Appendix 1 – Details of the maritime disruptions identified during the research

Key:CA – Coastal areasEEZ – Exclusive Economic ZonesP – PortsHE – Human errorMF – Mechanical faultPV – Poor visibilityRS – Rough seasS&I – Snow and iceSS – Storm surgeWS – Wind storm - Primary cause of the disruption event - Secondary cause(s) of the disruption event

Date(s) of event

Event severity

Zones affected

Key impacts Legacy Data sources Primary and secondary event types

CA

EEZ

P CF HE MF PV RS S&I

SS WS

31/1/1953 – 1/2/1953

5 (iii) Multiple vessels sank (including

Princess Victoria car ferry); loss of,

and damage to homes (24,000), businesses (200) and agricultural land/livestock (160,000 acres

and 46,000 animals); multiple mortalities (475); Felixstowe docks

destroyed

Construction of Thames Barrier; improved flood

defences; implementation of tidal gauge system; updated floor risk Policy (England &

Wales)

BBCBoston.gov.uk (online)Baxter (2005)Dawson et al. (2009)Flood Disasters (online)Jonkman and Kelman (2005)Levinson (2008)Lowestoft Journal (online)Lumbroso and Vinet (2011)Maritime Journal (online)The Met Office (online)

Wadey (2013)Wadey et al (2015)Zong and Tooley (2003)

17/11/1953 5 (iii) Steamer Vittoria Claudia sank;

mineral oil cargo lost; entire crew

perished (20)

_ BBC

8/12/1954 5 (ii) Scarborough lifeboat sank;

crew perished (3)

_ Scarborough Maritime Heritage (online) The Met Office

25/12/1962 – 6/3/1963

4 Freezing conditions

resulted in long term delays

accessing ports

_ BBCBlue and Green Tomorrow (online)The Telegraph

27/12/1965 5 (ii) Sea Gem collapses; 13 died

Inquiry recommended regular

inspections; assurance of clear chain of command and communication

BBCBurke (2013)

20/1/1966 5 (ii) MS Kremsertor sank; cargo of iron ore lost

_ Geschichteclubstahl (online)Seefunknetz (online)

18/3/1967 5 (i) Torrey Canyon ran aground (eventually disposed via

bombing); cargo of crude oil lost

(>100,000 tonnes)

£3 million compensation to UK

and French governments

BBCBureau of Maritime Affairs MonroviaScotland (flood damage) (online)IMO

27/3/1967 3 Breaching of seawall; highly

localised flooding; SW

Scotland

_ Scotland (storm damage) (online)

15/1/1968 5 (i) SeaQuest broke anchors and was

lost

_ Anchors and Chain Cables Act, 1967 (online)Weather Forecast

6/3/1968 5 (i) Ocean Prince collapsed

_ Drilling Rig “Ocean Prince” (loss) (online)Kemp (2013)

2/1/1974 5 (i) Transocean capsized (in use for <6 months)

_ “Torrey Canyon” (agreement on claims) (online)

2-4/1/1976 4 Over 400 houses flooded

(Cleethorpes)

_ BBCFlather and Davies (1976)Keane (1976)Flohn and Fantachi (1984)North Sea Installations (online)Lamb (1991)Lamb (2012)MunichRe, 2012

9-12/11/1977

4 >500 properties flooded; 7900

acres agricultural land (including

>7000 livestock); NW coast

Proposed upgrade to Wyre Borough

Council western seaboard

Brown et al. (2010)Environment AgencyFleetwood Weekly News (online)Sea defeces (online)Zong and Tooley (2003)

11/1/1978 4 >1000 houses flooded; localised sea wall breaches; Lincolnshire and

East Anglia

_ Scottish Highlands (dtorm damage) and Floods (east coast) (online)Margate Local History (online)Steers et al. (1979)

4-5/1/1979 4 1500 houses flooded

(Cleethorpes);

_ The Whales & Dolphins of Clacton Pier (online)

localised sea defence breaching

Flood and Storm Emergency Relief (online)Western Morning News (online)

13/2/1979 5 (i) Houses destroyed in Portland

_ BBCFlohn and Fantachi (1984)

13/8/1981 5 (ii) Helicopter lost power and

crashed into the sea; all 13 on

board were killed

_ AAIB

13/12/1981 3 Flooding primarily affecting Somerset

_ Burnham on Sea (online)EDF Energy (2010) Rogers (2011)

19/12/1981 5 (ii) Union Star Coaster and

Penlee lifeboat sank; mortality of

all aboard the vessels

_ West Coast News (online)

