove swamps

Lumnitzera racemosa Saline and dry areas

Rhizophora micronata Tidal stream, river banks and estuaries

Sonneratia alba Mudflats in sheltered locations and estuaries with slow

moving water

Xylocarpus granatum Upper portion of river banks and dry areas

SSoouurrccee:: SSttaattee ooff tthhee CCooaasstt RReeppoorrtt -- 22000033

2.3 Fish Resources

TThhee ddeemmaanndd ffoorr ffiisshh iinn TTaannzzaanniiaa iiss pprrooggrreessssiivveellyy iinnccrreeaassiinngg,, ppaarrttiiccuullaarr wwiitthh tthhee ggrreeaatteerr

nnuummbbeerr ooff ppeeooppllee bbeeiinngg aalloonngg tthhee ccooaasstt aanndd wwiitthh eexxppaannssiioonn ooff ttoouurriissmm aaccttiivviittiieess.. TThhiiss

iinnccrreeaasseedd ddeemmaanndd ffoorr ffiisshh pprroodduuccttss hhaass rraaiisseedd tthhee pprriicceess ssuubbssttaannttiiaallllyy,, wwhhiicchh hhaass eennllaarrggeedd

tthhee iinnccoommee ooff ssoommee ppeeooppllee iinn tthhee ffiisshheerriieess ttrraaddee.. HHoowweevveerr tthhee ffiisshhiinngg iinndduussttrryy iiss ssttiillll

9955%% aarrttiissaannaall aass tthhee mmaajjoorriittyy ooff tthhee llooccaall ffiisshheerrmmeenn ssttiillll uussee ttrraaddiittiioonnaall ffiisshhiinngg ggeeaarrss..

FFiisshh rreessoouurrcceess ccaauugghhtt bbyy tthheessee ffiisshheerrmmeenn wwhhiicchh aarree ooff ssppeecciiaall ssiiggnniiffiiccaannccee iinncclluuddee tthhee

ppeellaaggiicc,, oorr ssuurrffaaccee lliivviinngg ssppeecciieess ssuucchh aass tthhee ssaarrddiinnee,, jjaacckk,, sswwoorrddffiisshh,, mmaacckkeerreell,, kkiinnggffiisshh

aanndd ttuunnaa.. TThhee ggrroouupp tthhaatt ddoommiinnaattee tthhee mmaarriinnee ddeerrmmeessaall,, oorr ddeeeeppeerr ccaattcchh aarree bbrreeaamm,,

ggrroouuppeerr,, ppaarrrroottffiisshh,, ssnnaappppeerr,, rraabbbbiitt ffiisshh aanndd eemmppeerroorr.. TThheessee aarree ccaauugghhtt uussiinngg hhaanndd lliinneess,,

ttrraappss aanndd nneettss.. TThhee ssmmaallll ffoorr ppeellaaggiicc ssppeecciieess ccoonnssiisstt pprriimmaarriillyy ooff ssaarrddiinnee,, ssmmaallll ttuunnaa aanndd

mmaacckkeerreell.. TThheessee aarree mmaaiinnllyy ccaauugghhtt bbyy ppuurrssee sseeiinneess aanndd rriinngg nneettss.. OOtthheerr ssppeecciieess iinncclluuddee

ooccttooppuuss aanndd lloobbsstteerr tthhaatt aarree uussuuaallllyy ccoolllleecctteedd bbyy hhaanndd ffrroomm rreeeeff ffllaattss aatt llooww ttiiddee oorr bbyy

ddiivveerrss.. PPrraawwnn aanndd sshhrriimmppss aarree ccaauugghhtt iinn sseeiinnee nneettss iinn eessttuuaarriieess wwaatteerr ppaarrttiiccuullaarrllyy iinn tthhee

mmoouutthhss ooff llaarrggee rriivveerrss.. SSeeaa ccuuccuummbbeerrss aanndd ccoocckklleess aarree ggaatthheerreedd aatt llooww ttiiddee iinn tthhee

iinntteerrttiiddaall ffllaattss.. SSqquuiiddss aarree mmaaiinnllyy ccaauugghhtt uussiinngg hhaanndd lliinneess,, sseeiinnee nneettss oorr ffiixxeedd nneettss.. OOtthheerr

85

ssppeecciieess tthhaatt aarree ccaauugghhtt iinncclluuddee sshhaarrkkss aanndd rraayyss.. TThhee ccrraabb ssppeecciieess ccaauugghhtt iinn TTaannzzaanniiaa aarree

ddoommiinnaatteedd bbyy ttwwoo ssppeecciieess,, bbootthh ooff wwhhiicchh aarree ooff ccoommmmeerrcciiaall iimmppoorrttaannccee.. TThheeyy aarree SSccyyllllaa

sseerrrraattaa,, ccoommmmoonnllyy kknnoowwnn aass tthhee mmuudd oorr mmaannggrroovvee ccrraabb aanndd PPoorrttuunnuuss ppeellaaggiiuuss

ccoommmmoonnllyy kknnoowwnn aass bblluuee sswwiimmmmiinngg oorr ssaanndd ccrraabb..

2.4 Marine Mammals

MMaarriinnee mmaammmmaallss aarree wwaarrmm--bbllooooddeedd aanniimmaallss tthhaatt ssppeenndd tthhee mmaajjoorriittyy ooff tthheeiirr lliiffee iinn oorr

nneeaarr tthhee sseeaa.. TThhee kkeeyy cchhaarraacctteerriissttiiccss ooff mmaammmmaallss aarree bbeeiinngg wwaarrmm bbllooooddeedd,, hhaavviinngg aatt

lleeaasstt ffeeww hhaaiirrss,, nnoouurriisshhiinngg yyoouunngg wwiitthh mmiillkk llaanndd ggiivveenn lliivvee bbiirrtthh ttoo yyoouunngg..

AAnn oouuttssttaannddiinngg ddiivveerrssiittyy ooff mmaarriinnee mmaammmmaallss eexxiissttss iinn TTaannzzaanniiaa.. TThhee mmoosstt ccoommmmoonn sseeeenn

iiss tthhee ddoollpphhiinn ((ppoommbboooo)).. HHoowweevveerr,, tthheerree aarree ootthheerr mmaarriinnee mmaammmmaallss ssuucchh aass wwhhaalleess

((nnyyaanngguummii)) aanndd dduuggoonngg ((nngguuvvaa)) wwhhiicchh aarree aallssoo kknnoowwnn aass sseeaaccoowwss oorr mmaannaatteeeess..

OOuutt ooff tthhee tteenn ssppeecciieess ooff ddoollpphhiinnss ffoouunndd iinn tthhee WWeesstteerrnn IInnddiiaann OOcceeaann,, eeiigghhtt ssppeecciieess hhaavvee

bbeeeenn rreeppoorrtteedd iinn TTaannzzaanniiaa wwaatteerrss.. TThheeyy aarree IInnddoo--PPaacciiffiicc bboottttlleennoossee ddoollpphhiinn ((TTuurrssiiooppss

aadduunnccuuss)),, bboottttlleennoossee ddoollpphhiinn ((TTuurrssiiooppss ttrruunnccaattaa)),, IInnddoo--PPaacciiffiicc hhuummppbbaacckk ddoollpphhiinn ((SSoouussaa

cchhiinneennssiiss)),, SSppiinnnneerr ddoollpphhiinn ((SStteenneellllaa lloonnggiirroossttrriiss)),, PPaann--ttrrooppiiccaall ssppootttteedd ddoollpphhiinn ((SStteenneellllaa

aatttteennuuaattaa)) RRiissssoo‟‟ss ddoollpphhiinn ((GGrraammppuuss ggrriisseeaass));; rroouugghh--ttooootthheedd ddoollpphhiinn ((SStteennoo

bbrreennddaanneennssiiss)) aanndd SSoouussaa pplluummbbeess wwhhiicchh iiss aa ssuubb--ssppeecciieess ooff tthhee IInnddoo--PPaacciiffiicc hhuummppbbaacckk

ddoollpphhiinn.. TThheeyy aarree ttyyppiiccaallllyy ffoouunndd iinn ZZaannzziibbaarr,, MMttwwaarraa,, BBaaggaammooyyoo aanndd TTaannggaa..

IInn TTaannzzaanniiaa wwaatteerrss tthheerree iiss lliittttllee iinnffoorrmmaattiioonn oonn tthhee ooccccuurrrreennccee,, ddiissttrriibbuuttiioonn aanndd

aabbuunnddaannccee ooff wwhhaalleess,, aalltthhoouugghh hhuummppbbaacckk wwhhaalleess ((MMeeggaapptteerraa nnoovvaaeeaanngglliiaaee)) aarree oofftteenn

ssiigghhtteedd ooffff tthhee ccooaasstt ppaarrttiiccuullaarrllyy oonn tthhee EEaasstt CCooaasstt ooff ZZaannzziibbaarr aanndd TTaannggaa bbeettwweeeenn

OOccttoobbeerr aanndd DDeecceemmbbeerr.. SSeevveerraall hhuummppbbaacckk aanndd ssppeerrmm wwhhoolleess ((PPhhyysseetteerr mmaaccrroocceepphhaalluuss))

hhaavvee aallssoo bbeeeenn ssiigghhtteedd bbyy ffiisshheerrmmeenn oorr ttrraavveelleerrss iinn sshhiippss nneeaarr TTaannzzaanniiaa wwaatteerrss..

TThhee dduuggoonngg ((DDuuggoonngg dduuggoonngg)) iiss bbeelliieevveedd ttoo bbee aallmmoosstt eexxttiinncctt iinn TTaannzzaanniiaa.. HHoowweevveerr,,

rreeppoorrttss ssuuggggeessttss tthhaatt tthheessee aanniimmaallss aarree ssttiillll iinn eexxiisstteennccee iinn tthhee ssoouutthheerrnn ppaarrtt ooff TTaannzzaanniiaa

nneeaarr KKiillwwaa aanndd MMaaffiiaa aass wweellll aass iinn tthhee nnoorrtthheerrnn ppaarrtt ooff PPeemmbbaa..

2.5 Sea Turtles

TTuurrttlleess llooccaallllyy kknnoowwnn aass ““KKaassaa”” aarree ggrroouupp ooff vveerrtteebbrraattee‟‟ss aanniimmaallss bbeelloonnggiinngg ttoo tthhee oorrddeerr

TTeessttuuddiinneess.. LLiikkee ssnnaakkeess,, lliizzaarrddss aanndd ccrrooccooddiilleess,, tthheeyy aarree rreeppttiilleess..

FFoorr lloonngg ttiimmee mmaarriinnee ttuurrttlleess hhaavvee bbeeeenn uusseedd aass ffoooodd.. TThhee eeggggss aanndd mmeeeett ffrroomm sseeaa ttuurrttlleess

aarree ccoonnssuummeedd aanndd aarree ccoonnssiiddeerreedd aapphhrrooddiissiiaaccss iinn ssoommee ccooaassttaall ccoommmmuunniittiieess.. TThhee eeggggss ooff

mmaannyy eennddaannggeerreedd sseeaa ttuurrttlleess aarree ssttiillll ccoolllleecctteedd bbyy ppooaacchheerrss.. FFiivvee ssppeecciieess ooff sseeaa ttuurrttlleess aarree

ffoouunndd iinn TTaannzzaanniiaa wwaatteerrss.. TThheessee aarree tthhee GGrreeeenn ttuurrttlleess,, HHaawwkkssbbiillll ttuurrttllee,, OOlliivvee RRiiddlleeyy

ttuurrttllee,, LLooggggeerrhheeaadd ttuurrttllee aanndd LLeeaatthheerr bbaacckk ttuurrttllee.. TTwwoo ooff tthhee ffiivvee ssppeecciieess GGrreeeenn aanndd

HHaawwkkssbbiillll aarree kknnoowwnn ttoo nneesstt oonn tthhee TTaannzzaanniiaann wwaatteerrss..

2.6 Sea grass

SSeeaa ggrraasssseess aarree mmaarriinnee fflloowweerriinngg ppllaannttss ((aannggiioossppeerrmmss)) tthhaatt aarree aaddaapptteedd ttoo lliivvee ssuubbmmeerrggeedd

iinn sshhaallllooww sseeaa bboottttoommss.. TThhiirrtteeeenn ssppeecciieess ooff sseeaa ggrraasssseess hhaavvee bbeeeenn rreeppoorrtteedd iinn TTaannzzaanniiaa..

86

IInn TTaannzzaanniiaa,, sseeaa ggrraassss bbeeddss aarree wwiiddeellyy ddiissttrriibbuutteedd iinn iinntteerr--ttiiddaall,, aanndd ssuubb--ttiiddaall mmuudd aanndd

ssaanndd ffllaattss,, ccooaassttaall llaaggoooonnss,, aanndd iinn ssaannddyy aarreeaass aarroouunndd tthhee bbaasseess ooff sshhaallllooww,, ppaattcchhyy aanndd

ffrriinnggiinngg rreeeeffss.. TThheeyy aarree aallssoo ffoouunndd iinn ccrreeeekkss eexxppoosseedd ttoo llooww ttiiddee oorr aallwwaayyss ssuubbmmeerrggeedd,,

iinn ffiinnee ssaanndd mmiixxeedd wwiitthh mmuudd aanndd oonn ssaanndd ffllaattss aanndd ssaanndd bbaarrss.. TThheeyy aarree ffoouunndd iinn

aabbuunnddaannccee iinn sshheelltteerreedd aarreeaass ooff tthhee ccooaasstt aarroouunndd TTaannggaa,, aanndd ttiiddaall zzoonneess ffrroonnttiinngg tthhee

ddeellttaass ooff RRuuvvuu,, WWaammii aanndd RRuuffiijjii rriivveerrss aanndd aarroouunndd KKiillwwaa.. TThhee aaccttuuaall aarreeaa ccoovveerreedd bbyy

sseeaaggrraassss bbeeddss aanndd tthhee rreellaattiivvee ssppeecciieess ddeennssiittiieess hhaavvee nnoott bbeeeenn eessttaabblliisshheedd.. SSeeaaggrraassss ppllaayy

iimmppoorrttaanntt eeccoollooggiiccaall rroolleess.. TThheeyy hhaavvee ssttrroonngg iinntteerrttwwiinniinngg rrhhiizzoommeess aanndd rroooottss tthhaatt

ppeenneettrraattee tthhee ssuubbssttrraattuumm ttoo ssttaabbiilliizzee bboottttoomm sseeddiimmeennttss aanndd ssuuppppoorrtt ppllaanntt aaggaaiinnsstt wwaatteerr

mmoottiioonn.. BBeeccaauussee sseeaaggrraasssseess aarree ppllaannttss wwiitthh eexxtteennssiivvee nnuuttrriieenntt ccyycclliinngg aanndd ffaasstt

rreeggeenneerraattiioonn,, tthheeyy hhaavvee aa vveerryy hhiigghh pprroodduuccttiivviittyy rraattee.. BByy sseerrvviicciinngg ccoommpplleexx ffoooodd wweebbss

tthhrroouugghh ddeeaadd aanndd lliivviinngg oorrggaanniissmmss,, sseeaaggrraassss bbeeddss aarree ccrriittiiccaall hhaabbiittaattss iinn mmaaiinnttaaiinniinngg

mmaarriinnee bbiiooddiivveerrssiittyy,, ssuuppppoorrttiinngg bbootthh aarrttiissaannaall aanndd iinndduussttrriiaall ffiisshheerriieess aanndd pprrootteeccttiinngg

bbeeaacchheess ffrroomm eerroossiioonn bbyy aatttteennuuaattiinngg ssttrroonngg sseeaa wwaavveess.. TTaabbllee 33..44 sshhoowwss tthhee ddiissttrriibbuuttiioonn ooff

sseeaa ggrraassss sspppp iinn tthhee CCooaasstt ooff TTaannzzaanniiaa..

Table 3.5: Distribution of sea grass species in Tanzania coast

Species Tanga Dar/Coast Lindi Mtwara

Tanga Pangani Coast Dar Mafia

Cymodocea rotunda X X X

C. serrulata X X X X

Enhalus acoroides X X X

Halodule wrightii X X X X X

H. uninervis X X X X

Halopohila minor X

H. ovalis X X

H. stipulacea X X X

H. wrightii X X X X X

Syringodium

isoetifollium

X X X X X

Thalasia ciliatum X X X X X

T. hemiprichi X X X X X X

2.7 Plankton

PPllaannkkttoonn iiss mmaaddee uupp ttoo oorrggaanniissmmss wwiitthh aabbiilliittyy ttoo ffllooaatt iinn aaqquuaattiicc hhaabbiittaatt ssuucchh aass oocceeaannss,,

rriivveerrss aanndd llaakkeess.. PPllaannkkttoonn aarree ddiivviiddeedd iinnttoo ccoommppoonneennttss,, nnaammeellyy PPhhyyttooppllaannkkttoonn aanndd

zzooooppllaannkkttoonn..

PPhhyyttooppllaannkkttoonn ccoonnssiissttss ooff pprriimmaarryy pprroodduucceerrss ooff oorrggaanniicc mmaatttteerr tthhaatt ssttaanndd oonn tthhee bbaasseelliinnee

ooff ffoooodd wweebbss iinn aaqquuaattiicc eennvviirroonnmmeenntt.. AAbboouutt 9955%% ooff tthhee ttoottaall mmaarriinnee pprriimmaarryy pprroodduuccttiioonn

ccoommeess ffrroomm pphhyyttooppllaannkkttoonn wwhhiicchh iiss tthhee ttoottaall ssoouurrcceess ooff eenneerrggyy iinn tthhee eeccoossyysstteemm.. SSppeecciieess

ccoommppoossiittiioonn ooff pphhyyttooppllaannkkttoonn vvaarriieess wwiitthh llooccaattiioonn sseeaassoonn aanndd ttiimmee ooff ddaayy.. SSppeecciieess

ddiivveerrssiittyy iinn TTaannzzaanniiaa wwaatteerrss wwaass ffoouunndd ttoo bbee hhiigghheerr tthheenn nnoorrmmaall.. AAbboouutt 226655 ttaaxx wweerree

rreeppoorrtteedd ttoo ooccccuuppyy ccooaassttaall wwaatteerrss aarroouunndd DDaarr eess SSaallaaaamm aanndd 119922 ssppeecciieess ffoouunndd iinn

87

ZZaannzziibbaarr wwaatteerrss ((BBrryycceessoonn 11997777)).. SSttuuddiieess ccoonndduucctteedd iinn ssaalltt mmaarrsshheess aanndd ccooaassttaall wwaatteerrss

ooff BBaaggaammooyyoo iiddeennttiiffiieedd 4411 ssppeecciieess ooff mmiiccrrooaallggaa..

ZZooooppllaannkkttoonn iinncclluuddeess ttiinnyy hheerrbbiivvoorreess tthhaatt ffeeeedd oonn tthhee ssmmaalllleerr pphhyyttooppllaannkkttoonn..

ZZooooppllaannkkttoonn iiss pprriimmaarryy ccoonnssuummeerrss aanndd lliikkee pphhyyttooppllaannkkttoonn tthheeyy ppllaayy aa mmaajjoorr rroollee iinn

ttrraannssffeerr ooff eenneerrggyy ffrroomm oonnee ttrroopphhiicc lleevveell ttoo aannootthheerr iinn tthhee mmaarriinnee ffoooodd wweebb.. ZZoooopplloonnkkttoonn

iiss tthhee bbaassiicc ffoooodd ooff mmaannyy ffiisshh llaarrvvaaee aanndd aadduulltt ffiisshheess aass wweellll aass mmaannyy mmaarriinnee aanniimmaallss lliikkee

wwhhaalleess.. AAlltthhoouugghh iimmppoorrttaanntt iinn tthhee mmaarriinnee ffoooodd wweebb vveerryy lliittttllee hhaass bbeeeenn ssttuuddiieedd

ccoonncceerrnniinngg zzooooppllaannkkttoonn iinn tthhee ccooaassttaall wwaatteerrss ooff TTaannzzaanniiaa..

3.0 Economic Opportunities for the Coastal and Marine Environment. 3.1 Fisheries

MMoosstt ccooaassttaall ppeeooppllee aarree iinnvvoollvveedd iinn ffiisshhiinngg aaccttiivviittiieess.. NNeeaarrllyy aallll ffiisshhiinngg ttaakkeess ppllaaccee iinn

tthhaatt ccoonnttiinneennttaall sshheellll wwhhiicchh iiss qquuiittee nnaarrrrooww.. TThhee iinnsshhoorree mmaarriinnee ffiisshheerryy iiss eexxttrreemmeellyy

iimmppoorrttaanntt ttoo ccooaassttaall ccoommmmuunniittiieess.. TThhee nnuummbbeerr ooff ffiisshheerrmmeenn iiss iinnccrreeaassiinngg wwhheerreeaass

ccuurrrreennttllyy iitt iiss eessttiimmaatteedd tthhaatt tthheerree aarree oovveerr 6600,,000000 ffiisshheerrmmeenn ooppeerraattiinngg tthhee wwhhoollee ccooaasstt ooff

TTaannzzaanniiaa iinncclluuddiinngg tthhee iissllaannddss.. TThhee iimmppoorrttaannccee aanndd iimmppaacctt ooff ffiisshhiinngg eexxtteennddss mmuucchh

bbeeyyoonndd tthheessee ffuullllttiimmee ffiisshheerrss aanndd iinncclluuddee aallll tthhoossee iinnvvoollvveedd iinn bbooaatt ccoonnssttrruuccttiioonn aanndd

rreeppaaiirr,, aanndd mmaarrkkeettiinngg aanndd ssaallee ooff ffiisshh pprroodduuccttss.. TThheerreeffoorree wwhheenn aa ffiisshheerryy ccoollllaappsseess iitt

ddooeess nnoott oonnllyy aaffffeecctt tthhee ffiisshheerrmmeenn bbuutt aa wwhhoollee ggrroouupp ooff ppeeooppllee wwhhoo ddeeppeenndd oonn iitt.. FFiisshh iiss

aallssoo iimmppoorrttaanntt ssoouurrccee ooff aanniimmaall pprrootteeiinn ttoo aa llaarrggee ppaarrtt ooff tthhee ccooaassttaall ppooppuullaattiioonn..

TThhee hhiigghh sseeaass,, oorr tthhee ““EExxcclluussiivvee EEccoonnoommiicc ZZoonnee”” tthhaatt eexxtteennddss 220000 nnaauuttiiccaall mmiilleess oouutt tthhee

sseeaa iiss ssoo ffaarr uunneexxppllooiitteedd bbyy llooccaall ffiisshheerrmmeenn bbeeccaauussee tthheeyy llaacckk ssttaabbllee vveesssseellss ttoo vveennttuurree

iinnttoo tthheessee ddiissttaanntt wwaatteerrss..

TThhee ccoonnttrriibbuuttiioonn ooff ffiisshheerryy ttoo TTaannzzaanniiaa GGDDPP vvaarriieess bbeettwweeeenn 22..11.. –– 55%% iinn TTaannzzaanniiaann

mmaaiinnllaanndd aanndd 22..22 –– 1100..44%% iinn ZZaannzziibbaarr.. IInn TTaannzzaanniiaa mmaaiinnllaanndd,, mmaarriinnee ffiisshheerriieess ccaattcchheess

fflluuccttuuaatteedd bbeettwweeeenn ttoo 4488,,776611 ttoonneess iinn 11999955 ttoo 5544,,996688..66 iinn 22000055 ((TTaabbllee 33..55))..

Table 3.6: Trend of Marine Fish Production (Tanzania Mainland ) from 1995 to 2005

YYeeaarr NNuummbbeerr ooff

FFiisshheerrmmaann NNuummbbeerr ooff FFiisshhiinngg

VVeesssseellss FFiisshh PPrroodduuccttiioonn ((MM..

TToonnss ))

11999955 1133,,882222 33,,776688 4488,,776611

11999966 1133,,882222 33,,776688 5599,,550088..11

11999977 1133,,882222 33,,776688 5500,,221100

11999988 2200,,662255 55,,115577 4488,,000000

11999999 2200,,662255 55,,551177 5500,,000000

22000000 2200,,662255 55,,551177 4499,,000000

22000011 1199,,007711 44,,992277 5522,,993344..99

22000022 1199,,007711 44,,992277 4499,,667744..55

22000033 1199,,007711 44,,992277 4499,,227700

22000044 1199,,007711 44,,992277 5500,,447700

22000055 2299,,775544 77,,119900 5544,,996688..66

SSoouurrccee:: FFiisshheerriieess DDiivviissiioonn SSttaattiissttiiccss 22000055

88

3.1.1 Artisanal Fisheries

IInn TTaannzzaanniiaa,, mmaarriinnee ffiisshheerriieess iiss ssttiillll mmaaiinnllyy aarrttiissaannaall.. MMaarriinnee ffiisshheerriieess ccoonnttrriibbuuttee aabboouutt

1155%% ooff tthhee ttoottaall ffiisshh pprroodduuccttiioonn iinn tthhee ccoouunnttrryy,, wwiitthh tthhee rreesstt ccoommiinngg ffrroomm ffrreesshhwwaatteerr

ffiisshheerriieess.. MMoosstt ooff tthhee aarrttiissaannaall ffiisshheerrmmeenn aarree ppoooorr aanndd tthhuuss ddeessppiittee pprrooffiitt ooppppoorrttuunniittiieess,,

tthheeyy hhaavvee nnoott bbeeeenn aabbllee ttoo aaddjjuusstt ttoo tthhee iinnccrreeaasseedd ddeemmaanndd.. MMoosstt ooff ffiisshheerrffoollkk uussee ssiimmppllee

ggeeaarrss aanndd vveesssseellss wwiitthh lliimmiitteedd ooppeerraattiioonnaall rraannggee..

3.1.2 Industrial fisheries PPrraawwnn ffiisshheerriieess rreepprreesseenntt tthhee mmoosstt iimmppoorrttaanntt iinndduussttrriiaall ffiisshheerryy iinn tthhee ccoouunnttrryy aanndd hhaavvee

bbeeeenn ooppeerraattiinngg ssiinnccee 11998800‟‟ss.. DDeeeepp sseeaa ffiisshhiinngg wwhhiicchh iiss ccuurrrreennttllyy aatt aa ssmmaallll--ssccaallee iiss bbeeeenn..

TThhee iinndduussttrriiaall ffiisshheerryy ffoorr pprraawwnnss iiss bbaasseedd mmoossttllyy iinn tthhee iinn sshhoorrtt sshhaallllooww aarreeaass aarroouunndd tthhee

mmaannggrroovvee ffrriinnggeedd BBaaggaammooyyoo//SSaaaaddaannii aanndd tthhee RRuuffiijjii ddeellttaass.. OOffffsshhoorree ffiisshheerriieess aarree

ppootteennttiiaall rreessoouurrcceess wwiitthh hhiigghh vvaalluuee mmiiggrraattoorryy ffiisshh ssppeecciieess ssuucchh aass ttuunnaa,, ssaaiillffiisshh,, mmaarrlliinn

aanndd sswwoorrddffiisshh.. FFoorreeiiggnn vveesssseellss aarree aallssoo kknnoowwnn ttoo ffiisshh tthheessee wwaatteerrss..

3.2 Mariculture

SSeeaawweeeedd ffaarrmmiinngg bbeeggaann iinn 11998899 aalloonngg tthhee ccooaasstt ooff ZZaannzziibbaarr aanndd iitt hhaass ssiinnccee eexxppaannddeedd ttoo

ootthheerr aarreeaass.. TThhee ssoocciioo--eeccoonnoommiicc iimmppaaccttss ooff sseeaa wweeeedd ffaarrmmiinngg hhaavvee bbeeeenn

oovveerrwwhheellmmiinnggllyy ppoossiittiivvee pprroovviiddiinngg iinnccoommee ttoo wwoommeenn ffrroomm ppoooorr rreemmoottee vviillllaaggeess.. IItt aallssoo

rreepprreesseennttss aa ssoouurrccee ooff ffoorreeiiggnn eexxcchhaannggee ffoorr tthhee nnaattiioonnaall eeccoonnoommyy.. TThheerree aarree aabbuunnddaanntt

nnaattuurraall hhaabbiittaatt aarreeaass wwiitthh ggoooodd wwaatteerr qquuaalliittyy wwhheerree tthhee iinndduussttrryy ccaann eexxppaanndd.. SSeeaawweeeeddss

ccaann bbee uusseedd iinn ffoooodd pprroocceessssiinngg,, ccoossmmeettiiccss aanndd pphhaarrmmaacceeuuttiiccaall pprroodduuccttss..

IItt iiss eessttiimmaatteedd tthhaatt tthhiiss iinndduussttrryy eemmppllooyy mmoorree tthheenn 3300,,000000 ppeeooppllee.. WWoommeenn aarree tthhee

pprriimmaarryy ccuullttiivvaattoorrss ooff sseeaawweeeedd aanndd tthhee aaddddiittiioonnaall iinnccoommee hhaass bbeenneeffiitteedd tthheeiirr ffaammiilliieess aanndd

ccoommmmuunniittiieess.. TThhee iinnccrreeaassiinngg iimmppoorrttaannccee ooff sseeaawweeeedd ffaarrmmiinngg iiss rreefflleecctteedd iinn iittss ddrraammaattiicc

ggrroowwtthh,, ssttaarrttiinngg ffrroomm bbaarreellyy 550000 ttoonneess ooff ddrryy sseeaawweeeedd ppeerr yyeeaarr iinn 11998899 ttoo 77,,000000 ttoonneess ppeerr

yyeeaarr iinn 22000000.. BBeettwweeeenn 11999933 aanndd 11999944 sseeaawweeeedd ccoonnttrriibbuutteedd 1155--2277%% ooff tthhee ZZaannzziibbaarr

eexxppoorrtt iinnccoommee..

TTwwoo ssppeecciieess ooff sseeaawweeeedd aarree uunnddeerr ccuullttiivvaattiioonn iinn TTaannzzaanniiaa,, EEuucchheeuummaa ccoottttoonniiii aanndd

EEuucchheeuummaa ssppiinnoossuumm.. IInn ccooaassttaall mmaaiinnllaanndd ooff TTaannzzaanniiaa EEuucchheeuummaa ccoottttoonniiii iiss nnooww aallmmoosstt

eexxcclluussiivveellyy ffaarrmmeedd,, bbeeiinngg ggrroowwnn iinn ccooaassttaall vviillllaaggeess iinn aallll ccooaassttaall rreeggiioonnss.. TThhee pprriiccee ppaaiidd

ttoo sseeaawweeeedd ffaarrmmeerrss iiss aabboouutt UUSS $$ 440000 aanndd UUSS $$ 11,,000000 ffoorr aa mmeettrriicc ttoonnee ooff ddrriieedd ssppiinnoossuumm

aanndd ccoottttoonniiii rreessppeeccttiivveellyy..

DDeessppiittee tthhee rraappiidd sspprreeaadd ooff sseeaawweeeedd ffaarrmmiinngg tthheerree iiss aa rroooomm ffoorr iimmpprroovveemmeenntt.. QQuuaalliittyy ooff

eexxiissttiinngg hhaarrvveesstt ccaann bbee iimmpprroovveedd iiff tteecchhnniiccaall aassssiissttaannccee iiss ggiivveenn ttoo sseeaawweeeedd ffaarrmmeerrss..

PPrroommoottiioonn ooff sseeaawweeeedd ffaarrmmiinngg iiss ppaarraammoouunntt aass iitt pprroovviiddee aalltteerrnnaattiivvee iinnccoommee--ggeenneerraattiinngg

ooppttiioonnss ttoo rreedduuccee pprreessssuurree oonn oovveerreexxppllooiitteedd iinnsshhoorree ffiisshheerriieess aass ppaarrtt ooff mmaarriinnee

ccoonnsseerrvvaattiioonn aanndd iinntteeggrraatteedd ccooaassttaall mmaannaaggeemmeenntt ssttrraatteeggiieess..

89

3.3 Coastal Tourism

TTaannzzaanniiaa iiss iinntteerrnnaattiioonnaallllyy rreenneewweedd ffoorr iittss tteerrrreessttrriiaall ppaarrkkss aanndd wwiillddlliiffee ssaaffaarrii TToouurriissmm..

TThhee wwiillddlliiffee rreessoouurrcceess ooff TTaannzzaanniiaa rraannkk aammoonngg tthhee ffiinneesstt iinn tthhee wwoorrlldd.. TThhee ttoouurriissmm

iinndduussttrryy iiss aallrreeaaddyy aa mmaajjoorr ssoouurrccee ooff ffoorreeiiggnn eexxcchhaannggee aaccccoouunnttiinngg ffoorr aabboouutt 1166%% ooff

nnaattiioonnaall GGDDPP,, aanndd nneeaarrllyy 2255%% ooff ttoottaall eexxppoorrtt eeaarrnniinnggss..

TThhee ssiizzee aanndd iinnccoommee ffrroomm ccooaassttaall ttoouurriissmm iiss ssmmaalllleerr bbuutt wwiitthh ttoouurriisstt nnuummbbeerrss iinnccrreeaassiinngg

ttoo nneeaarr ccaappaacciittyy lleevveellss iinn tteerrrreessttrriiaall ppaarrkkss,, lleeaaddeerrss iinn tthhee iinndduussttrryy sseeaa aa ffuuttuurree sshhiifftt ttoo

ttoouurriissmm eexxppaannssiioonn aanndd ddiivveerrssiiffiiccaattiioonn aalloonngg tthhee ccooaasstt.. TThhee NNaattiioonnaall IInntteeggrraatteedd MMaasstteerr

PPllaann ppooiinnttss ttoo ccooaassttaall aarreeaass aass hhaavviinngg ssttrroonngg ppootteennttiiaall ffoorr ttoouurriissmm ggrroowwtthh.. TThhee nnaattuurraall,,

ccuullttuurraall,, aanndd hhiissttoorriiccaall hheerriittaaggee ooff TTaannzzaanniiaa iiss wwhhaatt mmaakkeess ccooaassttaall aanndd mmaarriinnee ssiitteess

aattttrraaccttiivvee ttoo iinntteerrnnaattiioonnaall ttoouurriissttss..

CClluusstteerrss ooff hhootteellss aanndd llooddggeess tthhaatt pprroovviiddee nnaattuurree bbaasseedd ttoouurriissmm wwiitthh mmaarrkkeett tthhaatt rreelliieess

pprriimmaarriillyy oonn iinntteerrnnaattiioonnaall ttrraavveelleerrss aarree ffoouunndd iinn PPaannggaannii,, ZZaannzziibbaarr IIssllaannddss,, MMaaffiiaa IIssllaanndd,,

aanndd KKiillwwaa.. TThheessee hhootteellss aanndd llooddggeess ooffffeerr ttrraannqquuiilliittyy,, bbeeaauuttiiffuull bbrraacchheess aanndd nnaattuurraall

eennvviirroonnmmeenntt,, ssppoorrtt ffiisshhiinngg,, ddiivviinngg aanndd ssnnoorrkkeelliinngg,, ccuullttuurree aanndd hhiissttoorryy,, aanndd aarrcchheeoollooggiiccaall

ssuuiitteess..

WWhhiillee aasssseessssiinngg tthhee ppootteennttiiaall ffoorr ccooaassttaall ttoouurriissmm ddeevveellooppmmeenntt,, iitt iiss iimmppoorrttaanntt ttoo iiddeennttiiffyy

aanndd uunnddeerrssttaanndd tthhee ppootteennttiiaall iimmppaaccttss ssuucchh ddeevveellooppmmeenntt wwiillll hhaavvee oonn hhuummaann aanndd nnaattuurraall

rreessoouurrcceess ooff tthhee ccooaassttaall aarreeaa.. TThhee ddeevveellooppmmeenntt ooff ccooaassttaall ttoouurriissmmss ccaann hhaavvee aa mmyyrriiaadd ooff

iimmppaaccttss oonn tthhee ccooaassttaall rreeggiioonn,, aanndd ccaann,, iinn ttuurrnn iimmppaacctteedd bbyy nnoonn--ttoouurriissmm rreellaatteedd aaccttiivviittiieess..

TThheessee iimmppaaccttss ccaann bbee ppoossiittiivvee,, ssuucchh aass jjoobb ccrreeaattiioonn ffoorr llooccaall ppeeooppllee,, oorr nneeggaattiivvee,, ssuucchh aass

ccooaassttaall ddeeggrraaddaattiioonn dduuee ttoo uunnppllaannnneedd ddeevveellooppmmeenntt ooff ccooaassttaall ddeeggrraaddaattiioonn dduuee ttoo

uunnppllaannnneedd ddeevveellooppmmeenntt ooff ccooaassttaall hhootteellss..

TThhee eeccoonnoommiicc iimmppaaccttss ooff ccooaassttaall ttoouurriissmm iinncclluuddee bbootthh ppoossiittiivvee aanndd nneeggaattiivvee aassppeeccttss iinn

tteerrmmss ooff tthhee llooccaall aanndd nnaattiioonnaall eeccoonnoommyy.. AAtt llooccaall lleevveell tthhee ccoonnssttrruuccttiioonn aanndd ooppeerraattiioonn ooff

hhootteellss aanndd ootthheerr aaccccoommmmooddaattiioonn ccaann lleeaadd ttoo eemmeerrggeennccee ooff nnuummeerroouuss ttyyppeess ooff ssuuppppoorrttiinngg

sseerrvviicceess aanndd bbuussiinneesssseess,, ssuucchh aass rreessttaauurraannttss,, ttoouurr aaggeenncciieess eettcc,, mmaannyy ooff wwhhiicchh ccaann bbee

ddeevveellooppeedd aanndd mmaannaaggeedd bbyy llooccaall ppeeooppllee.. CCooaassttaall ttoouurriissmm ccaann aallssoo pprroovviiddee rreevveennuuee ttoo

llooccaall ggoovveerrnnmmeenntt aauutthhoorriittiieess tthhrroouugghh ttaaxxaattiioonn aanndd ootthheerr rreevveennuuee bbeeaarriinngg aaccttiivviittiieess.. AAtt

nnaattiioonnaall lleevveell,, tthhee ddeevveellooppmmeenntt ooff ccooaassttaall ttoouurriissmm ccaann pprroovviiddee mmuucchh nneeeeddeedd ffoorreeiiggnn

eexxcchhaannggee aanndd ttaaxx rreevveennuuee,, ccoonnttrriibbuuttiinngg ttoo tthhee ggrroowwtthh ooff tthhee nnaattiioonnaall eeccoonnoommyy..

TThhee ssoocciiaall iimmppaaccttss ooff ttoouurriissmm aarree qquuiittee ddiiffffiiccuulltt ttoo mmeeaassuurree bbuutt oofftteenn aarree ffaaiirrllyy nneeggaattiivvee..

OOnn tthhee ppoossiittiivvee ssiiddee,, ttoouurriissmm ccaann pprroommoottee iinntteerr--ccuullttuurraall uunnddeerrssttaannddiinngg bbeettwweeeenn hhoosstt aanndd

vviissiittoorr,, hhoowweevveerr,, ccaann lleeaadd ccrreeeeppiinngg ooff ffoorreeiiggnn vvaalluueess aanndd iiddeeaass iinnttoo tthhee hhoosstt ppooppuullaattiioonn

aanndd tthhuuss eerrooddiinngg llooccaall vvaalluuee ssyysstteemmss.. ((TTCCMMPP,, WWoorrkkiinngg DDooccuummeenntt NNoo.. 55005577))

TThhee eennvviirroonnmmeennttaall iimmppaaccttss ooff ccooaassttaall ttoouurriissmm ccaann bbee nnuummeerroouuss.. UUnnppllaannnneedd ddeevveellooppmmeenntt

ooff ttoouurriissmm--rreellaatteedd ffaacciilliittiieess aanndd iinnffrraassttrruuccttuurree ccaann aaddvveerrsseellyy aaffffeecctt tthhee nnaattuurraall rreessoouurrcceess

bbaassee tthhaatt llooccaall ppooppuullaattiioonnss ddeeppeenndd oonn ffoorr tthheeiirr lliivveelliihhooooddss.. AApppprroopprriiaattee ssiittttiinngg ooff ttoouurriisstt

hhootteellss aanndd ootthheerr ssttrruuccttuurreess ccaann mmiinniimmiizzee tthheessee iimmppaaccttss,, aass ccaann tthhee ddeevveellooppmmeenntt ooff

aaddeeqquuaattee wwaassttee ddiissppoossaall ffaacciilliittiieess.. TThhee ccaarrrryyiinngg ccaappaacciittyy ooff tthhee eeccoossyysstteemmss nneeeeddss ttoo bbee

90

ttaakkeenn iinnttoo aaccccoouunntt iinn oorrddeerr ttoo eennssuurree tthhaatt ccooaassttaall ttoouurriisstt aaccttiivviittiieess ddoonn nnoott eexxcceeeedd tthhee

lliimmiittss ooff aacccceeppttaabbllee uussee ffoorr tthhaatt aarreeaa.. CCrriittiiccaall ssyysstteemmss,, ssuucchh aass mmaannggrroovveess,, eessttuuaarriieess aanndd

rreeeeffss ccaann bbee ddaammaaggeedd bbyy ccooaassttaall ttoouurriissmm aaccttiivviittiieess iiff nnoott pprrooppeerrllyy mmaannaaggeedd..

TThhee iimmppaaccttss ooff ccooaassttaall ttoouurriissmm oonn ccuullttuurraall hheerriittaaggee aarree aallssoo iimmppoorrttaanntt.. TThhee ddeevveellooppmmeenntt

aanndd pprroommoottiioonn ooff ccuullttuurraall hheerriittaaggee aattttrraaccttiioonnss ccaann lleeaadd ttoo ffuurrtthheerr pprrootteeccttiioonn ooff tthhoossee

aattttrraaccttiioonnss tthhrroouugghh sseellff ––ssuussttaaiinniinngg ffiinnaanncciinngg mmeecchhaanniissmmss..

3.4 Extraction of Minerals and Energy Resources 3.4.1 Salt Production

TThheerree aarree aabboouutt 119977 ssaallttwwoorrkkss iinn TTaannzzaanniiaa aanndd 119933 ooff tthheemm aarree ccooaassttaall ssaalltt wwoorrkkss

((UUNNEEPP,, 22000011)).. SSaalltt mmaakkiinngg iiss pprreevvaalleenntt iinn aallll ccooaassttaall ddiissttrriiccttss iinn TTaannggaa,, DDaarr eess SSaallaaaamm,,

CCooaasstt,, LLiinndd aanndd MMttwwaarraa rreeggiioonnss..

TThheerree aarree ffoouurr mmaaiinn mmeetthhooddss ffoorr ssaalltt pprroodduuccttiioonn iinn TTaannzzaanniiaa nnaammeellyy:: tthheerrmmaall

eevvaappoorraattiioonn,, vvaaccuuuumm eevvaappoorraattiioonn,, ssoollaarr eevvaappoorraattiioonn,, aanndd ffooootthhiillllss ssaalltt ccoolllleeccttiioonn.. AAmmoonngg

tthheessee,, ssoollaarr eevvaappoorraattiioonn iiss tthhee mmoosstt wwiiddeellyy uusseedd mmeetthhoodd aanndd tthhee oonnee tthhaatt iiss tthhee lleeaasstt

ccaappiittaall iinntteennssiivvee.. BBiigg ccoommppaanniieess tthhaatt ccoonndduucctt tthhee llaarrggeesstt ssaalltt mmiinniinngg bbuussiinneessss uussee ssoollaarr

eevvaappoorraattiioonn aanndd iiss nnoorrmmaallllyy ccaarrrriieedd dduurriinngg tthhee ddrryy sseeaassoonn..

SSaalltt iiss aallssoo pprroodduucceedd tthhrroouugghh bbooiilliinngg bbyy ssmmaallll ssccaallee mmiinneerrss.. TThhiiss mmeetthhoodd eennttaaiillss tthhee

aavvaaiillaabbiilliittyy ooff llaarrggee aammoouunntt ooff ffiirreewwoooodd wwhhiicchh iiss oobbttaaiinneedd bbyy ccuuttttiinngg ddoowwnn mmaannggrroovvee

ffoorreessttss aanndd nneeiigghhbboorriinngg tteerrrreessttrriiaall ttrreeeess..