2/2/1983 3 Localised flooding along the S-E England coast

_ BBC

6/11/1986 5 (ii) Chinook crashed in North Sea; 45

died

_ BBC

15-16/10/1987

5 (i) Multiple vessels sank or were

damaged (MV Hengist)

_ East Anglian Daily TimesHHV Ferry (online)RMS

6/7/1988 5 (ii) Largest man-made catastrophe;

Piper Alpha destroyed; 167

perished

_ BBCPaté-Cornell (1993)The Guardian

22/9/1988 5 (i) Ocean Odyssey oil rig suffered a blowout; 1 crew

member died (human error)

_ Vinnem (2013)

8/11/1989 5 (i) Interocean II broke free from

tow lines and sank

_ The Herald

25/1/1990 5(i) Multiple ports were closed for

over 3 hours

_ Smith (2007)McCallum and Grahame (1993)

26-28/2/1990

4 2800 houses flooded; severe breaching of sea

defences

_ BBCSea Defences and Flood Damage and Flooding, North Wales (online)HR WallingfordThe Met Office

12/5/1990 5 (i) 1100 tonnes of crude oil spilled

_ Oil Pollution (Devon coast) (online)The Independent

25/7/1990 5 (ii) Helicopter crashed into

North Sea, 6 on board died

_ AAIBSikorsky Helicopter Crash (online)

5, 10/1/1993

5 (iii) MV Braer broke up and lost cargo; 84700 metric tons of light crude oil

spilled

_ BBC MV Braer (online)MAIBMcCallum and Grahame (1993)Odell et al. (2013)The Met Office

19/9/1995 3 Minor damage to ferry Stena

Challenger; 24 hour delay

_ MAIB

29/10/1995 1 Tanker Borga ran aground, short

_ MAIB

term delays15-

21/2/19965 (ii) 71,800 tonnes of

crude oil cargo spilt; Sea Empress

was salvaged

Safety review carried out by British ports

BBCMAIB

8/9/1998 4 Single mortality; Trijnie capsized

but was re-floated

_ MAIB

24/8/1999 4 Damage to vessels

Norwegian Dream and Ever Decent; latter partially lost

cargo

_ BBC

1/9/1999 2 MV Sonia required

assistance after taking on water

Amendment made to IACS surveyor

instruction documentation

MAIB

30/10/2000 5 (ii) Ievoli Sun sank; 6000 tonnes

(styrene and ethyl ketone) cargo lost

_ BBCLaw et al. (2003)

4/2/2001 5(i) Aberdeen Harbour closed;

>100 ferry passengers

stranded for 41 hours in North

Sea

_ BBCThe Telegraph

7/5/2001 4 MV Lysfoss grounded and

sustained substantial

damage; ~80 litres diesel oil

spilt

_ MAIB

1/12/2001 2 European Pioneer grounded; delayed

_ MAIB

for one tidal cycle12/12/2001 2 Collision between

grounded Celtic Forester and Rolf

Buck

_ BBC

16/12/2001 5 (ii) Dina sank; 2430 tonnes of

fluorspar lost; 35 tonnes marine gas

bunker oil spilt

_ BBCIMOHM Government

2/4/2002 4 Collision between Stena Gothica and eastern approach

jetty at Immingham; some cargo

damage; vessel required urgent

assistance

_ MAIB

5/7/2002 5 (ii) Helicopter crashed into the North Sea; 11

killed

_ The Daily Mail

26-27/10/2002

4 Bothnia Stone required

assistance; lost part of timber

cargo overboard (some retrieved); collision between

Pride of Portsmouth and HMS St. Albans

QHM Portsmouth altered limits on ferry

operational wind limit and use of tugs

for large vessels

BBCMaritime and Coastguard AgencyMAIBTenby Council

14/12/2002 5 (ii) Tricolor lost after collisions with

Kariba, Vicky and Nicola; partial

cargo loss; 1990

Following the incident a new

tracking system was introduced for the

Dover Strait

BBCBEAMERMarine Insight (online)Trade Winds News (online)

tonnes heavy fuel oil spilt

United States Court of Appeals

18/4/2003 2 Contact between Pride of

Providence and southern

breakwater at Dover Harbour;

30 injuries sustained

_ MAIB

11-12/1/2005

2 Crew rescued from a Spanish

fishing boat; flooding in Outer

Hebrides

_ BBCeSurgeHouse of CommonsSPICeThe Met OfficeWolf (2007)

3/11/2005 3 Regions of Hayling Island were flooded

_ Palmer (2011)Ruocco et al. (2011)