3.4.2 Sand mining

SSaanndd mmiinniinngg eexxiissttss iinn mmoosstt ccooaassttaall ttoowwnnss aanndd vviillllaaggeess.. AArreeaass wwhheerree ssaanndd mmiinniinngg iiss

uunnddeerrttaakkeenn iinncclluuddee::--

((ii)) TTaannggaa ttoowwnn aatt KKiioommoonnii

((iiii)) MMuuhheezzaa ddiissttrriicctt aatt BBaaggaammooyyoo vviillllaaggee aanndd iinn rriivveerr ccoouurrsseess

((iiiiii)) PPaannggaannii ddiissttrriicctt ffrroomm tthhee bbeeaacchh aanndd ssoommee aarreeaass oonn PPaannggaannii rriivveerr

bbaannkk uuppssttrreeaamm

((iivv)) MMiitteemmaa iinn LLiinnddii ttoowwnn nneeaarr tthhee sshhoorree

((vv)) KKiillwwaa KKiivviinnjjee –– nneeaarr tthhee sshhoorree

((vvii)) DDaarr eess SSaallaaaamm aarreeaa aatt MMbbaaggaallaa,, CChhaammaazzii,, PPaannddee,, TTuuaannggoommaa,,

MMaaggoohhee,, MMaakkoonnggoo,, MMppiijjii,, BBuunnjjuu,, KKaawwee aanndd iinn ffoouurr mmaaiinn ssttrreeaammss

((TTeeggeettaa,, MMbbeezzii,, MMllaallaakkuuwwaa aanndd KKiijjiittoonnyyaammaa))

((vviiii)) MMttwwaarraa –– nneeaarr tthhee sshhoorree

3.4.3 Quarrying

QQuuaarrrryyiinngg iiss ddoonnee aatt aa ccoommmmeerrcciiaall ssccaallee nneeaarr uurrbbaann cceennttrreess aanndd uussee ccoorraall rraagg aanndd ootthheerr

ssttoonneess.. QQuuaarrrryyiinngg iiss uunnddeerrttaakkeenn iinn aallll ccoossttaall rreeggiioonnss aanndd iiss nnoorrmmaallllyy nneeaarr tthhee sshhoorree..

HHoowweevveerr,, ddaattaa oonn tthhee eexxtteenntt ooff qquuaarrrryyiinngg iiss lliimmiitteedd..

91

3.4.4 Gas exploration

TTaannzzaanniiaa hhaass ggaass rreessoouurrcceess iinn ccooaassttaall aarreeaass tthhaatt mmaakkee ssiiggnniiffiiccaanntt ccoonnttrriibbuuttiioonn ttoo tthhee

nnaattiioonnaall eeccoonnoommyy.. CCuurrrreennttllyy ggaass iiss bbeeiinngg eexxttrraacctteedd aatt SSoonnggoo SSoonnggoo ggaass ffiieelldd.. PPllaannss aarree

uunnddeerrwwaayy ttoo ssttaarrtt eexxttrraaccttiinngg ggaass ffrroomm MMnnaazzii BBaayy iinn MMttwwaarraa.. TThhee nnaattuurraall ggaass ffrroomm SSoonnggoo

SSoonnggoo iiss uusseedd ttoo pprroovviiddee ffuueell ffoorr ppoowweerr ggeenneerraattiioonn ppllaannttss aanndd ffoorr iinndduussttrriiaall uussee..

4.0 Threats on Coastal and Marine Resources and Ecosystem SSiiggnnss ooff eennvviirroonnmmeennttaall ddeeggrraaddaattiioonn aass wweellll aass tthhee ddeecclliinnee iinn nnaattuurraall rreessoouurrcceess aanndd

bbiiooddiivveerrssiittyy aarree bbeeccoommiinngg oobbvviioouuss iinn tthhee ccooaassttaall aanndd mmaarriinnee eennvviirroonnmmeenntt.. OOff tthheessee

tthhrreeaattss,, tthhee mmaaiinn oonneess aarree::--

((ii)) ddeecclliinniinngg hhaarrvveesstt ooff mmaarriinnee aanndd ccooaassttaall lliivviinngg rreessoouurrcceess

((iiii)) lloossss ooff ccooaassttaall aanndd mmaarriinnee hhaabbiittaattss aanndd bbiiooddiivveerrssiittyy

((iiiiii)) CCooaassttaall ppoolllluuttiioonn

((iivv)) BBeeaacchh ((ccooaassttaall)) eerroossiioonn

4.1 Decline of Marine and Coastal Living Resources

TThhee aarrttiissaannaall aanndd iinndduussttrriiaall ffiisshheerriieess iinn TTaannzzaanniiaa hhaavvee bbeeeenn ffaalllliinngg ccoonnssiisstteennttllyy iinn rreecceenntt

yyeeaarrss.. FFoorr eexxaammppllee;; tthhee aarrttiissaannaall ffiisshh llaannddiinnggss hhaavvee ddeeccrreeaasseedd ffrroomm 5544,,332277 ttoonneess iinn 11999900

ttoo 3322,,228866 ttoonneess iinn 11999944.. FFuurrtthheerrmmoorree,, tthheerree iiss eevviiddeennccee tthhaatt iinnccrreeaasseedd ccoommmmeerrcciiaalliizzaattiioonn

ooff ooccttooppuuss,, sseeaa ccuuccuummbbeerr aanndd sseeaasshheellll hhaarrvveesstt hhaass rreessuulltteedd iinn ddeecclliinneess ooff tthheessee ssppeecciieess iinn

aa nnuummbbeerr ooff aarreeaass iinn TTaannzzaanniiaa.. TThhee ddeecclliinnee mmaayy ssiiggnnaall tthhaatt tthhee aarrttiissaannaall ffiisshheerryy iiss

eexxppllooiittiinngg tthhee ccooaassttaall ffiisshheerryy aatt iittss mmaaxxiimmuumm ppootteennttiiaall aanndd tthhaatt tthhee ddeecclliinnee iinn ccaattcchheess

mmaayy iinn iinnddiiccaattee oovveerrffiisshhiinngg..

PPrraawwnn ffiisshheerryy rreepprreesseenntt iiss tthhee mmoosstt iinndduussttrriiaall ffiisshheerryy uunnddeerrttaakkeenn iinn tthhee ccoouunnttrryy aanndd hhaass

bbeeeenn ooppeerraattiinngg ssiinnccee mmiidd 11998800‟‟ss.. PPrraawwnn ffiisshheerryy iiss bbaasseedd mmoossttllyy iinn tthhee iinnsshhoorree sshhaallllooww

aarreeaass aarroouunndd tthhee mmaannggrroovvee ffrriinnggeedd BBaaggaammooyyoo,, SSaaaaddaannii aanndd tthhee RRuuffiijjii ddeellttaa wwiitthh

aapppprrooxxiimmaatteellyy 2211 pprraawwnn ttrraaiilleerrss.. CCaattcchheess ffoorr pprraawwnnss hhaass sshhoowwnn ddeeccrreeaassiinngg ttrreenndd..

PPrraawwnnss bbeeiinngg eexxppoorrtteedd hhaavvee ddeecclliinneedd ddrraassttiiccaallllyy ffrroomm aabboouutt 11,,336600 ttoonneess iinn 22000000 ttoo 446677

ttoonneess iinn 22000055 ((SSMMTT,, 22000066)).. TThhiiss ddeecclliinnee iinn ccaattcchheess mmaayy ssiiggnnaall tthhee rreessoouurrccee iiss oovveerr--

eexxppllooiitteedd..

NNaattuurraall ccaallaammiittiieess ssuucchh aass ssttoorrmmss aanndd ssttrroonngg wwaavveess aarree kknnoowwnn ttoo ddaammaaggee ccoorraallss aanndd

iinnddiirreeccttllyy ccoouulldd aaffffeecctt ffiisshh ppooppuullaattiioonnss.. OOtthheerr iimmppaaccttss ccoouulldd bbee ccaauusseedd bbyy rriivveerr rruunnooffffss,,

wwhhiicchh ccrreeaattee ssiillttaattiioonn eessppeecciiaallllyy aarroouunndd rriivveerr mmoouutthhss.. AA rreecceenntt eevveenntt wwaass ccoorraall bblleeaacchhiinngg

ccaauusseedd bbyy tthhee iinnccrreeaassee iinn wwaatteerr tteemmppeerraattuurreess iinn 11999988.. TThhiiss iiss bbeelliieevveedd ttoo hhaavvee iimmppaacctteedd

ccoorraall rreeeeffss iinn sseevveerraall ppaarrttss ooff TTaannzzaanniiaa wwiitthh oonnee ooff tthhee aaffffeeccttss bbeeiinngg cchhaannggee iinn ffiisshh

ssppeecciieess ccoommppoossiittiioonn..

4.2 Loss of Coastal and Marine Habitats and Biodiversity 4.2.1 Coral Reefs MMuucchh ooff tthhee ddeeggrraaddaattiioonn ooff rreeeeff eeccoossyysstteemmss hhaass bbeeeenn ccaauusseedd bbyy ddeessttrruuccttiivvee ffiisshhiinngg

mmeetthhooddss.. BByy ffaarr,, tthhee mmoosstt ddeessttrruuccttiivvee ffiisshhiinngg iiss tthhee uussee ooff ddyynnaammiittee.. DDyynnaammiittee ffiisshhiinngg

wwaass oonnccee wwiiddeesspprreeaadd,, bbuutt iittss uussee hhaass bbeeeenn ddrraassttiiccaallllyy rreedduucceedd tthhrroouugghhoouutt tthhee ccoouunnttrryy.. IItt

hhaass bbeeeenn pprraaccttiicceedd iinn TTaannzzaanniiaa ffoorr oovveerr 4400 yyeeaarrss.. EEaacchh bbllaasstt ooff ddyynnaammiitteedd iinnssttaannttllyy kkiillllss

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aallll ffiisshh aanndd mmoosstt ootthheerr lliivviinngg oorrggaanniissmmss wwiitthhiinn aa 1155--2200 mmeetteerrss rraaddiiuuss aanndd ccoommpplleetteellyy

ddeessttrrooyyss tthhee rreeeeff hhaabbiittaatt iittsseellff wwiitthh aa rraaddiiuuss ooff sseevveerraall mmeetteerrss..

TThhee uussee ooff ssmmaallll mmeesshh sseeiinnee nneettss ttoo ccaappttuurree ffiisshh oonn tthhee bboottttoomm aanndd aarroouunndd rreeeeffss iiss aallmmoosstt

aass ddeessttrruuccttiivvee aass tthhee uussee ooff ppllyynnoommiittee.. TThhee nneettss aarree wweeiigghhtteedd aanndd ddrraaggggeedd tthhrroouugghh tthhee

rreeeeff ffllaatt oorr aarree ppuulllleedd aarroouunndd ccoorraall rreeeeffss.. DDrraaggggiinngg tthheemm oovveerr tthhee rreeeeff ffllaatt uunnaavvooiiddaabbllyy

ddaammaaggeess ccoorraall aanndd ootthheerr mmaarriinnee lliiffee..

4.2.2 Mangroves

DDuurriinngg ppaasstt ddeeccaaddeess,, ddeeggrraaddaattiioonn ooff mmaannggrroovveess ooccccuurrrreedd iinn mmaannyy ppaarrttss ooff tthhee ccoouunnttrryy..

BBeessiiddeess ddeeccrreeaassee iinn tthhee aarreeaa ccoovveerraaggee ooff mmaannggrroovveess,, tthheerree wwaass aallssoo ccoonnssiiddeerraabbllee ddeeccrreeaassee

iinn tthhee ddeennssiittyy,, hheeiigghhtt aanndd ccaannooppyy ccoovveerr ooff tthhee mmaannggrroovveess wwiitthhiinn tthhee ffoorreessttss.. TThhee aarreeaass

hhaarrddeesstt hhiitt wweerree tthhoossee nneeaarr uurrbbaann cceennttrreess ssuucchh aass KKuunndduucchhii,, MMbbwweennii aanndd MMttoonnii iinn DDaarr eess

SSaallaaaamm aanndd ffoorreessttss aarroouunndd TTaannggaa.. LLeessss aacccceessssiibbllee aarreeaass ssuucchh aass RRuuffiijjii rreemmaaiinn llaarrggeellyy

pprriissttiinnee..

TThhee mmaajjoorr iimmmmeeddiiaattee ccaauusseess ooff mmaannggrroovvee ffoorreesstt ddeeggrraaddaattiioonn wweerree tthhee oovveerr--hhaarrvveessttiinngg ooff

mmaannggrroovvee ffoorr ffiirreewwoooodd,, cchhaarrccooaall--mmaakkiinngg,, bbuuiillddiinngg ppoolleess,, bbooaatt ccoonnssttrruuccttiioonn wwhhiicchh

aaccccoouunntteedd ffoorr aabboouutt 4466 %%,, aanndd cclleeaarr--ccuuttttiinngg ooff mmaannggrroovvee ffoorr mmaarriiccuullttuurree,, aaggrriiccuullttuurree,,

ssoollaarr ssaalltt pprroodduuccttiioonn,, rrooaadd ccoonnssttrruuccttiioonn,, uurrbbaanniizzaattiioonn aanndd hhootteell ccoonnssttrruuccttiioonn wwhhiicchh

aaccccoouunntteedd ffoorr aabboouutt 3300%%.. NNeeaarr uurrbbaann cceennttrreess,, vvaarriioouuss ttyyppeess ooff ppoolllluuttiioonn iinncclluuddiinngg

mmuunniicciippaall sseewwaaggee,, ggaarrbbaaggee aanndd ooiill ppoolllluuttiioonn aallssoo ppoossee tthhrreeaatt ttoo mmaannggrroovveess..

4.2.3 Coastal Pollution Dar es Salaam, being the highly populated city generate large amount of waste.

Domestic sewage is the principal sources of pollution in the city‟s coastal waters

especially in habour areas. Pollution originating form discharge of untreated water from

sewer systems, pit latrines, soak pits, garbage dumps normally found their way to coastal

waters. As a result pollution, high levels of nutrients, faecal and coliform have been

recorded in coastal waters. Further more heavy blooms of micro-algae are a regular

feature of near shore waters especially in the vicinity of the northern end of ocean road

beach in Dar es Salaam.

Manufacturing industries are another source of pollution especially in Dar es Salaam.

Various industrial wastes from Keko, Chang‟ombe, Kurasini, Mtoni and Temeke in Dar

es Salaam have been discharging untreated wastes into the shore via the Msimbazi creek.

These pollutants include chemicals from textile industries such as dyes, paint wastes and

strong alkalis.

The principal threat to water quality in Tanzania coastal waters is due to untreated

municipal wastes. The water quality outside urban areas, though largely free from the

impact of domestic wastes, is under threat from agricultural run-off, pesticides and

fertilizers.

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4.2.4 Coastal Erosion About two thirds of the coastline of Tanzania has fringing reefs, often close to the

shoreline, broken by river outlets such as the Rufiji delta, Pangani, Ruvuma, Wami and

Ruvu. Coastal erosion is a natural process in which the boundary land and water shift its

position overtime that is shift towards the land in which the sea wears away the shoreline.

The rate at which both erosion and accretion occur is dependent upon the wind, waves,

currents, tides, vegetation, sand composition and geology specific to a particular

coastline.

The causative factor of coastal erosion is natural, hoowweevveerr,, ccaann bbee aallssoo iinntteennssiiffyyiinngg bbyy

hhuummaann aaccttiivviittyy.. FFoorr eexxaammppllee,, mmoorree tthhaann 88 mmiilllliioonn ppeeooppllee iinn TTaannzzaanniiaa ddeeppeenndd oonn tthhee

rreessoouurrcceess aanndd eeccoossyysstteemm ssuurrrroouunnddiinngg tthhee wwaatteerr.. AAccttiivviittiieess ssuucchh aass ddyynnaammiittee ffiisshhiinngg,,

ccoorraall aanndd ssaanndd mmiinniinngg,, mmaannggrroovvee ccuuttttiinngg,, sseeaawweeeedd ffaarrmmiinngg,, wwaassttee ddiissppoossaall,, aanndd ttoouurriissmm

hhaavvee aa mmaarrkkeedd eeffffeecctt oonn eerroossiioonn ooff tthhee ccooaasstt..

BBootthh aaccccrreettiioonn aanndd eerroossiioonn ooccccuurr tthhrroouugghhoouutt tthhee ccooaassttlliinnee ooff TTaannzzaanniiaa,,.. HHoowweevveerr,, ffrroomm

ffeeww ssttuuddiieess tthhaatt hhaavvee bbeeeenn ddoonnee,, iitt hhaass bbeeeenn sseeeenn tthhaatt iinnccrreeaasseedd hhuummaann aaccttiivviittyy aalloonngg tthhee

sshhoorreelliinnee hhaass iinnccrreeaasseedd tthhee rraattee ooff eerroossiioonn.. FFoorr eexxaammppllee tthhee ddeessttrruuccttiioonn ooff ccoorraall rreeeeffss

aarroouunndd MMaazziiwwii IIssllaanndd ooffff tthhee ccooaasstt ooff TTaannggaa hhaass lleedd ttoo sseevveerree eerroossiioonn tthhaatt tthhee iissllaanndd

ddiissaappppeeaarreedd iinn 11998877.. IInn DDaarr eess SSaallaaaamm dduurriinngg tthhee MMaarrcchh –– MMaayy rraaiinn sseeaassoonn,, aaccccrreettiioonn ooff

uupp ttoo 3300 ccmm hhaass bbeeeenn nnootteedd.. HHoowweevveerr,, iinn AAuugguusstt eerroossiioonn iiss uupp ttoo 22 mmeetteerrss tthhuuss tthhee

oovveerraallll iimmppaacctt ooff tthheessee sseeaassoonn eevveennttss iiss ssttiillll eerroossiioonn..

Table 3.7: Quantification of shoreline change in the Kunduchi-Manyema creek during

the period 1981 – 2002

Year

Erosion in the Northern

Part of the Creek

(Area in Acres)

Erosion in Southern Part

of the Creek

(Area in Acres)

1981 – 1992 5.03 2.80

1992 – 2002 1.67 0.30

1981 - 2002 6.57 2.56

Source: State of the Coast Report - 2003

5.0 Management of the Coastal and Marine Environment Different responses have been undertaken in the management of coastal and marine

resources in Tanzania. These include traditional management systems, enforcement of

policies and laws through regulatory mechanisms, collaborative management.

5.1 Traditional Management Systems It is now recognized by authorities and scientist that fisher folks in Tanzania know much

more about the coastal and marine environment than was previously acknowledged.

Despite the fact that it was advocated a long a time ago, marine scientists and decision

makers are starting to realize and seriously appreciate the value of traditional knowledge.

Fisher folks for example, do plan their activities depending on among others, seasons,

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weather conditions, and lunar/tidal effects. Variation of these aspects which has impacts

on fish catches is well known to fisher folks.

5.2 Policies and Legislation There are several sectoral legislations that have relevance for the management of marine

and coastal environment (Table 3.7). These legislations cover sectors such as:

environment, fisheries, forestry, land use planning, marine transport, tourism, energy,

minerals culture, and industries and trade. A wide range of approaches have been adopted

within the legal and regulatory framework aiming at protection of the coastal and marine

environment.

These include:-

(i) Setting of environmental quality standards;

(ii) Protection of the key habitats such as coral reefs and mangroves;

(iii) Environmental Impact Assessment;

(iv) Monitoring, Surveillance and Inspection;

(v) Pollutant discharge fee; and

(vi) Penalties.

Table 3.8: Key Policies, Legislation and Plans Relevant to Marine and Coastal Environment

Aspect Policies/Legislation/Plans Natural Resources National Fisheries Sector Policy and Strategy Statement (1997)

National Forest Policy ( 1997 )

Fisheries Act (2003)

The Territorial Sea and EEZ Act (1994)

Deep Sea Fishing Authority Act (1997)

Marine Parks and Reserve Act (1994)

National Forest Action Plan 1990/91 – 2007/08

Mangrove Management Plan (1991)

Land use National Land Policy (1995)

Town and Country Planning Ordinance (1956) Cap. 378

The Town & Country (Public Beaches Planning Area) Order (1991)

Land Act (1998)

Shipping Merchant Shipping Act (2003)

Tourism National Tourism Policy (1999)

Cross-cutting National Environmental Policy (1997)

Water Policy (1991)

Water Utilisation (Control & Regulation) Amendment No. 19 (1980)

Regional Administration Act (1997)

Local Government (District and Urban Authorities) Acts (1982)

Public Health (Sewerage and Drainage) Ordinance Cap. 336

National Water Policy (2002)

Mining (Environmental Management Protection) Regulation (1999)

6.0 Coastal Management Plans/Projects/Programmes 6.1 Tanga Coastal Zone Conservation and Development Programme The Tanga Coastal Zone Conservation and Development Programme is implemented in

three Districts of Muheza, Tanga and Pangani. The overall objective goal of the

programme is to develop sustainable use of Tanga coastal resources through:-

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(i) Improvement of the institutional capacity to undertake integrated coastal

management and;

(ii) Assist coastal communities to use resources in sustainable manner.

6.2 Tanzania Coastal Management Partnership (TCMP) TCMP is a joint initiative between the Government of Tanzania through the National

Environment Management Council (NEMC), the United States Agency for International

Development (USAID) and the University of Rhode Island Coastal Resources Centre.

The goal of TCMP is to establish the foundation of effective coastal governance which is

essential precondition for the improvement of the quality of life of coastal communities.

TCMP now focuses on conservation of the coastal environment through livelihood

approach. Income generating activities such as sea weed farming, honey production, and

paprika farming are among activities undertaken.

6.3 The Marine and Coastal Environment Management Project (MACEMP) The objective of this project is to strengthen the sustainable management and use of the

United Republic of Tanzania‟s Exclusive Economic Zone, territorial seas, and coastal

resources resulting in enhanced revenue collection, reduced threats to the environment,

better livelihoods of participating coastal communities, and improved institutional

arrangements.

6.4 Kinondoni Coastal Area Management Programme (KICAMP) The overall objective of this programme is to improve the understanding and

management of marine and coastal resources in the Kinondoni District. The programme

focuses on four components namely:- coastal land and water use planning; coastal

community development; coastal surveys, assessment and monitoring; and education,

information and communication.

7.0 Marine Protected Areas and Reserves Marine and coastal protected areas (MPAs) are widely recognized as important

component of any management strategy for the sustainable development of the coastal

and marine environment. In this regard, MPAs take into consideration both conservation

and development interests. MPAs in Tanzania are:-

(i) Mafia Island Marine Park

Mafia Island Marine Park (MIMP) encompasses two reserves of Chole Bay and

Tutia Reef which was officially gazetted in April 1993, following the approval

of the Marine Parks and Reserve Act of 1995.

(ii) Mnazi Bay Marine Park The Mnazi Bay Marine Park which include the Mnazi Bay and Ruvuma estuary,

is located at the southern end of Tanzania coast bordering Mozambique. Mnazi

Bay and Ruvuma estuary have extensive mangrove forests which are breeding

and nursery ground for prawns and other species including commercial fish.

(iii) Marine Reserves

Several areas were designated as Marine Reserves, and became subject to the

regulations laid down in the repelled Fisheries Act of 1970, Government Notice

No. 1370 of 1975.

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Marine reserves are areas being used for recreation, aesthetic, education and

research activities. Designated marine reserves in Tanzania are found at:-

(a) Dar es Salaam area: the Islands of Mbudya, Bongoyo, Pangavini,

and Fungu Yasini;

(b) Tanga Region: Maziwi Island (off Pangani) which has submerged

in 1978 probably due to the rise of the sea.