7/6/2006 4 Collision between Samskip Courier

and Skagern; Skagern partially

sank

_ MAIB

27/12/2006 5 (ii) Aerospatiale helicopter crashed

off the North Morecambe gas

platform; all 7 on board perished

_ MAIB

17-19/1/2007

5 (iii) MSC Napoli deliberately beached and

broke up; 302 tonnes light fuel oil spilt; Dover,

Dublin and Felixstowe ports

Recommendations to IACS to improve ship

design to prevent a repeat event

Aon BenfieldBBCDevon County CouncilFink et al. (2009)MAIBThe TelegraphURS CorporationWillis Re

closed8/5/2007 5(i) Extended closure

of Felixstowe Port_ BBC

19/12/2007 5 (ii) Tug Flying Phantom lost;

three crew members perished

IACS recommended to standardise the

tow-line emergency equipment; UK

Major Ports Group and British Ports

Association reviewed its guide to good

practice

BBCMAIB

31/1/2008 5 (ii) Ferry Riverdance sank; Pride of

Canterbury grounded

sustaining major damage; Port of

Dover closed

DfT produced study on stability and

operational issues affecting RoRo

vessels operating in UK ports

BBCMAIB

1/3/2008 4 Zhen Hua 23 broke free of mooring in

Felixstowe Port destroying cranes

_ EMSAFelixstowetv (online)Vertikal (online)

10-12/3/2008

5(i) Dover, Felixstowe and Southampton

Ports closed; widespread flooding in

English Channel

_ BBCHaigh et al (2011)ICIS (online)Wadey et al (2013)

2/11/2008 5 (i) Grab hopper dredger Abigail H sank; ~100 litres lubricating and diesel oil spilt

Recommendation to MCA for certain

additional vessels to be fitted with bilge

alarms

MAIB

14/6/2009 5 (i) Tug Ijsselstroom sank

_ MAIB

14/11/2009 5(i) Dover Port _ BBC

closed; coastal flooding in

Dorset; multiple ferry service delays and

cancellations

The IndependentThe Met Office

6/1/2010 5(i) Felixstowe Port closed

_ BBC

10/1/2010 5(i) Aberdeen Harbour closed; vessels unable to

exit harbor (including Hjaltland)

_ The Shetland Times

30-31/3/2010

3 Multiple ferry service delays and

cancellations

_ BBCThe Met Office

11-12/11/2010

3 Multiple ferry service delays and

cancellations

_ Direct Ferries (online)HeartThe Met Office

2/12/2010 5(i) Felixstowe, Southampton, Immingham, Thamesport, Tilbury and

Grangemouth Ports were closed

_ BBCChambers and Cooke Freight Ltd. (online)Southern Daily EchoPort Strategy (online)The Telegraph

16/3/2011 1 Clonlee grounded in Port of Tyne

entrance

_ MAIB

23/5/2011 4 Felixstowe Port closed

_ East Anglian Daily Times

29/11/2011 4 Felixstowe Port closed

_ Ipswich Star

8/12/2011 5(i) Felixstowe Port closed; multiple

ferry service delays and

_ BBCBelfast TelegraphCOSCO (online)Ipswich Star

cancellations The Guardian3/1/2012 5(i) Felixstowe and

Dover Ports closed; rescues from multiple

vessels; multiple ferry service delays and

cancellations

_ BBCGrumm (2012)The Daily MailThe GuardianThe Telegraph

6/2/2012 5(i) Felixstowe Port closed

_ Ipswich StarUK Haulier (online)

3/4/2012 4 Cargo ship Carrier grounded

on shore (Conwy); ~33,000

litres of gas and lubricating oils

spilt

Met Office worked with MCA to

improve severe weather terminology

MAIB

25/4/2012 4 Felixstowe Port closed

_ Royston Crow (online)

14-15/12/2012

3 Ferry service delays and

cancellations; localised damage to sea defences

and harbour walls

_ Bournemouth EchoThe Highland Council

13/1/2013 2 Collision between Tug Christos

XXII and Emsstrom (nb. Not classed as

severity level 5 as Emsstrom was

deliberately sunk)

_ MAIB

28-19/1/2013

5(i) Felixstowe Port closed

_ COSCO Group

23/8/2013 5 (ii) Super Puma helicopter lost

_ BBCThe Guardian

power and crashed off Shetland; 4

passengers were killed

The Independent

28/10/2013 5(i) Felixstowe and Dover Ports closed; Ferry

service delays and cancellations

_ BBCThe Daily Mirror

3/11/2013 4 Evacuation of homes in

Newport; multiple sea defences breached and

flooding

_ BBCHeart RadioSouth Wales ArgusThe Telegraph

5-6/12/2013

5 (ii) 7 homes washed into the sea and >10,000 people

evacuated; Immingham and

Dover Ports closed;

Immingham port severely damaged

_ ABPBBCDepartment for TransportITV NewsThe Grimsby TelegraphThe TelegraphWadey et al, 2015

23/12/2013 3 Dover Port closed; ferry

service delays and cancellations

_ Association of British InsurersBBCThe Daily MailITV NewsThe Met Office

24/12/2013 5(i) Dover Port closed; ferry

service delays and cancellations; injured ferry passengers required

_ The Daily MailThe Guardian

hospitalization26/12/2013 3 Ferry service

cancellations_ ITV News

27/12/2013 3 Delays at Dover Port due to

closure of Calais Port

_ Yahoo! News

6/1/2014 4 1400 homes flooded; 18,000

people evacuated; ferry service delays and

cancellations

_ Association of Drainage AuthoritiesBBCeSurge Irish IndependentThe Guardian

12-15/2/2014

4 Felixstowe and Dover Ports

closed; 1 passenger died aboard Marco

Polo cruise liner, 14 required

medical assistance

_ Commercial Motor Magazine (online)Cruise and Maritime Voyages (online)ITV NewsLloyds Loading ListSky NewsThe ArgusThe Guardian The IndependentWeather Forecast (online)

21/10/2014 3 Ferry service delays and

cancelations

_ BBCThe Guardian

9-10/12/2014

3 Non-standard assistance given

to damaged trawler; ferry

service delays and cancellations

_ BBCBelfast TelegraphSTV News

Appendix 2 – List of sea areas and major UK ports used in this study

Sea Area Adjacent major portsBailey -Cromarty AberdeenDogger -Dover DoverFair Isle -Fastnet -Forth Burntisland; Dundee; Grangemouth; Leith; Methil;

RosythForties -Hebrides -Humber Grimsby; Hull; Immingham; King’s LynnIrish Sea Barrow-in-Furness; Birkenhead; Fleetwood; Garston;

Heysham; Liverpool; Manchester Ship Canal; SillothLundy Barry; Bristol; Cardiff; Milford Haven; Newport;

Port Talbot; SwanseaMalin Ayr; Belfast; TroonPlymouth PlymouthPortland TeignmouthRockall -Shannon -Sole -Thame Felixstowe; Harwich; Ipswich; London; London

Gateway; London Thamesport; Lowestoft; TilburyTyne Goole; Hartlepool; TeesViking -Wight Portsmouth; Southampton

32

Appendix 3 - Case studies:

The 1953 storm surge: January 31st – February 1st 1953A temperate cyclone interacted with spring tides to form a 1 in 250 year storm surge event (Baxter 2005; Lumbroso and Vinet 2011); the worst post-war disruption in the UK (Wadey 2013). The impacts of the event were not isolated to the UK, with severe repercussions felt in countries such as The Netherlands and Belgium. Sea levels peaked at 4.5m above MSL (Jonkman and Kelman 2005). The combined high winds, storm surge and rough seas had major impacts for the UK’s ports, coastal areas and EEZ. A total of 475 people and >46,000 livestock are known to have perished as a direct consequence of the disruption, both on land and at sea. Other damages included the destruction of the Felixstowe Docks (Levinson 2008), flooding of 24,000 houses and 160,000 acres of agricultural land (Lumbroso and Vinet 2011). Vessels sunk included the Princess Victoria in the North Sea with 133 of 177 on board lost. Those who perished on board included the Northern Ireland Finance Minister and Deputy Prime Minister (BBC 2008a). Damages resulting from the event reached £50 million (£1.2 billion in 2014) (Risk Management Solutions Inc. 2003); leading to the installation of storm surge predictions through a tide gauge system, improved sea defences and the construction of the Thames Barrier (Jonkman and Kelman 2005).

Piper Alpha oil rig fire: July 6th 1988Piper Alpha was the largest oil platform located in the North Sea, supplying 10% of the UK’s oil and gas. Following a sequence of explosions the oil rig ignited, taking three weeks for the fire to be brought under control. Workers aboard both the rig and standby vessels were killed, reaching a total of 167 of the 228 workforce (The Guardian 2013). Losses suffered by Lloyds Insurance Marketplace, in the region of £1 billion, made Piper Alpha the most costly anthropogenic insured disruption and the worst offshore catastrophe globally (BBC 2008c). Studies by (Paté-Cornell 1993) and the Lord Cullen (1990) report conclude that the event arose from a myriad of errors and poor decision-making, leading to 106 recommendations being made regarding health and safety on offshore platforms.