PART III: WETLANDS RESOURCES

1.0 Introduction Wetland is an area which has water permanently or temporarily mostly in low land areas.

In Tanzania wetlands are all over the country constituting about 10% of the country‟s

land area. Wetlands have both economic and ecological importance and they are delicate

therefore they have to be managed diligently to avoid destruction or drying up.

The concept "wetland" is a collective term for ecosystems whose formation has been

dominated by water, and whose processes and characteristics are largely controlled by

water (Maltby, 1986). They constitute a wide range of inland, coastal and marine habitats

that share a number of common features. Although there are as many definitions for

wetlands as there are types, the Ramsar Convention provides the most comprehensive

definition i.e. wetlands are areas of marsh, fen, peat land or water, whether natural or

artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or

salty, including areas of marine water, the depth of which does not exceed six meters.

Wetlands are important ecosystems which in their natural state play an important role in

the water cycle through numerous functions. By way of ground water recharge, wetland

water filters down to be stored into underground aquifers as potable water. The same

would then move out of the aquifer to become surface water through Ground water

discharge. Wetlands also store large volumes of precipitation, releasing the water slowly

into rivers. This diminishes the destructive effects of flooding downstream. As for coastal

areas, wetland vegetation such as mangroves stabilizes shorelines by reducing the energy

of waves, currents, or other erosive forces.

Wetlands do filter and recycle soil nutrients, preventing eutrophication of rivers and

lakes. The overall hydrological, nutrient and energy cycles of wetlands may stabilize

local climatic conditions, particularly rainfall and temperature. This enhances

productivity with positive influence on agricultural and other natural resources based

activities. Also, due to sediment and biomass transportation from upstream, many

wetlands support dense populations of aquatic life, cattle and wildlife which feed on the

nutrient rich waters, substrates and graze on the lush pastures.

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2.0 Status of wetlands An overview of wetlands in the country is provided in Kamukala (1991) and most

recently in IRA draft report 2002. This notwithstanding, Tanzania has had no

comprehensive inventory of wetlands, hence the total area under wetlands is not known.

Even detailed information on many of the important wetlands is scanty or completely

lacking save for a few which have been studied as discreet projects.

Figure 3.4: Wetlands in Tanzania

This includes areas like Lake Victoria and Lake Tanganyika basins and four areas

declared as Ramsar sites. Until some decades ago, many of the wetlands were

fortuitously protected by their remoteness, their vastness and their marginal usefulness

for agriculture or other economic activities. The last thirty years have witnessed rapid

conversions of wetlands in the country as a result of various socio-economic

developments. Figure 3.5 shows the distribution of Wetlands in Tanzania.

Wembere Swamp

LakeBalangida Pangani

System

Wami System

Ruvu System

BahiSwamp

Ugalla

Rukwa-KavitiSystem

MalagarasiMoyowosiSystem

La

ke Ta

ng

anyika

LakeRukwa

Usangu Flats Kilombero Valley

Liwali Swamp

Lake

Nya

sa0 200 km

N

LakeManyara

LakeNatron

LakeEyasi

KEY

Lakes

Wetlands

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Although such historical loss of wetlands does not necessarily represent inefficient

resource use, as multiple use of wetlands can lead to significant improvements in social

welfare, it is generally agreed that such conversions have not always put the concerned

wetlands in Tanzania to wise use1. This has resulted into rampant degradation of the

resources in them. The main driving force for the continual loss of wetlands is their

continued and often unregulated use for various economic activities such as agriculture,

intensive livestock grazing, industrial development, damping or residential uses. The IRA

report attempts to describe the status of the major wetland systems in the country in the

wake of different socio-economic developments. The report also highlights the major

information gaps that prevail on some of these systems and the need to get them filled.

Figure 1 provides an overview of the major wetland.

3.0 Classification of wetlands.

According to the draft National Wetlands Strategy, wetlands in Tanzania have been

classified into six categories, namely:

i. Highland head water wetlands which are characterized by long rivers

originating in the highlands meandering through the plains forming lakes,

swamps and flood plains before draining into the ocean or lake basins.

Examples are Southern Highlands, Hagafilo and Ruhudji in Njombe

Kihansi headwaters, Little Ruaha headwaters at Sao Hill in Mufindi

District as well as Usangu in Mbarali District. They are characterized by

fertile alluvial soils of varying textures.

ii. Internal drainage wetlands which are found in the rift depressions and are

characterized by salt lakes, swamps and short streams with inland

drainage. Soils are heavy and are affected by salinity; examples are the

Lake Manyara-Tarangire-Lake Babati System and the sodic Lake Natron.

iii. Marine and coastal wetlands which are formed by wave action and tidal

influence along the shoreline. They include mud flats, marshes, mangrove

swamps, estuaries and deltas. They dominate in Tanga towards the

Kenyan border and support 16.2 km2 of mangrove swamps in Mtwara and

62 km2 in Lindi in the south. They are characterized by heavy saline soils.

iv. Others are fresh water estuarine wetlands, rivers and inland drainage

wetlands and man made wetlands.

Since wetlands have diverse functions, there is a need to undertake a more rigorous

classification to isolate wetlands with uses other than conservation. This would assist in

specification of site specific management guidelines, consistent with individual wetlands‟

critical role in the socio economic development initiatives of the country.

1 Wise use is defined as sustainable utilization for the benefit of mankind in a way compatible with

the maintenance of the natural properties of the ecosystem. Sustainable utilization is understood as human use of a wetland so that it may yield the greatest continuous benefit to present generations while maintaining its potential to meet the needs and aspirations of future generations. Wise use may also require strict protection.

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3.1 Compliance with the Ramsar Convention The broad aim of the Convention on Wetlands (Ramsar, Iran, 1971) is to halt the

worldwide loss of wetlands and to conserve those that remain, through wise use and

management. The Ramsar Convention, as it has come to be commonly known, was

among the very first intergovernmental treaties among nations for the conservation of

natural resources. The implementation of the Convention on Wetlands is guided by its

mission statement, which is 'the conservation and wise use of wetlands, by national action

and international cooperation as a means to achieving sustainable development

throughout the world.' Tanzania complied with the Ramsar Convention in August 2000.

Some wetlands have been identified to possess international importance based on the

Ramsar criteria, which include, having sites containing representative, rare or unique

wetland types and sites of international importance for conserving the biological diversity

based on species and ecological communities, waterbirds, fish and other taxa.

Accordingly, four wetlands with a total surface area of about 4,868,424 hectares have

been designated as Ramsar sites; these are:-

Kilombero valley floodplain

Lake Natron Basin

Malagarasi-Muyowosi wetlands

Rufiji-Mafia-Kilwa Marine Ramsar site

Pipeline Ramsar sites include Lake Manyara, Usangu and Lake Nyasa.

4.0 Current Uses and Threats of Wetlands Wetlands in Tanzania are multifunctional with diverse values and functions. Apart from

the hydrological functions high lighted in the introduction, other major uses are water

supply for domestic and industrial use, agricultural through irrigation, livestock grazing

especially in the drier parts of the country, conservation of ecosystem biodiversity and

tourism, power production and fishing.

4.1 Water supply for domestic and industrial use Many of the rivers in Tanzania originate from wetlands and it is these rivers which

supply both domestic and industrial water in rural and urban areas. Wetlands often occur

as oasis in areas of low rainfall and therefore making life habitable in places like

Dodoma, Singida, Shinyanga, Tabora and Arusha which fall in the dry land zone.

4.2 Agricultural and Irrigation Tanzania wetlands are mostly utilized for crop production. In many flood plains rice has

been grown for centuries. Maize is often grown as a flood recession crop during the dry

season. Most of these crops are grown without additional fertilizers and rely on the

natural fertility of wetlands and alluvial soils. Many wetlands could be a good source of

irrigation to adjacent dry areas. The total irrigation potential for Tanzania from major

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wetlands is estimated at 851,000 ha. There is a need to harmonize the multiple uses in

order to ensure over the sustainable management of the wetlands resources.

4.3 Livestock Wetlands play an important role in supporting livestock production; the principal

livestock keepers are the Sukuma and Masai. The Sukuma make extensive use of

wetlands in the northern part of the country (south of Lake Victoria) for dry season

grazing. Due to livestock population pressure they moved to the Usangu plains in the

south through the Chunya corridor. The Masai traditional grazing land is in the north east

but again livestock population pressure has forced them to migrate further south into

Kilombero valley as well as Mkata and Usangu plains for dry season grazing.

4.4 Conservation of ecosystem, biodiversity and tourism Many wetlands are rich in biodiversity, flora and fauna including micro forms of life and

small invertebrate species. Wetlands ecosystems have been supporting lives of migratory

wildlife especially birds which in return provide balance in the food chain. Protected

areas in Tanzania cover about 30% of the total land. These include areas set aside as

National parks, game reserves, special conservation areas e.g. Ngorongoro Conservation

Area and forest reserves. These areas maintain their ecosystem services and tourism

potential largely because of the thriving wetlands that are critical for life support of the

flora and fauna species there in.

4.5 Fishing It is estimated that over 110,000 artisanal fishermen are engaged in the fishing industry in

Tanzania (Kamukala and Crafter, 1993). Many of these operate in ecosystems that are

classified as wetlands, that is, swamps, rivers, reservoirs as well as mangrove, estuaries,

deltas and shallow offshore waters which are vital for maintaining coastal finfish, shrimp

and mollusk fisheries.

4.6 Power Production Power production is vital to the economy of the country and in many instances, wetlands

have been their major driving force. Power production centers such as Mtera, Kidatu,

Pangani, Kihansi and Nyumba ya Mungu have been constructed in strategic areas with

vast wetlands upstream, such as Usangu – Ihefu ecosystem in Mbarali district. Like wise,

Pangani and Nyumba ya Mungu power stations do rely on the Lake Jipe – Chala

wetlands upstream.

4.7 Threats to wetlands The following activities are threats to the integrity of wetlands in Tanzania:

i. Cutting of aquatic and other vegetation for fuel, housing and commercial

activities,

ii. Overgrazing and over-cultivation by pastoralists and farmers. Due to

destruction arising from conflicts of demand on wetlands ecosystems in

recent times, Tanzania has experienced a major conflict among

pastoralism, power production, conservation and small holder farming that

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has obliged the government to take action to reduce pressure from specific

critical sites.

iii. Improper fishing practices

iv. Siltation due to deposition of erosion materials that reduce the depth of the

wetlands.

v. Pollution by domestic sewage, industrial effluent, and agrochemicals

vi. Siltation caused by poor agricultural methods

vii. Development activities such as coastal development, mining and

quarrying

viii. Eutrophication leading to oxygen depletion

ix. Establishment of new human settlements

x. Unregulated hunting and killing of wildlife

xi. Introduction of non native or alien species into wetlands, e.g. water

hyacinth, is not only a menace to the Lake Victoria ecosystem but there is

evidence of it spreading in other critical ecosystems including protected

areas e.g. Mikumi National park.

Other potential threats to the wetlands and their biodiversity are upstream soil erosion,

wildfire and deforestation, weed infestation, mining activities, hunting, pollution (by

domestic sewage, industrial effluent and agro-chemicals) and development activities.

5.0 Current status of policies, strategies and other initiatives. Wetlands being cross-sectoral, a number of policies subscribe to wetland management in

relation to poverty reduction. The policies include National Environment Policy (1997);

the Wildlife Policy of Tanzania (1998); the National Water Policy (2002); the National

Integrated Coastal Environmental Management Strategy (2003); the National Land

Policy (1995); the National Forest Policy (1998); the National Fisheries Policy and

Strategy Statement (1997); the Agricultural and Livestock Policy (1997) and the Mineral

Policy (1997).

Tanzania is yet to produce a wetlands strategy; however the issues and concerns

necessary for implementation of the above policies have been summarized in the draft

wetlands strategy (MNRT 2006). These intend to achieve sustainable management of

wetlands and include sustainable utilization, conservation and management, research and

resource monitoring, coordination for wetlands management, communication, education

and public awareness, cross cutting issues and financing. Other national initiatives

already in place include; a national wetland program and a Ramsar sites secretariat.

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CHAPTER IV: URBAN AND INDUSTRIAL ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES

PART I: MINERAL RESOURCES AND MINING AND ENVIRONMENT

1.0 Background Tanzania is among many countries endowed with a variety of minerals such as gold,

diamonds, gemstones, industrial minerals and building materials. Most of the mineral

resources are in class of potential resources for exploitation and use for humankind in the

course of improving the economy, well being and living standards.

Despite this potential, exploitation of mineral resources countrywide has been

traditionally limited due to various reasons; among which lack of proper fiscal regime,

inadequate promotional information and materials; and poor infrastructure has played a

major role in hampering its development. Furthermore, many investors who are capable

of undertaking further detail exploration works leading to development of mines are

deterred due to lack of information on basic exploration works and geological data

needed as a basis for initial investment. The trend toward investment in the mining

industry took a turning point in late nineteen nineties following the mineral sector reform

strategy. The Government with technical assistance from the World Bank instituted the

mineral policy, legal and administrative regimes to implement strategies that were

proposed.

The outcome was the Mineral Policy of 1997, the Mining Act (Act No. 5) of 1998 and

the Mining Regulations of 1999. Both addresses environmental management issues and

advocate the use of best practices. The 1999 regulations contain specific regulations for

environment matters, under The Mining (Environmental Management and Protection)

Regulations 1999. The mining sector accounted for about 3.5 per cent in 2005 of gross

domestic product (GDP) in Tanzania, and made up about 42.4 per cent in the same year

of all goods that were exported. The vision for the sector for year 2025 is for the sector to

contribute 10 per cent of the national GDP. The growth over the next years is expected to

meet, particularly the growing demand for energy; by opening up more coal resources,

gas, and intensifying the search for hydrocarbons. Also the growth is aimed at providing

secondary industries that will engage a number of Tanzanians in value adding activities.

1.2 Mineral Rights Activities for mineral exploration and mining are regulated under the Mining Act, (Act

No. 5) of 1998. No one is allowed to carry out any exploration or mining activities

without being granted a mineral right pursuant to the aforementioned Act.

There are seven types of mineral rights, divided into three Divisions A, B, and D.

Division „A‟ has two types of mineral rights, namely prospecting license (PL) and

retention license (RL). Division „B‟ contains three mineral rights; special mining license

(SML); mining license (ML) and gemstone mining license (GML). The last division

deals with two types of licenses; primary prospecting license (PPL) and primary mining

license (PML) (See Box 1).

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Environmental matters that are usually addressed with relation to this piece of legislation

are those that fall under division „B‟ and division „D‟. Overall, the legislation has given

much attention to environmental impacts of mining and processing activities and

disregards those stemming from exploration works. The legislation also deals with

environmental issues depending on the scale of operation (tonnage of ore produced per

annum); location of the mines (sensitivity of the area in terms of ecological location) and

perhaps the type of operations that is taking place.

1.3 Impacts of Mining Industry on Environment

The mining industry broadly impacts on environment by degrading the quality of the

basic resources, namely; air, water and land. The mining industry also impacts the

environment through consumption of electricity, of which the industry is a large

consumer.

Impact on air may result from dust generation during blasting operations, the use of haul

roads, loading and unloading of ore, and dry crushing operation. Tailing dams, if not

vegetated or capped may also be a source of dust. Vehicles, plants and machinery

Box I: Mineral Rights Issued to Carry Mining Activities as of September 2006. (Source

MEM)

Commodity Licence Type

SML ML GML PML

AOBG 6

Ball Clay 2

Bauxite 1

B/Materials 112 2418

Coal 2 2

Diamonds 15

Dim/stones 3

Galena 1

Gemstones 58 2758

Gold 5 10 1784

Gypsum 2

Kaolin 1

Limestone 13

Niobium 4

Oxygen 1

Phosphate 2

Pozzuolana 1

Ruby 1

Salt 9

Sand 5

Tanzanite 1 1

Tin 1

Travertine 1

TOTAL 8 195 59 6960

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operating within the mine are also a source of air pollution. Smelter operations with

insufficient safeguards in place have the potential to pollute the air with heavy metals,

sulphur dioxide, and other pollutants.

The mining industry uses large quantities of water. Mining activities brings sulphide

containing minerals into the presence of air, where they are oxidised. When the oxidised

sulphide containing minerals come into contact with water, they form sulphuric acid. This

acid forming process; known as acid rock drainage (ARD) or acid mine drainage (AMD)

impacts both groundwater and surface water. Tailings dams or tailing storage facilities

(TSF) as sometimes known and waste rock dumps or heaps are also potential sources of

acidic drainage water, affecting surface and underground water. Chemical deposits left

behind by explosives and poor usage of explosives results in toxic compound that can

contaminate and increase the salinity of mine water. Artisanal mining particularly of gold

may impact water where mercury is used for amalgamation.

1.3 Large Scale Mining Impacts

The impact of large scale mining on the environment can easily be felt on short term

basis (Plate 4.1). Serious negative impacts on environment and on human health are

usually accompanied with mining activities especially where adequate precautions are not

taken.

Many of these negative impacts and effects can be avoided or greatly reduced by using

modern practices. Much of the damaging impact can be minimised through careful

Plate 4.1: Typical Alluvial Medium-Scale Gemstone Mining Environmental Degradation.

Mbinga Area, Ruvuma.

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project planning, choice of appropriate mining technologies, and careful ongoing

operation.

Large scale mining operations commences and includes a number of major phases; which

on there own, impact the environment in different ways. The major phases are:

i. Exploration - which include surveys, drilling and exploratory excavations.

ii. Project development – construction of roads and buildings, underground

access tunnels works, erection of treatment plants, overburden stripping and

placing, preparation of disposal areas, construction of service infrastructure

such as power lines or generating plants, railways, water supplies and

sewerage, laboratories and amenities.

iii. Mine operation – include surface and underground mining, hydraulic mining

in or near river beds. Also contemporary practices such as heap leaching of

tailing dumps, bio-leaching of surface heaps or deposits, and solution mining

of buried deposits.

iv. Beneficiation – include comminution to reduce particle size, flotation using

selected chemicals, gravity separation or magnetic, electrical or optical

sorting, ore leaching with a variety of chemical solutions.

v. Associated transport and storage of ore and concentrates may be a handling

risk and can result in localised site contamination.

vi. Mine closure – this is an important if often neglected aspect of mine

operation. Mine closure is assured by rehabilitating mined out areas and the

mine sites to an acceptable condition; that is more appealing than before. In

order to achieve this, progressive rehabilitation is recommended to be part of

the on going mining and processing operation in the mine plan. While the

closure and rehabilitation is intended to mitigate environmental impact, it is

important that it does not itself create secondary effects such as excessive

fertilizer use, spread of weeds, siltation and incompatible landscape features.

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Potential environmental impacts are as summaries in Box 2 below:

1.3.2 Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining

This part of the mining sector is dominated by low income, unsafe working conditions,

serious environmental impacts, exposure to hazardous materials and conflict with large

mining companies, governments and other land users. Often represents the most

promising income opportunity for many; but it is also very disruptive particularly when it

takes the form of a sudden rush causing local people to desert their normal farming

activities and farms or resulting in in-migration. When the rush is curbed or over, most of

the generated profits are not left there but disappear, while the social and environmental

damage caused by the rush persist.

It is quite concerning that small-scale miners tend to do more damage to the environment

than those working in modern mining operations with a greater environmental cost per

unit of output. Lack of awareness particularly of the less visible long-term environmental

impacts of activities, combined with a lack of information about affordable methods to

reduce impacts and lack of obvious incentives to change; all contribute to this problem.

Potential environmental impacts are summarized in Box 3.

Box 2: Potential Environmental Impacts of Mining (after Balkau, 1993; UNEP,

2000)

Environmental Impacts Pollution Impacts

Destruction of natural habitat at

mining and waste disposal sites.

Destruction of adjacent habitats as

a result of emissions and

discharges.

Destruction of adjacent habitats

arising from influx of settlers.

Changes in river regime and

ecology due to siltation and flow

modification.

Alteration in watertables.

Change in landform.

Land degradation due to

inadequate rehabilitation after

closure.

Land insatiability.

Danger from failure of structures

and dams.

Abandoned equipment, plant and

buildings.

Drainage from sites (acid mine

drainage and mine water).

Sediment runoff from mining sites.

Pollution from mining operations in

riverbeds (dredging).

Effluent from mineral processing

operations.

Sewage effluent from the site.

Oil and fuel spills.

Soil contamination from treatment

residues and spillage of chemicals.

Leaching of pollutants from tailings

and disposal areas and

contaminated soils.

Noxious emissions from minerals

processing operations.

Dust emissions from sites close to

habitats.

Release of methane from mines.

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The challenges and features that make-up artisanal and small-scale mining impact

obvious and hard to mitigate are those inherently characterised by, and include:

Limited application of contemporary concepts and technologies;

Low cost per workplace, utilizing low and sometimes inappropriate technologies;

Exploitation of surface or near surface deposits with little waste or overburden;

Operations necessitates relatively simple processing techniques and easy access;

Usually the organisational side is by single person or family operations.

1.3.3 Illegal Mining Activities

Illegal mining activities pose the most challenge to both the government and the local

authorities in both the economic, social and environmental spheres. Illegal miners tend

not to address environmental impact of their actions and take no initiative to protect the

environment. The impacts of their activities range from physical, human health to social

impacts.

BOX 3: Environmental Impacts of Small-scale Gold mining

Siltation of dams and rivers by loosened up sand and gravel due to mining and

washing at mine sites.

Mercury pollution during amalgamation stage.

Deforestation usually extensive and indiscriminate for purpose of clearing land

for mining, wood/trees for fuel and shelter.

Creation of squatter problems as haphazard settlement accompanied by

crowding, spring up in communal or commercial farmlands, forest reserves,

etc. overnight.

Lack of or improper sanitary facilities leading to health risks.

Destruction of potable water sources and/or river sources.

Pollution of groundwater and surface water by mineral processing effluent and

raw sewage.

Air pollution, from refining processes, poorly maintained rock and slimes

dumps.

Acid mine drainage from waste dumps.

Dust pollution from blasting, earth moving equipment, and from waste rock

and slimes dumps.

Loss of the land‟s economic and aesthetic values through random pitting and

subsidence.

Water table depression as a result of pumping water through shafts.

Heavy metal and hydrocarbon pollution.

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The problem of illegal mining is complicated as it involves hundred of thousands of

people, and often carried out near or within other legally licensed areas (Plates 4.2 and

4.3). The proximity of these two entities creates social and environmental problems

affecting more the legally miners.

Prior to granting of the licence, the owners were/are required to prepare and submit

environmental impact statement (EIS) and environmental management plan (EMP).

However, this requirement was (as per mining legislation) required for certain type of

mining licenses. As a result, about fifteen per cent of the holders of the aforementioned

licences submitted EISs and EMPs as required by law. The remainder were suppose to

carry on mining with a „due care to environment‟ approach.

Mining companies that has undertaken EIA, mostly multinational companies, has

developed extensive “in-house” procedures such as undertaking audits, reviews,

monitoring and environmental reporting; both internal and external, mostly guided by

company-specific policies, protocols and procedures, usually of international standards.

Environmental reports produced by these large scale mining companies currently cover a

range of social and community issues.

4.1.4 Initiatives to address environment management

Due to the significance of potential environmental, health and social impacts of mining

operations, particularly artisanal and small-scale mining, several initiatives have been

mooted. These include:

i. Introduction of alternatives to use of mercury in gold mining. The idea is to

promote the use of cleaner and safe technology in gold recovery. The proposal

is part of a project aimed at introducing new technologies to the mining

industry.

ii. Carrying out baseline environmental survey on all mining areas; specifically

where small scale mining is rampant and where mineral rushes occurs. This

Plate 4.2: Typical Environment Destruction by Illegal Mining (Songea)

Plate.4.3: Typical Open Pit Large Scale Mining at Tulawaka Mine.

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will enable the establishment of conditions that will be used as benchmark for

future monitoring and reporting of environment condition.

iii. Build capacity of the regulating authority to conduct proper environmental

inspection, monitoring and reporting,

iv. At least conduct strategic environmental assessment of small scale mining

areas and prepare environmental management plan to be upheld and

implemented by everyone engaged in mining activities within that particular

area, and

v. Make consideration of including other activities like detailed exploration

works in the Environmental Impact Asessment (EIA) Environmental

Mnagement System(EMS), and Emergency Prevention Preparedness (EPP)

processs. Also produce mining environmental regulations that are in line with

EMA, 2004.

PART II: URBAN PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT OF HUMAN SETTLEMENTS 1.0 National Overview and Context

Tanzania, like most countries in the sub-Saharan Africa, has experienced rapid

urbanization particularly since independence in 1961. Urbanisation is a challenge in the

country not only because of its social and economic significance but also because of its

high rate and lack of effective mechanism to manage its outcomes (Ngware et al. 2000).

A typical example is the pressure on urban services and infrastructure brought about by

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fast urbanisation (Kyessi 2002). After the implementation of the structural adjustment

programmes, liberalisation and the removal of subsidised services since mid-1980s,

poverty is as pronounced in towns as it is in villages (Lerise and Kyessi 2002). Attitudes

and policies, which perceived urbanisation as an inevitable process, impact in the process

and thus provide not only challenges but also opportunities to central and local

governments, bilateral and multilateral donors and the local communities as well as

individuals (Ngware et al. 2000).

1.1 Urbanization

In Tanzania like many of the developing countries, especially those of Sub-Saharan

Africa, the type of urbanisation depicts rapid population increase and uncontrolled

expansion of cities with limited economic opportunities and narrow productive bases

(Aligula 1999, Lupala 2002, Kironde and Ngware 2000). The main features that

characterise urbanisation in the country include rapid population increase due to natural

increase and migration and sprawling urban centres beyond the limits and capacity of

local authorities to provide basic infrastructure and social amenities (Ngware et al. 2000).

A typical example is the pressure on adequate shelter, urban facilities and basic

infrastructure brought about by fast urbanisation in major cities such as Dar es Salaam,

Mbeya, Arusha and Mwanza. The cities depict features of rapid increase in

unemployment and urban poverty, growth and expansion of informal settlements,

deterioration of existing infrastructure and social services, proliferation of the informal

sector and growth of non-urban activity sectors such as urban farming (UNCHS 1996,

Kyessi 1998). This kind of urbanisation is taking place amidst abject poverty, a concept

that has been named by some scholars as urbanisation under poverty.

Figure 4.1 shows trends of the rate of urbanization or the proportion of urban population

in total population for 1967, 1978, 1988 and 2002, and estimated rate of urbanization for

2007, 2012, 2017 and 2022 (URT 2006). In absolute numbers, the urban population of

Tanzania as a whole increased from 787,000 in 1967 to 7.9 million in 2002, an increase

of over ten times during the period of 35 years. As the urban population increased at a

much faster rate than the total population, the percentage share of the urban population in

the country‟s total population has been increasing steadily over this period. The

urbanization showed a different trend between Tanzania Mainland and Tanzania

Zanzibar. The speed of urbanization was much faster in Tanzania Mainland than in

Tanzania Zanzibar. The urban population of Tanzania Zanzibar increased 3.8 times only

during the 35 year period between 1967 and 2002. The growth of urban population in

Tanzania is characterised by acute shortages of adequate shelter as evidenced by

dilapidated urban slums and unplanned settlements in most urban centres. It is also faced

with run-down social and economic infrastructure and unemployment as depicted in

Figure 4.2.

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(Source: National Census 2002) Figure 4.1: Trends of rate of urbanization (%) for past, present and future, United

Republic, Mainland and Zanzibar

Figure 4.2: Urban Employment by Sector

Source: Household Budget Surveys

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1.2 Links of Urbanization to Economy

Even though urban areas are no longer offering “ready-made” employment in the public

sector or in the industrial sector, they are seen as possible engines of development,

creating diverse opportunities for earning income, ensuing production and distribution at

a low cost, and generating all kinds of markets for both urban and rural activities.

With regard to urban planning, in the previous political and economic contexts, the

government dominated the economy, and planners served as its sole agents in settlement

planning and management. Indeed, formerly the state was seen as the obvious provider of

many kinds of services and infrastructure and key owner of land. Even when there were

considerable deficiencies in the provision of services the state still acknowledged its

official responsibility. These facts have led to a re-assessment of the role of the state in

land development, management and services provision (URT, 1995 and 1999).

The recent political and economic shifts in Tanzania have necessitated a review of

various policies and laws, including, inter-alia, the national land policy, the national

human settlements development policy and the land law. The land policy has changed

with a view to facilitating operationalization of land markets, democratization of the

planning practice and recognition of individual rights and equity in land. Thus, within the

new policy, the state acknowledges the existence of an informal land market and informal

mechanisms of administering land by actors outside the public domain (URT, 1995).

These policy intentions and the revised laws are seen to be in line with the new urban

governance and urban planning paradigm. They call for more effective reforms in the

planning system, to recognize and incorporate CBOs, NGOs, and the private and popular

sectors in managing urban development (Nnkya, 1999; Lerise, 2000). It is generally

observed that the quality of any urban settlement largely depends on the institutional

framework under which it is managed. Consequently, the efficiency and effectiveness of

service delivery systems and decision-making processes are a pointer to the quality of

such institutional frameworks. Thus, in the last two decades, there has been a move

towards more inclusive, participatory and transparent approaches to the management of

urban affairs. This approach, coupled with decentralization and devolution of

management systems and functions to lower levels of government, is expected to

contribute to the pursuit of efficient and sustainable human settlements.

The political and socio-economic changes that are occurring in Tanzania are expected to

facilitate movement towards more democratic and accountable planning practice in the

country (Lerise, 2000). Despite these dynamic developments with regard to national

socio-economic environment in Tanzania, the planning practice has basically remained

inept and slow to adjust to the ongoing reforms. Urban planning still operates as a

sectoral activity, with a statutory function that is normative and top-down in perspective.

Thus, the shift is seen to be happening still, with no evidence of satisfactory grass-root

participation in local planning and management of development. While Tanzania has

decided to democratize the land-use planning system, structural problems persist. The

planning practice is still expert-oriented and dominated by the central government, while

the central-local relationships are still unclear.

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Since last one and half decades and more so the beginning of this Millennium there has

been global concerns about the state of urban areas, specifically slums and informal

settlements, as manifested in the United Nations Millennium Declaration. The UN

Millennium Development Goal 7, Target 11 aims to significantly improve the lives of at

least 100 million slum dwellers by the year 2020 (UN-Habitat 2004) in developing

countries. Although Figure 7 represents a mere small percentage of the total population

without basic social and economic infrastructure services, it is justified by the fact that

slums and particularly informal settlements represent people‟s investments and initiatives

in addressing the problem of affordable shelter within the available means. By upgrading

them, it is hoped that more investments will be attracted, conducive environments created

and hence increased standard of living of the residents.

1.3 Urban Poverty

Urbanisation under poverty and urban management deficits are the two major challenges

in urban planning and development that appear in all towns in Tanzania. Most of the

urban population live in un-serviced parts of towns and in the ever expanding informal

settlements with environmental conditions which threaten their life and health. A

substantial number of the growing urban population fails to obtain their daily needs

(Lugalla 1995, Holm 1995).

The Tanzania National Poverty Profile (World Bank 1993) showed that in general,

poverty was concentrated more in rural areas where it was also widespread and more

severe. Some 59 per cent of the people living in rural areas were shown to be poor, as

compared to 39 per cent of those in urban areas. Although the situation in urban areas

may appear to be better, the continued rapid growth of these urban areas partly caused by

the movement of people from rural areas is, however, increasing urban poverty (Kironde,

1999). A little more than half of urban population lives in informal settlements with

inadequate municipal services including basic infrastructure (Kyessi 2002). Generally,

most urban areas in Tanzania are characterised by paucity of infrastructure investments

and poorly delivered services.

Thus, poverty should not only be regarded as a rural phenomenon but also a thorny issue

facing urban communities where concentration of people is higher than that of the rural

areas. In addition, poverty is one of the major drivers of environmental degradation. In

particular, the urban poor, who are unable to compete for scarce resources or protect

themselves from harmful environmental conditions, are most affected by the negative

impacts of urbanization. Despite various responses by different actors, including the

government, urban poverty still remains a major problem in Tanzania. Drawing from

previous studies, two issues are pertinent:

The scale of growth of unplanned areas in urban areas is unprecedented and the

poor are predominantly tenants and those with property have restricted access to

formal land tenure (Kironde, 2002).

The poorest are being marginalised into hazardous lands (valley bottoms, flood

plains, polluted areas, etc.) and that there has been limited responses by the local

authorities to this situation (Narayan et al. 2000).

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In the 1991/92 Household Budget Survey (HBS) data it is indicated that 2.6 percent of

the national population lived below the food poverty line, that is, they had a total

expenditure that was insufficient to obtain enough food to meet nutritional requirements.

In urban areas other than Dar es Salaam the food poverty line had declined from 14.99 to

11.36 percent in 1991/92 and 2000/01, respectively, a sign of improvement. In Dar es

Salaam however, the trend is the same but the decrease is more significant, falling by

almost half. It is interesting however to note that many households have to engage

themselves with informal activities including urban farming in order to gain or

supplement their incomes. The informal sector is known to provide employment and

income to most rural and urban households. The sheer size of the urban population (about

65%) that is openly engaged in the informal sector activities has for the past three

decades warranted policy makers to initiate serious efforts not only to understand the

dynamics of the operations in the sector, but more importantly also to identify the

necessary support for the sector‟s development.

The trend of household expenditure for the period from 1991/92 to 2001/2 shows that, it

has declined from US $ 58 to 16 in urban areas. The decline is much higher in Dar es

Salaam compared to other urban areas. Given that situation, and that a higher percentage

of expenditure is on food purchases, this implies that fever households are able to meet

their basic food requirements. Apart from the fact that many households are likely to

experience poor nutrition, they are also not able to meet the costs of non-food essentials

such as investment in health, shelter and in other important household welfare services.

Apparently costs for these services are on the increase.

1.4 Urban Poverty and Environment

There is a clear cause-and-effect relationship between urbanization and environmental

degradation. Of particular concern is the limited capacity of urban authorities, agencies

and community groups in addressing issues of land use management and environmental

conservation, within the formal and informal urban settlements. This aspect is further

corroborated by the fact that the urban environment in general and urban land use in

particular has been experiencing the negative impacts

of rapid population increase and human activities

leading to dire effects on the land resources, ecology

as well as local livelihoods.

Changes in land use and environment resource quality

in urban Tanzania have been linked to human

activities such as urban agriculture including

livestock keeping, sand and quarry mining, informal

housing development, informal petty trading, and

informal small scale industries including residential

car garages.

On the urban scale there is a multitude of

environmental concerns hinged on the inadequate

provision of municipal services, inadequate disposal

of liquid and solid waste and inadequate location of

settlements, particularly the unplanned ones

Plate 4.4: Road with no drainage

channels in Buguruni area Dar es

Salaam

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(Plate 4.4). It has been documented that the quality of drinking water is in most cases

poor and there is inadequate access by the majority of dwellers to this essential service

(Kyessi 2002). There is also very limited treatment of waste water in most urban areas.

All informal settlements in the country are not connected to sewerage systems. In

general, the provision of urban services demands a collective action of all urban

stakeholders to achieve a sustainable environmental and poverty reduction.

2.0 Urban Governance

In principle, all the ministries play a role in managing urban planning and development in

one way or the other. However, the Prime Minister‟s Office - Regional Administration

and Local Government (PMO-RALG) and the Ministry of Lands, Housing and Human

Settlements Development (MLHHSD) play a key role in influencing the administration

of human settlements and in carrying out urban planning functions respectively. There

are several culprits to this fact.

2.1 Urban Management Deficits

i) Over-reliance on central government

The institutional and regulatory framework for urban management in Tanzania is

made up of central government ministries some of which have considerable

investment and management powers in urban areas; and the district and municipal

authorities. A major observation of this set up is that powers are over centralized

within the central government vis a vis local authorities.

Major public utilities such as water, energy, major roads and central sewer

systems in urban authorities fall under the responsibility of authorities without

local financial base. One of such examples is the Urban Water and Sanitation

Authorities responsible with water and sanitation in all cities, municipalities and

town councils. Urban authorities are not responsible with the provision, operation

and maintenance of these services. The marginalisation of urban authorities in the

provision of such essential public utilities, apart from weakening the revenue base

of urban councils, has also led to uncoordinated provision of these services with

actual urban development. The result has been gross under-provision of urban

services through the public sector (Kyessi 2002).

ii) Unguided urban development

A peculiar characteristic associated with informal settlements is uncoordinated

land development, which is attributed by the absence of a regulatory

mechanism/tool to direct and control development in such areas. The result is

urban development contrary to the urban plans. Low capacity in terms of resource

base, including human technical know-how, is one of the main factors that have

contributed to the poor performance of the urban authorities to administer and

foster planned development in the urban area.

The urban planning practice in Tanzania is unable to address the specific

problems of human settlements (Nnkya 1999) particularly the informal

settlements. A major negative feature in the process includes urban development

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without guidance. This is indicated by inter alia: mushrooming of informal

settlements on marginal lands to include areas liable to flooding, steep slopes,

areas left for recreational purposes and relocation of development from the

designated areas to the informal settlements or other strategic areas as determined

by the developers. As a result, large numbers of households with property are left

without legal tenure and access to safe water and quality sanitation or

accessibility, while the increase in the haphazard patterns of urban growth has

caused economic inefficiency, environmental degradation and human misery

(Kyessi 2002).

iii) Non-coherent regulatory frameworks and rigid and unaffordable standards

There has been a problem of inefficient use of resources caused by selection of

inappropriate planning tools and mostly relying on rigid standards. Traditional or

conventional practices based on outdated and inappropriate legislation have

continued to be applied in urban settlement planning, development and

management in Tanzania. Much emphasis is on well-planned neighbourhoods,

isolating the informal settlements, based on conventional surveying techniques

although there has been limited capacity to realize this on the ground.

A large spectrum of technical planning concepts incorporating rigid and

unaffordable standards have been proposed through different „planning schemes‟

including master plans and squatter upgrading programmes to meet the growing

demand for land and infrastructure. High standards in upgrading have created a

situation where more property had to be demolished especially in informal

settlements such as in Manzese and Mtoni/Tandika in Dar es Salaam (Kironde

1995). Decreasing budgets and increasing demands for compensation have

created situations where some of the infrastructure services have had to be

foregone or standards reduced during the planning stage or in the implementation

stage (Materu 1986).

iv) Uncoordinated efforts of actors

There is lack of co-ordination of local actors for their effective participation in

urban development matters. Furthermore, there is missing linkages of municipal

service providers and users; exactly what planning should be for. For about four

decades since independence, each institution offering infrastructure utilities has

usually concentrated on its own sector in terms of planning and implementation of

projects without co-ordination with other parties and the result has been complete

chaos. The whole planning system and procedure has been top-down and very

sectoral, a process that has created deficiencies in urban development and

management in the country.

Indeed, potential developers acquiring plots formally or informally in urban areas

have usually taken their own initiatives, at exorbitant costs, to secure municipal

services on an individual basis. It is common to find one developer or house

owner financing the installation of a kilometer of water pipe, sewerage pipe,

electricity power line and a road to his single plot/house.

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v) Top-down planning without local participation

Besides, the interventions by local authorities to provide some infrastructure when

requested by residents, the central and local governments have initiated and

implemented squatter upgrading projects, the planning, design and

implementation of which has followed varying approaches and taken different

forms over time. The upgrading projects which were implemented in the 1970s

and early 1980s were characterized by lack of community participation and lack

of ownership of the improved infrastructure; did not deal with regularization of

property rights, so that after upgrading further land subdivision and building could

not be checked to control densification to undesired levels. A poor record on cost

recovery and operation and maintenance of the improved; application of

inappropriately high design and building standards that made projects very

expensive, unaffordable to the target group and impossible to replicate to other

informal settlements. Both lack of community participation and poor cost

recovery contributed to poor or lack of maintenance and subsequently

deterioration of infrastructure and services in the upgraded areas.

3.0 Initiatives and Priorities 3.1 Priorities

There are several priorities for human settlements development dictated by current

national policies and addressed in already prepared strategies and programmes under –

implementation. The priorities include:

i. Serviced land available for shelter and human settlements development to all

sections of the community including women, youth, the elderly people with

disability and disadvantaged;

ii. Improvement of the level of the provision of infrastructure and social services

for sustainable human settlements development;

iii. Facilitating creation of employment opportunities and eradication of poverty;

iv. Promotion of active participation of all stakeholders in planning, development

and management of human settlements;

v. Conservation and protection of the environment of human settlements and of

ecosystems from pollution, degradation and destruction in order to attain

sustainable development;

vi. Building of capacities in training and retraining of professionals in fields of

related to shelter delivery, human settlements development and environmental

development;

vii. Promotion of capacity building of (i.e. technical, financial and management)

for all stakeholders involved in shelter delivery and human settlements

development;

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viii. Promotion of the use of locally available and affordable building materials;

ix. Building of Geographical Information Systems (GIS) data base for planning,

development and management of urban and rural settlements.

3.2 Initiatives

Because of the importance and urgency of charting out strategies to manage fast

urbanisation in the country, the Government of Tanzania has initiated several policies,

legislations and programmes to develop a multi-sectoral approach towards facilitation of

urban development and management of the environment. This has taken shape in the

recently formulated Human Settlements Development Policy that has led to the

development of a National Housing Development Programme 2003 - 2007 (URT 2000,

URT 2002), National Environmental Policy and the Environment Act (2004); and

National Strategy for Growth and Reduction of Poverty (NSGRP 2005).

i) Government Reforms

The recent civil service reform and particularly the local government reforms,

meant to reverse the situation, are co-ordinated by the Prime Minister‟s Office -

Regional Administration and Local Government while the Ministry of Lands,

Housing and Human Settlements Development guides reforms in land

administration and in urban planning.

The trends show positive results from the implementation of the 1996 National

Local Government Reform Programme in terms of increasing transparency and

accountability among urban local authorities. While this situation contributes to

building trust among development partners, it also contributes to good urban

governance. However these achievements have not sufficiently lead to equal

opportunities among men and women urban dwellers. The government reforms

include also further decentralization of regional administration to district levels.

Many staff have already been transferred to district councils.

ii) Adopting the Participatory Approach in urban planning and management

Meeting the challenge of urbanisation under poverty through demand-based

approaches requires adopting participatory policy frameworks that entails

effective decentralisation and institutional co-ordination, broader involvement of

communities and mobilisation of the local resources including those of the private

sector (Kyessi 2002). The National Poverty Eradication Strategy of 1998

identified four reasons that had prevented the efforts of the government in

eradicating poverty, one of them being low level of peoples' participation in

different stages of planning which resulted in lack of support and hence made the

plans unsustainable.

In general, there appears to be an agreement that respective local authorities

should carry out both long-term broad strategic urban development planning and

short term detailed planning at local level. The role of the Ministry of Lands,

Housing and Human Settlement Development would be essentially that of

providing policy framework, technical support and when necessary carrying out

activities which cannot be undertaken by local authorities alone. In some

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instances, the staff from the Ministry of Works work hand in hand with staff in

the local authorities. To really effect the decentralization of urban planning,

relevant policies and pieces of legislation have been devised. These include the

National Human Settlement Development Policy (URT 2000), the National Land

Policy (URT 1995) and the Land Act no. 4 of 1999 and the Village Land Act no.

5 of 1999. Participatory planning and regularization of informal settlements have

been clearly been imbedded in the policies and the legislation.

iii) Responses by the Private Sector

Shortage of urban services is related to small budget allocations, limited

participation of the private sector and lack of capacity to monitor performance by

both central government and local authorities. Recently, the private sector has

responded fairly well to the problem of urban public transport and garbage

collection especially in Dar es Salaam. In many urban centres, public transport

has improved considerably, and this has in turn created a number of livelihood

opportunities to many urban dwellers.

Although responses by the private sector, especially in the provision of services

are not necessarily directed towards poverty reduction, some initiatives such as

those in public transport services have contributed substantially to improved

transportation, particularly in the unplanned settlements, where public transport is

an important input to the livelihood strategies of the inhabitants. Pursuits, which

depend on, and greatly benefit from, public transport, include petty trading,

formal employment, schooling, urban farming as well as social and recreational

activities.

iv) Responses by Civil Societies (NGOs and CBOs)

It has been observed that there is an increase of civil society organizations in

urban areas. Most of these facilitate provision of social, economic and public

health related services particularly to the poor. In addition, they also enhance

community participation in development activities in the urban areas. Some civil

societies such as NGOs, CBOs and other community based groups have been very

successful in advocacy and mobilising people to contribute towards service

provision for instance water supply, road construction and maintenance, solid

waste collection, schools building and management and security as well as

upgrading projects. To ensure that, upgrading programmes also contribute in

poverty reduction, some NGOs and CBOs have adopted innovative strategies, for

instance labour intensive infrastructure upgrading.

4.0 Way Forward 4.1 Improving the Governance of Urban Settlements

The government regards urbanisation and urban development as an important process for

the development of the country as a whole and has decided to pursue strategies aimed at

improving the management of urban centres. Simultaneously, many reforms are being

instituted in the Prime Minister‟s Office - Regional Administration and Local

Government. A new department dealing with urban planning and development has

already been established in that Ministry.

Strengthening Governance, institutional and legal issues further require that:

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i. Mechanisms to facilitate openness and participation of urban residents in local

government affairs should be enhanced and new ones created. Building

capacity of the local council staff, which is part of the local government

reform program, need to be emphasized;

ii. Technical services offered by local authorities and other actors should be

available at the local level;

iii. There is a need to enhance the capacity of informal groups and CBOs in terms

of facilitating more transparency, members‟ participation and exposure to best

practices;

iv. Training programmes to build capacity of private sector should be enhanced.

4.2 Adopting the Environmental Planning and Management (EPM) Process Within the planning and management of human settlements practice, it is now widely

recognized that exclusive reliance on formal planning and regulatory measures is not

enough to realize sustainable management of growing cities, the urban environment and

to make infrastructure and facilities accessible or affordable to the inhabitants of formal

and informal settlements. Thus, a larger number of diverse groups of stakeholders in

managing human settlements need to be identified. Examples of such stakeholders

include local communities, CBOs as well as other agents involved, such as affected

landowners, NGOs, central and local government agencies, financial institutions, aid

organizations and other development partners, etc.

Within the country‟s planning system, a shift is inevitably occurring from the traditional

urban planning and management model to one that recognizes involvement of more

stakeholders in the private and community or civil society sectors. The Government of

Tanzania through the support of the UN-Habitat, UNDP and DANIDA have been

executing the Sustainable Cities Programme (SCP) using the Environmental Planning and

Management (EPM) process as a tool in implementing local Agenda 21 and the Habitat

Agenda. Several cities and urban centres have adopted the EPM process in Tanzania.

In order to improve on the traditional master planning approaches, and in addressing the

continuously complex urban development processes, the EPM approach adopts a more

dynamic, continuous and consensual vision building and policy-making process

(UNCHS-Habitat, 2000). The output of the strategic planning process is not just a

physical development plan for the city but a set of interrelated strategies aimed at

enabling all public, private and community initiatives to promote economic growth,

provide basic infrastructure services and enhance the quality of the environment. These

and other new approaches have thus attempted to move away from the rigid formality of

blue print urban master plans.

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PART III: ENERGY SECTOR AND THE ENVIRONMENT

1.0 Energy resources Tanzania is endowed with diverse energy sources including biomass, natural gas,

hydropower, coal, geothermal, solar and wind power, much of which is untapped. Coal

reserves have been estimated at 1.6 billion tonnes of which 304 million tonnes are

considered proven (Kassenga, 1997). Natural gas exists in Tanzania with proven reserves

of about 45 billion cubic meters from Songo-songo and Mnazi Bay (Kassenga, 1997).

The gas is transported through 232 km pipeline to Dar es Salaam where natural gas is

used to generate up to 115MW of electricity for the national grid. Tanzania also

possesses some geothermal resources with an estimated potential of about 650 MW

(Salvasen, 1994).

1.1 Energy Balance The total annual energy used in Tanzania is estimated at 22 million tones of oil

equivalent (toe), 92% of which is biomass-based and 8% is commercial energy, mainly

electricity and petroleum-based fuel (MEM, 2003). This means energy use is

characterized by very low per capita consumption of commercial energy and high

dependence on biomass (Kassenga 1997, MEM, 2003). Consumption of commercial

primary energy is estimated to be 457 kg oil equivalent per capita which is lower than

those of most of the other Sub-Saharan countries (for example, Zimbabwe 809; Zambia

619 and Kenya 515 kg of oil equivalent per capita) (UNFPA, 2001). The different energy

sources contribution to the total energy balance at the end-use level is shown in Table 4.

1 (MEM, 2003). The main energy consumption sectors and their share in total

consumption are presented in Figure 4.4.

Table 4.1: energy sources contribution to the total energy balance at the end-use level

Energy Source Contribution (%)

Biomass energy 92

Petroleum products 7

Electricity 1

Coal Insignificant

Solar, wind, biogas Insignificant

(Source: MEM, 2003)

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12%

5%

4% 3%

76%

Households

Industry

Services

Agriculture

Transport

Figure 4.4: Main energy consumption sectors and their share in total consumption

1.2 Energy Sources 1.2.1 Biomass

About 92% of the total energy consumption is based on biomass, of which 80% is

consumed in rural areas (Kjellström, 1992; Karekezi et al., 2002). The high dependence

on wood is attributed to the fact that fuel wood is for free (in terms of money) and readily

available from one‟s own land or communal areas and requires only a simple technology

to utilise.

Unfortunately, the present demand for biomass-based energy cannot be met on a

sustainable basis (Kassenga, 1997). Deforestation rate between 1990 and 1995 was

estimated to be 322,600 ha/year whereas afforestation rate was about 9,000 ha/year

(Karekezi et al., 2002). Some critical environmental problems as a result of irrational

exploitation of woodfuel sources are deforestation, soil erosion, desertification and loss

of biodiversity. It is most likely that woodfuel will continue to be the major source of

energy. Therefore, it seems that the most effective measure towards helping the acute

energy problem in rural areas and to arrest land degradation problem is introduction of

more efficient cooking stoves for better utilization of the available resources.

There is no immediate renewable energy substitute for cooking apart from biogas whose

technology dissemination rate is still unsatisfactory. There are more than 4,000 domestic-

size biogas plants built country-wide during 1984 to 2001 period, making Tanzania the

pioneer of this technology in Africa. The costs, socio-cultural habits and traditions may

halt the dissemination of this technology.

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Currently, bagasse is used as boiler fuel for process steam production in sugar factories

and in some cases electricity production for own consumption but also for export to the

national electricity grid like the case of Kilombero Sugar Company where TANESCO

has a power purchase agreement. Depending on economic feasibility, bagasse can be

used as a raw material for ethanol production for blending with gasoline.

1.2.2 Electricity Electricity generation, transmission and distribution in Tanzania are the monopoly of

TANESCO. The company is 100% government owned and is responsible for 98% of the

country‟s electricity supply.

i) Hydropower

Hydropower is the main primary source for generation of electricity. The present

total installed electricity generating capacity is about 890 MW. 584 MW (65.6%)

of the capacity is hydropower-based while thermal plants generate the remaining

306 MW (34.4%). The thermal power plants are driven by combustion turbines or

diesel engines. The country‟s hydropower potential capacity is estimated to be

more than 4,500 MW (Kassenga, 1997) therefore only about 13% has been

exploited so far. Tanzania imports electricity in bulk from Uganda and Zambia.

Government policy aims to reduce dependence on hydro sources and increase

utilization of indigenous resources such as natural gas and coal in the medium to

long term.

Environmental implications of hydropower development have been the inundation

of the land upstream, displacement of people and desiccation of agricultural land

down stream and loss of biodiversity. For instance an endemic spray toad was

found downstream the gorge at Kihansi hydropower plant and to save the rare

toad from extinction, water at a flow rate of 2m³/s was diverged from the dam as

an environmental flow. Due to flow diversion, generation of electricity has been

reduced by 8%.

ii) Thermal Power

Electricity generated at thermal power plants is currently 306 MW, out of which

the interconnected grid plants comprise of 80%, the rest is generated at isolated

mini-grids (Table 23). With exception of about 180 MW, which are now running

on natural gas, the rest run on imported diesel and an insignificant portion by coal

and biomass. For the non-diesel power plants, coal contribution is limited to 6

MW at Kiwira Coal Mine. Efforts are under way to utilize coal at Mchuchuma-

Katewaka for the generation of up to 400 MW of electricity. One of the

challenges is how to develop this resource with minimum impact to the

environment. Thermal generation of power is associated with air pollution due to

production of oxides of sulfur and nitrogen from fuel combustion, noise and

vibration pollution from generators as well as water and soil pollution due to

improper disposal of waste oil.

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Electricity consumption demand is expected to continue rising as Tanzania strives

to strengthen her economy in pursuit of the poverty reduction goal. Power

consumption is expected to triple in the next 20 years (Table 4.2).

Table 4.2: Demand and consumption projections

YEAR 2000 2010 2030

Consumption, GWh 1,913 4,720 11,298

Net generation, GWh 2,413 5,262 12,595

Peak demand, MW 426 922 2,251

Source: Power Systems Master Plan, 2001

iii) Rural Electrification

Rural electrification is a case of long-term national interest, as availability of

electricity in rural areas and commercial centres would stimulate much needed

social and economic development. Tanzania‟s power grid reaches the main urban

centres and only about 1% of the rural population (Karekezi et al., 2002).

However, high costs of electricity distribution are a major limiting factor given

the vast area of Tanzania.

Power utility TANESCO is facing the problem of vandalism of electrical wires on

transmission lines and transformer oil theft. In addition, leaking of transformer oil

has been observed. Improper storage and disposal of used transformer oil cause

pollution of the environment. It is worth noting that transformer oil is known to

contain PCBs, which are proven carcinogens.

1.2.3 Petroleum Products

Petroleum exploration activities in Tanzania started in 1950s and about 33 wells have

been drilled so far. Though oil exploration programmes are yet to result into an

economically exploitable oil reserve as of to-date, the Rift Valley and the Coastal

Sedimentary Basin are among the promising areas of petroleum potential. Under this

situation, Tanzania is a net importer of petroleum products. (see Table 4.3). Transport

sector is the single largest consumer of petroleum products

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Table 4.3: Fuel Consumption (in metric tones) in Tanzania

PRODUCT YEAR

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004

LPG 3,728 3,719 2,903 4,903 4,964 5,587

AVGAS - 1,463 - 2,391 2,287 2,461

MSP 97,630 102,522 99,244 164,883 200,634 198,785

GO 300,323 341,255 327,144 539,071 626,567 652,549

FO 114,225 119,010 95,908 103,872 136,018 150,514

JET-A1 37,645 51,185 49,470 23,831 120,758 143,921

IK 87,024 84,362 93,178 140,433 131,873 122,621

IDO 20,929 19,847 21,360 17,416 19,479 19,414

TOTAL 662,554 723,363 689,207 996,800 1,242,589 1,295,852

1.2.4 Renewable Sources of Energy Due to its geographical position (stretching between latitudes 1º S and 12º S), Tanzania

receives high-intensity sun radiation throughout the year which can be harnessed for

energy and whose effect produces a variety of salient features that are suitable for the

regeneration of biomass, wind and water cycle (Kassenga 1997). If efficiently harnessed

and utilized, these renewable would reduce to a considerable extent Tanzania's heavy

reliance on traditional energy systems as well as reverse the resulting ecological

imbalances.

i) Solar Energy

Solar energy in Tanzania has been in use for several past generations for drying

crops, clothes, wood, salt, etc. From the available data, the average daily solar

radiation intensity is about 4.5 kWh/m2 (Kassenga, 1993). Some efforts have been

made to harness solar energy using modern technologies like solar photovoltaic

(PV) systems and solar thermal.

Solar Thermal Systems

On the area of solar thermal, solar water heating, crop and salt drying and direct cooking

technologies are being practiced albeit in a small scale. Solar water heating is the best-

proven and most cost effective thermal use of solar energy. By 1999, there were more that

600 operational solar water heater systems in Tanzania. Most of the installations are

operating very well and majority of them were fabricated locally using the locally available

materials.

Solar PV Systems

Under solar PV systems, the electricity generated has been used mainly for

telecommunications, medical refrigeration, lighting and water pumping. The rapid

reduction in the cost of PV systems (US$ 35/Wp in 1975 to less than US$ 5/Wp at

present) realized in the last three decades, innovative financing schemes and

improvement in the reliability of PV systems among other reasons are beginning to make

PV systems to a certain extent affordable to many rural households and communities

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(Karekezi and Ranja, 2002). In view of this, Tanzania like many other African countries

gives priority to the dissemination of PV technology as one of the potential renewable

energies for solving rural energy problems and reduction of heavy dependence on

biomass-based fuels.

The limitation of solar PV is that it can only be used for lighting and powering low-

voltage appliances. As opposed to diesel engines, solar PV technology is unsuitable for

powering energy intensive rural enterprises especially agro-processing activities, which

are the most attractive options for generating incomes in rural areas. Agro-processing

activities (such as flour, cotton gin, oil and saw milling) require equipment with a

minimum power output of well above 1000 Wp. Environmental challenge of solar PV

technology is the disposal of used panels and batteries.

ii) Wind Energy

In Tanzania wind energy has been mostly used to pump water for irrigation,

domestic and livestock watering purposes. More than 120 windmills have been

installed to provide mechanical power for water pumping. Electricity generation

from wind has been insignificant. Most of the installations in operation have been

imported, while few are locally fabricated and installed. There have been several

attempts to design wind mills locally, but none of them has been successfully

introduced in the market.

Assessment indicated a good potential at some of the sites but further

measurements are recommended before a demonstration plant is installed, the aim

being to look for better sites for locating wind farms. Indications are that the wind

regimes in Tanzania could be sufficient for wind turbines. Besides having a high

initial costs, wind energy is a very environmentally friendly when harnessed, the

only negative impact part of it is that of visual impact, sound pollution and threat

to the migratory birds caused by rotating blades.

1.2.5 Coal Raw coal has been used for many years in many countries for domestic as well as for

industrial uses with environmental consequences of pollution and health hazards. Coal is

the least used indigenous energy source accounting for only 0.6% of the total energy used

in Tanzania, though proven reserves are plentiful.

One of the hindering factors in using coal for domestic purposes are the lack of

appropriate technology to make it a clean energy source i.e. free from toxic emissions. In

recent years, some attempts have been made to promote coal stoves but because of the air

pollution problem this effort has yet to bear fruit. Coal mined at Kiwira in Kyela District

is mainly used for the generation of electricity and for thermal use at some factories.

Even at such a low production rate, there are considerable environmental hazards caused

by raw coal burning. Moreover, the heaps of coal dust outside the mine have been a

source of nuisance and pollution to the nearby Songwe River causing a lot of problems to

the people using its water downstream. The briquette technology using coal dust as the

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main raw material is anticipated to solve environmental problems associated with coal

dust.

2.0 Challenges related to promotion of environmentally and socially sound Energy Technologies i. High initial cost associated with environmentally sound energy technologies

(ESETs);

ii. Inadequate human and institutional capacities (limited professional capability

to design, build, operate, manage and maintain ;

iii. Inadequacies or non-comprehensive technology transfer policy, legislation

and incentives;

iv. Environmental, social, political/security concerns associated with some

technologies.

3.0 Policy, Institution and technological Initiatives in the Energy Sector The Ministry of Energy and Minerals (MEM) is mandated to ensure sustainable, reliable,

adequate and environmentally friendly supplies of energy at least cost to the economy

and the consumers (MEM 2003). Among others, the energy policy stresses the need to

i. enhance the development and utilization of indigenous and renewable energy

sources and technologies;

ii. adequately take into account environmental considerations for all energy

activities;

iii. increase energy efficiency and conservation in all sectors; and,

iv. increase energy education and build gender-balanced capacity in energy

planning, implementation and monitoring.

All companies involved in oil and gas exploration activities are licensed by the Tanzania

Petroleum Development Corporation, (TPDC) under the Model Production Sharing

Agreement. According to the Agreement, companies are obliged to take necessary and

adequate steps to prevent pollution and protect the environment and the living resources

of the sea and lakes.

4.0 Way forward In view of the fact that the country has several significant energy related environmental

problems, there is a dire need to promote renewable energy sources and to utilise fossil

fuels in an environmentally sustainable manner. Utilization of renewable energy is

environmentally friendly and has a positive impact on the emission of CO2. To this effect

the following recommendations are given:

i. Some technologies in harnessing RET are new and therefore often pose

problems due to deficient technological capacities or capabilities. Deliberate

efforts should be made to develop these technologies.

ii. In case of the non-availability of personnel to conduct research and training

programmes, strategies should focus on the cooperation and help from various

organizations, both national and regional as well as international.

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iii. On diffusion of appropriate RET, the government and allied bodies are

expected to initiate large-scale publicity programmes to encourage

manufacturers, marketers and customers.

iv. Where feasible, the government should enhance incentives, such as removal

or reduction of tax from RET, currently implemented in Tanzania, and also

provision for subsidies in the diffusion process.

v. Tanzania needs a careful research and analysis to realize investments in clean

energy.

PART IV: POLLUTION SOURCES

1.0 Water Pollution The state of water pollution in Tanzania may be described as follows:

i. The deterioration of quality of ground and surface water sources especially

lakes and rivers flowing through the cities of Dar es Salaam, Mwanza, Arusha

and Mbeya and the municipalities of Moshi and Morogoro.

ii. Pollution of both surface and ground water resources due to excessive and

irrational use of agrochemicals in catchment areas.

1.1 Sources of water pollution In Tanzania, water pollution emanates from a number of point and diffuse sources

including untreated or partially treated sewage, chemical discharges, petroleum leaks and

spills, dumping in old mines and pits, agricultural chemicals that are washed off or seep

underground from farm fields, and atmospheric deposition. Pollution can render large

quantities of water unsuitable for use, or which can be used for restricted purposes only.

Unfortunately, data on water pollution are fragmented and scarce. Most of the

information on water quality and pollution in Tanzania comes from areas in or around

major towns and cities and mostly covers pollution emanating from sewage waste. Fewer

studies have looked at other sources of water quality degradation and their impacts on the

natural environment and on human health.

i) Industrial water pollution

Probably the most serious source of water pollution in urban areas in Tanzania

can result from industrial activities. About 80% of industries in Tanzania are

located in urban areas and over 50% of these are found in large towns, mainly Dar

es Salaam. However, many of these industries were established without adequate

environmental attention, as a result they have been operating without waste

treatment facilities, some for more than 40 years (Mato, 2002). The wastes from

the industries are disposed of in inland rivers, depressions, pits, or on land.

Industrial effluents have been reported to pollute rivers like Msimbazi in Dar es

Salaam, Karanga in Moshi, Mwirongo in Mwanza, and Themi in Arusha (Mato,

2002).

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More than 122 industrial establishments in Dar es Salaam produce about 127

tonnes/day of hazardous waste, which is about 40% of the total industrial solid

waste production (Mato 2002). Most of industries have no waste treatment and

holding facilities other than open ground, which results into pollution of both

surface and ground water resources.

In Pangani basin raw and partially treated effluents from industries in Arusha,

Moshi and Tanga are causing pollution of water bodies in the basin. Mwanuzi

(2000) estimated BOD5 loads released in Pangani River from Arusha and

Kilimanjaro industries to be 3,281 and 7,489 tonnes per year. The Sigi River, in

this basin, has a BOD5 of more than 135 mg/L due largely to discharge of raw or

partially treated wastewater from sisal processing industries.

In Lake Victoria basin, some areas of the rivers feeding the lake and the shoreline

are polluted by municipal and industrial discharges. Municipal pollution loads in

the Lake Victoria Basin has shown an incremental trend between the year 2002

and 2005 as clearly shown in Table 4.4. This can be explained by the normal

population increase and the increase due to rapid growth of the mining and fish

industries in the basin and the minimal investment on new installations and/or

improvement of wastewater treatment facilities.

Table 4.4: Municipal Pollution loads Trend from urban centres in Lake Victoria Basin in

Tanzania (2002-2005)

Year

Population of

Urban Centres

Resulting Load (kg/day) No. FC/day

BOD5 Total-N Total-P TSS

2002 875511 8769 1556 623 5817 5.6E+14

2003 913958 9158 1628 651 6086 5.9E+14

2004 954131 9568 1701 680 6368 6.2E+14

2005 996108 9998 1778 711 6664 6.3E+14

Modified from Mnyanga et al. (2006)

Serious threats also arise from rapidly mushrooming small-scale industries, which

generate large amounts of waste. Small-scale industries normally are less monitored and

to a larger extent they are believed to cause less pollution, although their collective

impacts may be enormous.

Filling stations dispensing petroleum products are potentially threatening groundwater

sources. In Dar es Salaam alone, the number of filling stations has doubled during the

past five years and more than 25% of them might be having leaking tanks (Mato 2002).

Leaking oil storage and selling facilities are potentially threatening the water quality

integrity of the aquifers because some of the hydrocarbons are toxic (Kassenga et al

2006).

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Although, there are specific laws on the control of pollution, their enforcement has been

inadequate. Therefore, industries have been disposing of untreated effluents to land or

surface watercourses for more than 35 years. The major threat is from chemical

industries, which may be discharging wastewater containing high levels of persistent

substances.

Cleaner industrial production initiatives may contribute significantly to reduction of

pollution. In recognition of the role of cleaner production approach in solving industrial

pollution problems the Government has established the Cleaner Production Unit under

the Department of Environment in the Office of the Vice President to promote the

rational use of energy and raw materials and minimise waste generation from industries.

ii) Municipal Water Pollution

In Tanzania, wastewater emanating from the residential areas is crudely disposed

of to land, streams, lakes, or sea without prior treatment. Nine municipalities have

sewerage systems, serving only about 12% of the urban population (Chaggu,

2004). In most municipalities, the collected sewage is treated in waste

stabilization ponds (WSP) before being discharged into inland rivers.

Malfunctioning of WSP means that raw sewage is discharged to the surface and

groundwater resources. Also non-working WSP means more sewage will be

disposed of into the ground, as less septic tank and pit latrine sludge will be

brought to the ponds.

In Dar es Salaam, domestic wastewater is the most serious source of pollution.

Msimbazi River and Creek are among the most polluted water bodies in Dar es

Salaam. The river and creek receives large quantities of untreated domestic wastes

from the city‟s residents in addition to industrial wastes from various industries.

The river is polluted in terms of high organic (27 to 340 mg BOD5/L) and nutrient

concentrations, low dissolved oxygen (<0.9 mg O2/L), and high counts of

indicator organisms (Mbuligwe and Kaseva 2005).

The main source of groundwater pollution in Tanzania, is sewage handling

(treatment and/or disposal) since over 90% of the population use pit latrines and

septic tanks for sanitation with walls which are not water tight and so,

groundwater can flow freely in and out of the pit (Chaggu, 2004).

Another potential source of water pollution arises from the indiscriminate disposal

of solid wastes. Due to increased urban population, the quantities of solid wastes

to be collected and transported for disposal have also increased tremendously in

recent years. About 5-10% of the urban population receive regular solid waste

collection services in most cases confined to few areas, usually the urban centres

and high-income neighbourhoods (Mato, 2002). The uncollected waste (90-95%)

is burned, creating air pollution, left on the streets, collected and recycled by

scavengers, or eaten by animals, dumped into storm drains, creeks, canals and

buried in pits (which are usually less than 1.0m below ground level) hence

becoming a diffuse source of pollution. A crisis of this waste is pollution of

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ground and surface water sources by leachate from unmanaged and illegal solid

waste dumps, and unhealthy living conditions. Dumpsites like Njiro in Arusha,

Duga in Tanga, Vingunguti in Dar es Salaam are posing serious groundwater

pollution. It is worth noting that, no urban centre in Tanzania has an

environmentally sound solid waste disposal facility.

iii) Agricultural water pollution

Use of agrochemicals in Tanzania has been heaviest in major river basins and

watersheds, especially in Rufiji basin. Intensive and somewhat indiscriminate use

of agrochemicals in the Rufiji and neighbouring basins is causing deterioration of

water quality and soil pollution. These are apart from more direct health problems

evidenced by an increase in cases of cancer and susceptibility to other previously

uncommon diseases. What makes the situation of greater concern is the fact that

pesticides are applied extensively and indiscriminately by ill-informed users, and

even banned pesticides like DDT are in use even to date, though somewhat

clandestinely (Mbuligwe, 2005). Furthermore, storage of huge amounts of

obsolete as well as viable pesticides is haphazard. Importation of the chemicals is

unregulated, and this has led to importation of chemicals in excess of actual

needs, apart from facilitating importation of banned pesticides. A lack of proper

facilities for storage and disposal of the pesticides further exacerbates the

problems. Appendix 1 lists pesticides that are used in large amounts in Tanzania

and presumably constituted a portion of the obsolete pesticides found in Tanzania.

The presence of such dangerous pesticides as DDT and the fact that in most

storage lots active ingredients of the pesticides are unidentifiable, worsens the

situation. It is worth noting that most organic pesticides (such as organochlorine

and organophosphorus insecticides) tend to persist in the environment and as such

may accumulate in the food chain, consequently causing long-term public health

risks.

In the Pangani River Basin, which is to the north east of the country,

concentrations of soluble salts in water have been found to be as high as

750mg/L, presumably due to use of fertilisers (Mbuligwe, 2005). The

concentration of nitrate, another notorious nutrient, was found to be comparably

high. In Sigi River in the Pangani River Basin, the water hyacinth is rapidly

becoming a serious problem, threatening to choke off the river. Furthermore, in

the Ruvu – Wami River basin fertilisers: Sulphate of Ammonia (SA), Calcium

Ammonium Nitrate (CAN), Urea, and Triple Super Phosphate (TSP) are used in

substantial amounts.

Water quality in Lake Victoria has declined greatly in the past few decades,

owing chiefly to eutrophication arising from increased inflow of nutrients into the

lake, which has resulted into domination by blue-green algae. Blue-green algae is

causing deoxygenation of the water, increased sickness for humans and animals

drawing water from the lake, clogging of water intake filters, and increased

chemical treatment costs for urban centers. Atmospheric deposition has been

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identified as the predominant source of nutrient loading to Lake Victoria with

loads of 137,001 and 21,754 kg/day for total nitrogen and phosphorus,

respectively. (Myanza et al, 2006). Other significant sources are river loads

possibly due to poor agronomic practices including extensive and shifting farming

which are persistent in the basin (Myanza et al, 2006). Total annual nutrient

inputs to the lake including industrial and municipal sources are currently

estimated at 162,224 and 28,949 tonnes of N and P, respectively (Myanza et al,

2006).

1.2 Costs of water pollution to the National Economy In the absence of sustainable use of water resources, Tanzania is likely to face ever

growing water pollution problems from unsustainable use of its water resources in the

quest for poverty reduction. The cost of treatment of ailments associated with water

pollution and the resultant productive time lost due to illness is most likely to be

enormous.

About 68 percent and 45 percent of the urban and rural population, respectively have

access to piped and safe water. The cost of providing clean water amounts to USD 290

million per annum. This is based on an estimated per capita use of 20 litres per day in

rural areas and 50 litres per day in urban areas at a ratio of 3:1 for rural-urban population.

The cost of water delivery is estimated at 35 US cents per litre (Mariki et al., 2003). It is

apparent from this estimate that water pollution is undermining the efforts of the

Government to eradicate poverty.

1.3 Research Very little research work has been done on water pollution in Tanzania and this is a

matter of concern. The water quality status of major water bodies has not been well

investigated. Various academic and research institutions have been conducting researches

on water pollution for specific purposes. Except for short-term water quality studies in

some water basins such as Pangani River, Lake Victoria and Lake Tanganyika basins,

water quality monitoring and assessment are not undertaken systematically. More

research is needed to address water pollution and the many other water-related problems

the nation is currently facing.

1.4 Initiatives In order to arrest this situation, several steps have been taken, aimed at combating the

problem of pollution in Tanzania. Foremost of these is the adoption of national policies,

which set out the country‟s agenda that aims at curbing pollution of waterbodies. These

include the National Environmental Policy (1997) that advocates the prevention and

control of pollution of the marine and coastal waters, including that from land-based

sources. This policy statement is supported by the Environmental Management Act

(EMA-2004). However, there has been weak enforcement of this and other regulations

resulting in continued pollution of water bodies. International and regional initiatives to

curb water pollution include the Nile Basin Initiative and the Lake Victoria

Environmental Management Programme.

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The National Water Policy (2005) stipulates that water quality monitoring and

assessment should be undertaken systematically so as to identify extent and status of the

quality of the water resources so that problems are detected early and remedial actions

employed timely.

Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) have also been involved in natural resources

issues including water pollution control. However, most of them are poorly staffed have

few physical resources and irregular access to funding. Examples, of NGOs active in

water pollution control include AGENDA, ENATA, EEPCO, PECCO and CONCERN.

1.5 Way forward As a way forward, effective integrated watershed management plans to protect the water

sources from pollution and general degradation should be prepared. In addition, a water

quality monitoring programme for all major water sources should be formulated.

Environmental legislation for water pollution prevention should be enforced and public

education campaigns to educate and urge people to protect water sources should be

conducted.

2.0 Air and Noise Pollution 2.1 Air Pollution The various air pollution sources in Tanzania are transport activities, burning of

agricultural wastes, manufacturing activities, residential burning of fossil fuels and wood,

and open field solid waste burning. Air pollution emanating from transport activities is

covered in a separate section.

Although little quantitative data exist, industrial air pollution in Tanzania is considered

not very serious but it is expected to grow with time as the country is striving to develop

its manufacturing sector. The problem is more pronounced in urban areas where more

than 80% of industries are located. In the past, the most notable source of industrial air

pollution was cement manufacturing. At the moment all cement factories have

significantly solved the dust pollution problem by installing dust-arresting equipments.

Offensive odours are mostly emitted from food industries, chemical and allied industries,

sewage treatment plants, solid waste disposal sites, malfunctioning sea outfalls, sea

shores and even public sanitation facilities. The Dar Brew factory in Dar es Salaam, for

example, which produces Chibuku brew from grains emits offensive smells, which can be

detected as far away as 1.5 km. Most sewage treatment plants tend to produce pungent

smell in their neighbourhood. So do broken down and leaking sewers as well as sea

outfalls. Since most solid waste disposal sites in Tanzania are poorly managed they

produce offensive odours.

2.2 Noise Pollution Studies in Dar es Salaam have established the presence of noise pollution due to

industrial and other activities. Exposure to noise from various sources such as social

activities (bars, nightclubs, social halls) and small-scale service industries in residential

areas with levels above 90dBA, the recommended safe limit of occupational noises

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exposure for 8 hours have been recorded and resultant health effects have been noted

(Mbuligwe 2004). With the current industrial expansion for economic growth noise

pollution is anticipated to increase as well, especially in urban areas. Mbuligwe (2004)

found that small-scale industries in Dar es Salaam present a serious source of

environmental noise pollution in their neighborhoods with noise levels higher than 90.0

dBA, the permissible exposure level limit for occupational noise.

2.3 Research No comprehensive studies have been done on air and noise pollution to quantify the

magnitude of the problem, let alone its environmental effects due to inadequate resources

and low institutional capacity.

2.4 Policy and Institution Initiatives Since the publication of the National Environmental Policy (1997) and enactment of the

Environmental Management Act (EMA-2004), a number of interventions to address

environmental pollution problems including air and noise pollution, have been started.

One of the objectives of the National Environmental Policy (1997) is to prevent and

control degradation of land, water, vegetation, and air, which constitute our life support

systems. Establishment of air quality monitoring programme in Dar es Salaam and

formulation of air and noise emission standards, which is in process will produce further

legal instruments that can assist the regulation and management of the problem.

2.5 Way forward Planning and administrative as well as technical measures must be used to prevent noise

and vibration with traffic sources as specific targets. Preferably, the objective should be

prevention using planning and administrative measures rather than control.

3.0 Pollution from transport activities 3.1 Automobile Air Pollution The major source of ambient air pollution is from vehicle emissions, the largest emitters

being older vehicles and diesel-powered vehicles. In addition, a majority of the roads in

Tanzania are unpaved thereby contributing significant amounts of suspended particulate

matter.

A study conducted in 1996 showed that automobile air pollution is a growing problem in

Dar es Salaam City (Kassenga and Mbuligwe, 1997). The study showed that vehicles in

Dar es Salaam whose number is increasing at the rate of 6.3% annually contribute to the

problem. The study revealed that automobile exhaust gas coefficients for nitrogen oxides

and carbon monoxide were 10 times those of USA. This was mainly implicated to low-

energy efficiency of engines of most of the cars plying city roads due to old age.

Concentrations of nitrogen oxides (for NOx: from < 0.5 to 2000 ppm; for NO2: from < 0.5

to 400 ppm) and carbon monoxide (from 60 to >2000 ppm) in the exhaust gas were also

found to be high. A study to assess the contribution of road traffic to air pollution level in

Dar-es-Salaam City, conducted in 2002 by Jackson (2005) showed that hourly average

measured values of SO2 and SO3 were above the recommended WHO guidelines at 87%

of the sampling sites. The unit risk realised was 18.2 × 10–6

for adult population and 2.2 ×

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10–6

for pupils, both scenarios showing risk higher than the United Sates of America

Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) acceptable limit of 1× 10–6

. Regulation on

importation of vehicles in terms of environmental compliance and regular inspection for

emission threshold conformity will reduce the air pollution problem.

3.2 Noise and vibration pollution from traffic and construction machinery A survey and analyses of noise and vibration from road traffic activities in Dar es Salaam

City reported by Kassenga and Mbuligwe (1999) showed that noise and vibration levels

by far surpass European recommended allowable mean values. The mean noise level, L50

from the survey stations, was found to lie between 60 dBA and 70 dBA whereas

Recommended Allowable Noise Mean (L50) values for neighbourhoods in the

Netherlands range from 30 to 50 dBA (Kassenga and Mbuligwe, 1999). The study

revealed that road traffic is the worst source of noise pollution and singled out large

vehicles (> 7 tonnes carrying capacity) as the worst polluters.

3.3 Aircraft Noise Pollution Mato and Mufuruki (1998) observed that workers at the Mwalimu Julius Kambarage

Nyerere International Airport were exposed to noise levels, which are higher than the

maximum noise level exposure for working places recommended by WHO. The noise

levels (Leq. (60s)) recorded in the residential areas of Kiwalani, Kipawa, Njiapanda and

Majumbasita ranged from 50 to 76 dBA. These noise levels exceed the recommended

limits for dwellings near noise generating sources of 60 dBA Leq. (60s). Eighty-eight

percent (88%) of people interviewed expressed great annoyance arising from exposure to

aircraft noise, especially those aircraft arriving early in the morning when most people

are asleep.

3.4 Water pollution Mineral oils have become potential surface and groundwater contaminants in Tanzania

because of the increasing use of fossil fuels. Similarly, disposal of used oils is currently

presenting potential pollution sources to water resources in urban areas of Tanzania.

Other potential pathways include leakage from underground storage tanks (like filling

stations) and accidental spillages during use or transportation. An increase in the number

of service stations in Tanzania puts soil and water resources at risk of pollution by

hydrocarbons if appropriate measures are not timely taken. Dar es Salaam City alone has

174 service stations at present and the number is increasing fast. Road development goes

together with bulk transportation and storage of oil and establishment of service stations

thus increasing chances of pollution of soil and water by petroleum hydrocarbons some

of which are carcinogenic such as benzene and xylenes. Oil spillage by defective marine

vessels, rail and road transportation, leakages from poorly maintained petroleum products

storage tanks, oil spillages due to ineffective loading and unloading facilities have been

reported by Mato (2002).

3.5 Policy and Institution Initiatives Besides intervention stipulated in various relevant national policies, the Government is

preparing the Sector Environmental Assessment for Transport Sector Support Programme

with the main objective of ensuring a sound integration of the environment into decision-

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making processes at the strategic level. Air quality monitoring stations have been

established as part of the ambient air-monitoring program for Dar es Salaam City under

the financial sponsorship of USAID.

3.6 Climate Change In 1990, carbon dioxide emissions from Tanzania amounted to 55,208 gigagrams CO2

(CEEST, 1999). A comparison of Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions for the major

gasses, carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide showed that that the contribution of

carbon dioxide is the highest (55%), followed by methane (44%) and nitrous oxide (1%).

Comparing sectoral contribution of GHGs in 1990 shows that the highest contribution is

from Land-use changes and forestry sector (53%), agriculture (33%), energy (13%) and

waste management (1%) as Figure 4.5 illustrates. Industrial processes contributed less

than 1 % of potential warming (CEEST, 1999). The situation has probably not

significantly changed since then.

3.6.1 Initiatives An assessment of the Greenhouse Gas Emissions have been conducted under the

following sectors: energy, industrial processes, solvent and other product use, agriculture,

forestry and land use change, waste management and air pollution. The National

Environmental Action Plan recognises problems associated with climate change and air

pollution. However, more emphasis was placed on issues related to climate variability. In

relation to climate change the National Environmental Policy recognises the following

guiding principles:

13%

33%52%

1%1%

Landuse/Forestry Agriculture

Energy Waste Management

Industry

Figure 4.5: Sectoral contributions of carbon dioxide emissions in Tanzania in 1990

(Source: CEEST, 1999)

i. greenhouse gas emissions must be reduced and greenhouse gas sinks must be

enhanced in order to prevent interference with the climate system,

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ii. the climate is a valuable natural resource, which, if not well managed, can

become a serious constraint to socio-economic development.

3.7 Way forward

Among others, the following strategies are proposed to cut down green-house gas

emissions (GHG) and air pollutants:

i. develop a database on air pollution through the establishment of a sound air

quality monitoring system;

ii. develop and promote alternative new and renewable energy sources to fuelwood

and technologies in order to reduce the use of fuelwood and enhance carbon

sinks;

iii. formulate and promote energy conservation measures to cut down emission;

iv. strengthen the existing national climate/ meteorological database and

monitoring networks;

v. assess and monitor the potential impact of climate change on the functioning of

ecosystems, vegetation patterns and net carbon sinks; and,

vi. use climate data to help guide land-use and economic development decisions;

4.0 Waste Management Inadequate waste management is considered as one of the problems posing potential risk

to public health and the environment in Tanzania particularly in urban areas with

proportionately significant population residing in unplanned (squatter) areas. The waste

management problem is more pronounced in squatter settlements, where 70-80% of the

urban population resides. Consequently, over 70% of diseases attended in health facilities

are water and sanitation related (MoH, 2003).

4.1 Industrial Wastes The industrial development strategy in Tanzania was pursued without environmental

regulation for a longtime and consequently many industries do not have waste treatment

facilities. Untreated or poorly treated effluents are being discharged into water bodies

and there is no systematic monitoring or quantification of industrial wastes that has been

taking place.

As a result of enforcement of environmental laws, some industries have installed waste

treatment facilities after operating for quite sometimes without them. For example,

cement factories have tremendously cut down their dust pollution discharges after

installation of effective dust arresting equipment.

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4.2 Municipal Wastes i) Municipal Wastewater and excreta

Out of 18 cities/municipalities/towns only 8 have sewerage systems. Urban

authorities with sewerage systems include Dar es Salaam, Tanga, Morogoro,

Dodoma, Arusha, Mwanza, Mbeya, Tabora and Moshi. Only about 10-12% of the

urban population have access to the sewerage system. In most municipalities, the

collected sewage is treated in waste stabilization ponds (WSP) before being

discharged into inland rivers. However, most of the ponds are not working

properly. Malfunctioning of WSP means that raw sewage is discharged to the

surface and groundwater resources.

For example, only about 15% of Dar es Salaam residents are connected to the city

sewer network that was build in the late 1950s. The city has 8 waste stabilisation

ponds, of which only 4 are in operation. The Zanzibar sewerage system, which

dates back to the 1920s, serves only about 18% of the pollution. As in Dar es

Salaam, waste from the town‟s residents in dumped untreated in the nearby

coastal waters. Lack of financial self sustainability is one of the major problems

crippling sewerage and sanitation authorities.

Over 90%, of the households in urban and rural areas use pit latrines and septic

tanks as Table 4.5 shows (Mato 2002; Chaggu 2004). However, 80% of the pit

latrines used by the most urban poor are substandard and offensive (Chaggu

2004). Pit latrines and septic tanks frequently overflow, especially during the

rains, contaminating water sources and increasing health risks in the

neighborhoods.

Table 4.5: National Coverage of Excreta Disposal Facilities in Tanzania

Type of facility National Coverage (%)

Urban Rural Total

Pit-Latrines 92.6 82.3 84.6

Traditional Pit-latrines 89.3 81.9 83.5

Ventilated Improved Pit-Latrine (VIP) 3.3 0.4 1.1

Septic Tanks and Soakage pits 3.6 0.5 1.2

Sewerage 1.4 0.3 0.5

Others (type not indicated) 0.7 0.9 0.8

Without access to any excreta disposal

facility

1.7 16 12.8

Source: Chaggu 2004)

ii) Solid wastes

About 5-10% of the urban population receive regular solid waste collection

services in most cases confined to few areas, usually the urban centres and high-

income neighbourhoods (Mato 2002). Table 4.6 shows solid waste generation

rates in some municipalities in Tanzania. As much as 80-90% of solid waste

generated in urban areas is not collected and most of the domestic waste, which

accounts for about 60 % of the total solid waste generated daily is disposed of by

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burning or burying. Some recycling of wastes is carried out primarily at the

generation points like households. The remaining wastes may end up in drains or

dumpsites. It is worth noting that, no urban centre in Tanzania has a safe solid

waste disposal facility. The main reasons for the failure to collect solid waste are

lack of equipment, low priority given to solid waste services by municipalities

and inadequate financial resources (Kassim, 2006).

Table 4.6: Waste generation rates in some municipalities in Tanzania

Municipality/City Waste generation rate

Kg/capita/day

Average density

kg/m3

Arusha 0.19(squatter areas)

0.36 (serviced areas)

275

Moshi 0.49 330

Dar es Salaam 0.17 (squatter

0.33 (serviced areas)

550

Source: Mato, 2000

Involvement of the private sector, NGOs and CBOs by the Government has improved the

delivery of solid waste management (SWM) services in Tanzania and Dar es Salaam in

particular. In Dar es Salaam, for example, collection of solid wastes increased from 5 –

10 tonnes per day (0.35 to 0.70% of the total amount generated per day) in 1992 to

between 800 and 1,000 tones per day (40 to 50% of the total amount generated per day)

in 2005 after initiation of the partnership between public and private sectors in delivering

SWM services (Blinker et al, 2006).

4.3 Health care waste Many medical facilities in Tanzania are characterized by inadequate and inappropriate

refuse storage facilities, lack of refuse collection services, improper disposal methods and

inadequate and inappropriate protective gear for refuse handlers. It is not uncommon to

find healthcare waste crudely dumped at municipal waste disposal site thus posing a

public health and environmental hazard. Many incinerators for medical wastes have been

observed to be wanting with respect to design and performance. Expired drugs are also

not properly stored and disposed of. A study conducted by Kassenga and Mato (1996) in

Dar es Salaam revealed that medical wastes are not properly managed in most hospitals

and dispensaries. Twenty four (24%) of medical facilities dispose their waste in

municipal dumpsite in a crude fashion. The same situation most likely prevails in other

urban centres in Tanzania.

4.4 Plastic wastes Plastic wastes such as carrier/plastic bags, packaging materials, and plastic bottles are

haphazardly disposed of all over the places particularly in urban areas resulting into

health risk and reduced aesthetic value of the environment. Uncontrolled burning of

plastic wastes may produce gases, which are toxic such as hydrochloric acid. Some

plastic wastes especially plastic bottles are recycled.

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In fast growing cities like Dar es Salaam, Arusha, Mwanza and Mbeya the bags have

disrupted the drainage system and are threatening to cause more harm. If buried, plastic

materials could block the natural supply of air and water to the soil, affecting plant life

directly and indirectly. The Tanzania Government introduced an outright ban on

disposable plastic bags in 2006. Manufacturing or import of bags of a thickness between

30 and 65 microns has been forbidden. Thicker and more durable plastic bags are allowed

under the new law but industrialists are being strongly encouraged to switch to the

production of paper bags. This is a commendable move by the Government to solve the

plastic waste disposal problem.

4.5 Agricultural wastes Being an agricultural country, Tanzania produces huge amounts of solid agricultural

wastes. The annual amounts of the agricultural wastes produced in metric tonnes include;

sisal pulp 100,000mt; robusta coffee pulp 58,860mt, sugar cane bagasse 5.374mt, straws

of maize 5.280mt; sorghum 1.089mt; rice 600mt; millet 367mt and wheat straw at

(139mt) (Amelia et al., 2002). There is a significant potential of using these wastes as

energy sources. For example, rice husks may be briquetted and sugar cane bagasse and

sisal pulp may be used for production of biofuels and biogas, respectively. Some

initiatives to harness energy from agricultural wastes have been reported.

In Tanzania, obsolete pesticides stocks stand at about 356,000 tonnes, while veterinary

waste amounts to about 140,000 tonnes. The menace of agrochemicals is accentuated by

the fact that their storage is scattered in more than 300 poorly attended stores all over the

country (Appendix 2). In the Rufiji and neighbouring basins, fertiliser uses have ranged

between 33,000 and 50,000 tonnes per year since the 1970s (Mbuligwe, 2005). An

inventory conducted by NEMC and TPRI in 1989 revealed that unused/obsolete

pesticides amount to 18 tonnes of DDT and DDT formulations in warehouses of cotton

and coffee growing areas. Along with that there are 40,000 liters of expired pesticides

(endosulfan, flumetrion, altrazine, malathion and methidation) in the cotton growing

regions of Mwanza, and Shinyanga. Poor handling of these expired and outdated

chemicals substantially contribute to environmental pollution. Unfortunately local

capacity to manage agricultural wastes is limited and as such they are not properly

disposed of.

4.6 Other wastes Electrical and electronic wastes include discarded TVs, radio, refrigerators, air

conditioners, cell phones, computers, and all electrical and electronic materials.

Unfortunately, these wastes are not properly handled and as such they may be sources of

heavy metal pollution especially lead. Used/waste oil comprising lubricants, hydraulic,

metalworking, insulating and transmission fluids from garages, petrol station and metal

industries are causing pollution of water and soil because they are not properly stored and

disposed of. Waste oil is sometimes used for wood preservation in an environmentally

hostile fashion.

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4.7 Research and Development Research and development in waste management technology is limited in Tanzania.

However, researches are being conducted on treatment of wastewater, recycling and

composting of solid wastes and excreta disposal in some academic and research

institutions. UCLAS is researching on composting latrines of the type of Ecological

Sanitation (ECOSAN) toilets, recycling and composting of domestic solid wastes,

treatment of wastewater using Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket technology (UASB)

and engineered wetlands. College of Engineering and Technology (CoET) of University

of Dar es Salaam has been conducting a research project on treatment of wastewater

using wetland systems for more than 7 years now. National Institute of Medical Research

(NIMR) has undertaken research and development on low cost on-site sanitation

technologies for a longtime now. MAPET technology as an efficient means of cesspit

emptying services in unplanned settlement is being promoted by the Dar es Salaam City

Council. However, most of these waste management technologies are still in the nascent

stage and are yet to be proven in the field.

4.8 Policy and Institution Initiatives To address the problem of waste management, the Tanzanian Government is preparing a

National Waste Management Strategy and Action Plan to serve as a framework guide for

better management of wastes in the country. The Strategy will take into account elements

of the hierarchy of waste management namely, waste prevention and reduction at source;

reuse, recovery and recycling; treatment; and, disposal.

4.9 Way forward A way forward to solving waste management problems include, full utilisation of

capacities of installed sewerage systems; making waste water management self sustaining

through cost recovery; monitoring and proper operation and maintenance of sanitation

facilities; use of sanitation facilities according to site conditions; enforcing use of pre-

treatment facilities for polluting industries and effecting a monitoring and vetting

programme; and, involving NGOs, CBOs, and the private sector in the delivery of waste

management services.

4.10 Recycling and Resource Recovery Solid wastes are the most recycled type of wastes. Recycling of domestic wastewater for

irrigation purposes is done albeit at a small scale (Kassenga. and Mbuligwe, 2005). For

this reason, only recycling of solid wastes will be covered in this section.

4.11 Recycling of Solid Wastes The ever increasing tonnage of solid waste generation with consequently increased

collection and disposal costs, recycling reuse and composting are the amongst suitable

approach to effective manage the solid waste management in Tanzania. For example,

Kaseva and Gupta (1996) found that 18% of waste generated in Dar es Salaam can be

recycled. Mbuligwe et al. (2002) estimated that potential for recycling could be expanded

to about 55% of the total waste generated in the City. Paper is recycled by most

scavengers (40.1%) followed by metal (28.5%), plastics (12.8%), glass (17%) and textiles

(9.1%). The recycling activities take place informally at point of generation, collection,

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illegal dumpsites and final disposal sites. In Dar es Salaam, it is estimated that there are

fifty-two (52) active franchisees in SWM whom altogether employ more than 2,000

people, and about 60% of these employees are women. These operate their business

under poor conditions; most of them have not proper facilities and equipment for sorting

the valuable materials from discarded wastes. Additionally, at the moment there is no

national policy and legislation on recycling and it is done haphazardly and according to

the needs of the market (Kassim 2006).

4.12 Resource Recovery from Solid Wastes A large proportion (over 70%) of solid waste generated in Tanzania is compostable since

it is very rich in organic component. If all the organic wastes are to be composted; the

reduction in solid waste that would need to be finally disposed would be over 70%

(Mbuligwe et al., 2002). However, composting of solid wastes is hardly practiced in

Tanzania. It is only in Dar es Salaam where few private organizations have been reported

to be involved in composting solid wastes. In order to make composting attractive and

profitable, markets for compost have to be identified and promoted. Indeed, this approach

has a great potential and might need to be promoted and practiced at municipality and

city council levels.

Mbuligwe and Kassenga (2004) investigated on the potential of using solid waste for

electricity generation in Dar es Salaam and concluded that anaerobic digestion may

reduce the amount of waste to be disposed of by at least 50% since vegetable and

putrescible matter accounts for between 62 and 70% of the total amount of solid waste

generated daily. An assessment of the potential and constraints of composting as a

disposal method for market solid wastes in Dar Es Salaam found that although compost

produced from solid waste was of satisfactory quality, its acceptability by farmers was

jeopardized by the fear of contamination of farm produce (Kassenga 1999).

4.13 Way forward Besides benefiting the environment, recycling and resource recovery are income-

generating activities, which contribute in poverty reduction in line with MKUKUTA. In

view of this, there is a dire need to recognize recycling and resource recovery as

appropriate methods for waste management in the preparation of National Waste

Management Strategy and Action Plan. A more positive regulatory approach would be to

attempt to formalize and rationalize recycling and resource recovery activities within the

official waste management system.

5.0 Public Health Problems Related to Sanitation and Pollution Most communicable diseases are caused by defective sanitation. It is estimated that the

percentage of households owning a toilet facility in Tanzania fluctuates between 84% and

89%. Unfortunately, most of toilet facilities are substandard as there are infested with

flies and provide favorable places for breeding of mosquitoes. Another problem is that

often hand washing facilities are not available. It is thus not surprising, that water and

excreta related diseases are the most common causes of health centre visits given the

backwardness of sanitary facilities coupled with poor drainage and water supply.

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Women, children and immuno-compromised people are most affected by inadequate

water supply and sanitation facilities.

Cholera, typhoid, dysentery and other waterborne diseases are responsible for illnesses

and deaths to many people in Tanzania especially children. There are some

epidemiological indications that these diseases have become endemic in various urban

centres like Dar es Salaam, Morogoro and Singida. The child mortality rate, which stands

at 15% (Blinker et al, 2006) indicates that the level of environmental sanitation is

inadequate.

Malaria is ranked as number one killer disease in the country with ~3% deaths, ~15%

hospital attendances, and ~10% admission (Chaggu 2004). Incidence rates of malaria are

high in areas with inadequate sanitation facilities as mosquitoes breed favourably under

poor sanitary conditions.

Epidemiological data related to environmental pollution are scarce in Tanzania. Not

withstanding that chemical pollution of water sources, which accompany industrial

development and intensive agriculture, can introduce new diseases that Tanzania is not

yet sufficiently equipped to fight against. Air pollution may cause respiratory ailments

and aggravate the existing pulmonary infections. Noise pollution is associated with a

number of social and physiological problems, which may impair economic productivity

of the affected individuals.

Frequent eruptions of communicable diseases are putting a heavy economic burden on

the Government, which is forced to allocate its meager resources in fighting them thus

jeopardising the pursuit for poverty reduction. Most of the communicable diseases can be

controlled by improving environmental sanitation conditions.

5.1 Policy and Programme Initiatives A number of sectoral policies such as National Environmental Policy (1997), National

Water Policy (2002), Sustainable Industrial Development Policy (SIDP) (1996), and

Health Policy (1990), which address issues pertaining to environmental health and

sanitation are in place. The challenge is to implement these policies for improvement of

environmental health and sanitation.

It is broadly recognized by all actors working in the water sector that, in order to have a

real impact on health, water supply programmes should integrate sanitation and hygiene

promotion. Initiatives for water supply and sanitation include the transformation of rural

water and sanitation projects and programme into harmonized nationwide programme;

the National Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Programme in all rural Tanzania

Mainland Districts by July 2006.

Tanzania has been conducting environmental health and sanitation competition since

1998, which has stimulated challenges and builds morale towards improvement of

environmental conditions in respective areas. It is an annual event drawing a wide variety

of stakeholders directed to achieve among others, the following objectives: to raise the

144

sanitation standards in the country; to raise community awareness on the importance of

maintaining a clean environment; to promote community and private sector participation

in the delivery of environmental health and sanitation services stipulated in the

government policies; to reduce communicable and non-communicable diseases which are

sanitation-related.

6.0 Natural Disasters The natural disasters common in Tanzania include floods, drought and earthquake. The

flood prone areas are those located in river basins, especially Rufiji River basin which

covers over 20% of Tanzania mainly area. Drought is a common natural disaster

especially in semi - arid areas of the country such as Shinyanga, Dodoma, Singida,

Tabora and Mwanza region. Indiscriminate cutting of trees for agricultural expansion,

building construction, woodpile and crop drying are considered to be major causes for

desertification and drought conditions.

Tanzania is traversed by both the eastern and western arm of the East African Rift

System and the most recount magnetism within the rift system is concentrated in northern

Tanzania (Kilimanjaro area) and the Rungwe in the south. The area with high seismicity

is the western rift, eastern rift, Pangani rift, and the southern tip of Mtwara. There have

been cases of big earthquakes in Rukwa (7.4 on "Ritchei Scale") in 1910; Mbulu, (6.3) in

1964; Kahama (5.2) in 1983; Rukwa (5.9) in 1994.

6.1 Policy and Institution Initiatives Past experiences have shown that the Government is ill prepared and equipped to handle

natural disasters when they happen. Now the government has established a special

division within the Prime Minister's Office with a goal of dealing with disasters and the

Disaster Management Policy is in place. Regarding training, a Disaster Management

Training Centre has been established at UCLAS. Not withstanding these initiatives more

need to be done to enhance the resilience of people against disaster.

145

CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION Tanzania is located in East Africa and is among the Least Developed Countries in the

world, with the population size of 34,569,232. In 2005, the GDP of Tanzania amounted

to Tshs 13,063,317 million at current prices, while per capita income was Tshs. 61,798.

In 2005, the GDP was recorded to grow by 6.8 percent compared to 6.7 in 2004. The

natural resources sector contributed an average of about 5.7 percent of GDP, with

fisheries showing the highest growth rate and substantial increase in export earnings of

combined total of over USD 1.3 billion.

An increase in population has always been associated to rapid degradation of the

environment particularly deforestation, pollution and soil erosion. Both population

growth and environmental degradation have become global problems of concern. To

address environmental concerns in the country, various frameworks for environmental

management have been put in place. In 1997, the National Environmental Policy was

prepared. This was followed by enactment of the Environmental Management Act in

2004. The Act puts in place institutional and legal framework for environmental

management in the country. Other sectors address their environmental concerns with

reference to this Act. Environment has also been mainstreamed in the National Strategy

for Growth and Reduction of Poverty, in Kiswahili acronomy MKUKUTA which was

prepared in 2005. This is a five years strategy which is implemented by all sectors.

Moreover, environment being a global agenda, Tanzania is a party to a number of

environmental conventions and subscribes to the Millenium Development Goals.

Tanzania‟s quest for sustained economic growth, improved welfare and provision for

basic human needs to her people continues to rely on a healthy environment to support

the natural resources which are the base of economic sustainability. The country

continues to rely on agriculture for much of the needed sustainable livelihood particularly

in the rural areas and for its continued economic growth and sustainability. The sustained

growth of other development sectors such as tourism, wildlife, water and energy will

also continue to depend on the state of the environment and the pressure on it.

Agriculture is the most important sector in Tanzania‟s economy. It has a significant

contribution to the National GDP compared to other sectors with a contribution of 45.6

per cent in 2005. It is the main source of employment and livelihood for more than two-

thirds of the Tanzanian population. It is an important economic sector in terms of food

production, employment generation, production of raw materials for industries and

generation of foreign exchange.

However according to the Economic Survey Report of 2005, it has been observed that the

contribution of the agricultural sector to the GDP has continued to decline gradually

while the contribution of other sectors particularly manufacturing, tourism, mining and

construction continue to rise. This shows a change in the composition and structure of the

economy that does not depend on the contribution of the agriculture sector alone.

146

In 2005 the agriculture sector grew by 5.2 percent compared to 5.8 per cent in 2004. This

decrease in the growth rate of the sector was attributed to a decrease in the production of

crop and livestock sub-sectors. The main challenge facing the sector is the continued

dependence of rainfall for agricultural activities. This has been the main challenge facing

the growth of the sector and also leading to food insecurity. This is evidenced by the

drought that affected many parts of the country particularly in the last quarter of 2005.

Other challenges facing the sector include inadequate availability of improved seeds,

inadequate micro-credits to farmers, limited access to agricultural products markets etc.

The government is putting up initiatives to promote irrigation farming by using both

traditional and modern irrigation technologies. Furthermore the government is promoting

and encourages participation of private investments in large-scale agriculture. In 2005 the

number of private investors in the sector increased to 169 from 145 in 2004, equivalent to

an increase of 16.6 percent

The natural resources sector comprises of forestry, beekeeping, wildlife and fisheries sub-

sectors. In 2005, the forestry and hunting-sub-sectors grew by 45 percent compared to 3.8

percent in 2004. The increase in the rate of growth of forestry and hunting sub-sectors

was attributed by increased sales of forestry and hunting products in domestic and foreign

markets. According to the National Forest Programme (NFP 2001), Tanzania possess

about 33.5million ha of natural forests with about 815 Forest Reserves with legal status.

The importance of forests to mankind and environment cannot be overemphasized.

Management and sustainable utilization of forests is one of the important aspects in order

to realize the maximum benefits that can be accrued from these forests. It is in this

understanding the government has continued to implement the National Forestry and

Beekeeping programme and also continues to encourage community participation in

forestry conservation and beekeeping. Other initiatives employed by the government

include the National Tree Planting Campaign. In 2005, a total of 141,267,000 trees were

planted in all regions compared to 133,271,038 trees in 2004. The increase was due to

sensitization on tree planting and its importance on the environment. All these initiatives

aim at reducing the rate of forests depletion.

Coastal and marine ecosystems and resources have significant economic importance to

the local communities and the nation at large. The contribution of the coastal resources

particularly fisheries to the economic development has been increasing. In 2005, earning

from fish and fish products exports (both marine and freshwater) was about US $ 142

million. Earnings from domestic fish market (both marine and freshwater), in the same

year was about Tshs. 10 billion. Although there are economic opportunities, pressure on

coastal resources is increasing and resource depletion is already occurring. Coastal

communities depend on coastal resources as their source of food and income. This

dependence has led to increased competition for the scarce resources and unsustainable

utilization of the same. In order to ensure sustainability of coastal resources, so as to

improve the people‟s livelihood and increase their contribution to the national economy,

the following strategic actions need to be undertaken:-

147

(i) Support environmental planning and integrated management of coastal

resources with stakeholder participation both at national and local

level;

(ii) Promote integrated, sustainable and environmentally friendly

approaches to the development of major economic uses of the

resources so as to optimize their benefits;

(iii) Conserve critical habitats and areas of high biodiversity while ensuring

that people continue to benefit from sustainable use of the resources;

(iv) Establish an integrated planning and management mechanisms for

coastal areas of high economic interest and substantial environmental

vulnerability to natural hazards that will allow available scientific and

technical information to inform integrated coastal management

decisions; and

(v) Build both human and institutional capacity for inter-disciplinary and

inter-sectoral coastal environment management.

The state and trend of fresh water resources has been explained. Water supports diverse

ecological systems and there is increased demand for domestic and industrial use;

hydropower generation and irrigation. In order to ensure sustainable use of the

freshwater resources, there is a need to:-

(i) Rehabilitate and better management water catchment areas and related

ecosystems as a whole;

(ii) Rehabilitate and modernize the basic network of hydrometric and

climatologically stations;

(iii) Formulate and implement programmes to rehabilitate degraded lands within

catchments and ecosystems and address the resulting sediment discharges and

sedimentation of reservoirs;

(iv) Put in place well defined water quality and quantity monitoring programme;

(v) Sensitize and create awareness among relevant stakeholders at national,

district and village levels on the importance and potential of rainwater harvest;

and

(vi) Support efforts and technologies at various levels for rain harvesting, storage

and use.

Since wetlands provide the essential life support system necessary for the economy,

ecology and livelihoods of many communities in Tanzania, it is important to give them

recognition as critical resources that need to be utilized sustainably. Poor communities

around many wetlands entirely depend on wetlands resources for their survival during the

periods of drought. With climate change that is triggering recurrent droughts and

population increase, pressure on wetlands is likely to continue. This calls for

development of long-term strategies for the management of wetlands that will include

raising awareness and creating alternatives sources of income to communities whose

livelihood depend on wetlands. Immediate action should be to implement the national

strategy for protection of catchments areas and water sources launched in 2006.

148

Mining industry impacts the environment by destroying fauna and flora habitats and

changing course of rivers due to siltation and flow modification. The industry also uses

large quantities of water as well as cause land degradation and deforestation. One of the

effective approaches to minimize environmental degradation caused by the mining

industry is to enforce the environmental laws and regulations pertaining to mining

activities and to use environmental management tools during all phases of mine

development. Since in most cases small scale miners do not adhere to the environmental

regulations the concerned authorities should carry out sensitization programmes to small

scale miners pertaining to the importance of environmental conservation and use of

cleaner and environmentally friendly technologies in mining operations.

Ninety two percent (92%) of the energy used in the country is biomass based.

Unfortunately, biomass resource is utilized unsustainably resulting into ecological

problems notably, deforestation and land degradation. Hydropower development also

creates environmental concerns by creating land inundation and desiccations as well as

loss of biodiversity among other problems. Thermal power production generates noise

and air pollution. To solve energy availability problems and environmental problems

associated with energy development and utilisation, the country is striving to diversify

energy sources by exploiting alternative new and renewable energy sources.

The main features that characterize urbanization in the country include rapid population

increase due to natural increase and migration and sprawling urban centres beyond the

limits and capacity of local authorities to provide basic infrastructure and social

amenities. Of particular concern is the limited capacity of urban authorities, agencies and

community groups in addressing issues of land use management and environmental

conservation, within the formal and informal urban settlements. Consequently, cities in

Tanzania depict features of rapid increase in unemployment and urban poverty, growth

and expansion of informal settlements, deterioration of existing infrastructure and social

services, proliferation of the informal sector and growth of non-urban activity sectors

especially urban farming. These shortcomings are aggravated by inadequate governance.

The urban poor are marginalised into hazardous lands (valley bottoms, flood plains,

polluted areas, etc.). Urbanization should be controlled by improvement of the

governance of urban settlements and adopting the Environmental Planning and

Management (EPM) process and other measures, which will facilitate creation of

employment opportunities and eradication of poverty.

The state of water pollution in Tanzania is characterized by the deterioration of quality of

ground and surface water sources especially lakes and rivers flowing through major urban

centres and pollution of both surface and ground water resources due to excessive and

irrational use of agrochemicals in catchment areas. Air and noise pollution are largely

caused by transport activities especially road traffic due to old age of most vehicles. Poor

environmental sanitation as indicated by high child mortality rate (15%) is responsible for

frequent eruptions of water and excreta related diseases such as typhoid, cholera and

malaria some of which have become endemic in some urban centres. Lack of waste

treatment and emission control facilities coupled with low capacity of pollution control

authorities to enforce existing environmental laws and regulation are the main causes of

149

environmental pollution. Environmental pollution is undermining the quest of the

Government to eradicate poverty because of costs involved in cleaning up contaminated

media especially treatment of water for domestic use and treatment of ailments caused by

pollution. Integrated water resources management will ensure the prevention of water

pollution from all sources. Increasing the capacity of the pollution control authorities to

enable them to enforce the existing laws and regulation effectively will solve most the

pollution problems.

150

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APPENDICES

APPENDIX 1: Characteristics and fate in the environment of some major Pesticides used in

Tanzania.

Type of

pesticide

Uses Reactions and fate in the Environment

Chlorpyrifos

(Brodan)

Insecticide on

fruits, forestry,

vegetables

Is transformed in soil and water; is subject to

photolysis; degenerates into various products

Endosulfan

(Benzoeipin)

Insecticide for

vegetable crops

Is transformed in soil and water; is subject to

photolysis; degenerates into various products

Profenofos

(Curacron)

Insecticide,

acaricide

Sorbes into soil; reacts when in UV light, emits

toxic fumes of SO2, etc, when heated

p,p‟-DDT

(Agritan,

Azotox, etc)

Insecticide, but now

prohibited in most

countries

Metabolites in soil are p,p‟-DDD, p,p‟-DDE;

biodegrades slowly under special conditions;

affected by photolysis,

Atrazine

(Aatrex)

Herbicide for

control of annual

grasses in maize,

fruit crops, etc

Degrades into Deethylatrazine in alluvial

aquifers; hydrolysed to hydroxyatrazine in soil;

Desethyl-, desisopropylatrazine form in water

Fanthion

(Baycid)

Insecticide,

acaricide

In plants oxidises to sulfone and mesulfenfos;

affected by photolysis; gives off toxic sulphur

and phosphorus fumes on heating

Carbofuran

(Bay 70143)

Systemic

insecticide,

nematocide,

acaricide; applied

in soil

Hydrolysed to carbofuran phenol at pH 7.0; in

plants rapidly metabolised to non-toxic

products

Proposur

(Aprocarb)

Insecticide applied

on fruits and

vegetables

Decomposes at elevated temperatures forming

methyl isocyanate and NOx

Names of pesticide in brackets are synonyms

Source: adapted from Mbuligwe (2005)

158

APPENDIX 2: Obsolete Pesticides and Veterinary Wastes Stored In Tanzania Mainland Regions

Region

Obsolete Pesticides Veterinary Wastes

(litres) (kg) (litres) (kg)

Arusha 35654.42 17808.83 1327.15 3005.30

Coast 782.50 11313.60 334.00 69.10

Dar es Salaam 940001.00 127050.00 0.00 123014.00

Dodoma 115.00 402.50 122.50 22.00

Iringa 22337.00 3735.50 20.00 0.00

Kagera 12870.00 15307.62 357.25 128.75

Kigoma 1819.00 974.07 1047.00 5025.00

Kilimanjaro 2121.60 54530.25 1256.00 1285.00

Lindi 90.00 1814.00 1084.60 194.6

Mara 14323.00 17562.00 1520.00 0.00

Mbeya 16393.50 5270.00 0.00 142.00

Morogoro 8718.00 21468.00 55.00 165.00

Mtwara 9470.00 2009.00 116.10 825.90

Mwanza 3999.90 3266.65 1294.00 461.20

Rukwa 900.00 0.00 10.00 0.00

Ruvuma 346.00 28.60 294.70 76.62

Shinyanga 23540.00 935.50 929.00 400.00

Singida 1009.00 374.00 2421.00 264.00

Tabora 1534.00 16628.00 283.00 4100.00

Tanga 29823.80 55421.00 1226.55 319.60

Source: Mbuligwe (2005)

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