Sinking of the Tricolor: December 14th 2002The carrier ship Tricolor sank in the English Channel following a collision with the container vessel Kariba who was attempting to avoid a collision with the Clary in heavy fog (BBC 2002b; Trade Winds News 2005); all 24 of the crew were rescued by the Kariba. The stricken vessel posed a hazard as was lost in the extensively busy Dover Strait shipping lane (BBC 2002a). Further damage resulted post sinking as two vessels – Nicola and Vicky (16th December and 1st January respectively) – ignored the isolation zone and consequently struck the Tricolor (Maritime Insight 2011). This was followed by a collision by a salvage tug, causing discharge of persistent oils into the water, and lead to environmental pollution. Loss of cargo was valued at £30 million, and comprised approximately 3000 luxury cars, making the disruption one of the most expensive automobile cargo losses (BBC 2002a; Maritime Insight 2011). The entire cost was determined as approximately £130 million, although the distribution of fault continues to be contested in court. Following this event, in 2003 a tracking system for all vessels located in the Dover Strait was implemented BBC (2008b).

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Appendix 4 – Supplementary references:

Baxter PJ (2005) The east coast Big Flood, 31 January-1 February 1953: a summary of the human disaster Philosophical transactions Series A, Mathematical, physical, and engineering sciences 363:1293-1312 doi:10.1098/rsta.2005.1569

BBC (2002a) £30m cargo 'lost' as ship sinks. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/2576179.stm. Accessed 7 January 2015

BBC (2002b) Ship sinks after Channel collision. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/2575009.stm. Accessed 7 January 2015

BBC (2008a) 1953: 130 die in ferry disaster. http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/january/31/newsid_2505000/2505913.stm. Accessed 7 January 2015

BBC (2008b) 1953: Twenty die in Channel collision. http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/november/17/newsid_3190000/3190340.stm. Accessed 6 January 2015

BBC (2008c) 1988: Piper Alpha Oil Rig Ablaze. http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/july/6/newsid_3017000/3017294.stm. Accessed 27 February 2015

Brown JM, Souza AJ, Wolf J (2010) An investigation of recent decadal-scale storm events in the eastern Irish Sea Journal of Geophysical Research 115 doi:10.1029/2009jc005662

Burke L (2013) The Sea Gem: A story of material failure Journal of Undergraduate Engineering Research and Scholarship

Dawson RJ et al. (2009) Integrated analysis of risks of coastal flooding and cliff erosion under scenarios of long term change Climatic Change 95:249-288 doi:DOI 10.1007/s10584-008-9532-8

Fink AH, Brucher T, Ermert V, Kruger A, Pinto JG (2009) The European storm Kyrill in January 2007: synoptic evolution, meteorological impacts and some considerations with respect to climate change Natural Hazards Earth System Science 9:405-423

Flohn H, Fantachi R (1984) The climate of Europe: Past, present and future - Natural and man-induced climatic changes: A European perspective vol 3. Springer Netherlands,

Grumm RH (2012) Scottish Windstorm 3 January 2012. Pennsylvania State University, Jonkman SN, Kelman I Deaths during the 1953 North Sea storm surge. In: Proceedings of the Solutions to

Coastal Disasters Conferences, American Society for Civil Engineers, Charleston, South Carolina, 8-11 May 2005.

Kemp A (2013) The official history of North Sea oil and gas: Vol. II - Moderating the state's role vol 2. Routledge,

Lamb HH (1991) Historic storms of the North Sea, British Isles and Northwest Europe. Cambridge University Press,

Lamb HH (2012) Weather, Climate and Human Affairs: A Book of Essays and Other Papers. Routledge Revivals,

Law RJ, Kelly C, Matthiessen P, Aldridge J (2003) Note: The loss of the chemical tanker Ievoli Sun in the English Channel, October 2000 Marine Pollution Bulletin 46:254-257

Levinson M (2008) The Box: How the shipping container made the world smaller and the world economy bigger. Princeton University Press,

Lord Cullen (1990) The public inquiry into the Piper Alpha disaster (command paper). Her Majesty's Stationary Office,

Lumbroso DM, Vinet F (2011) A comparison of the causes, effects and aftermaths of the coastal flooding of England in 1953 and France in 2010 Natural Hazards and Earth System Science 11:2321-2333 doi:10.5194/nhess-11-2321-2011

Maritime Insight (2011) Worst maritime accidents: The Tricolor cargo ship accident. http://www.marineinsight.com/marine/life-at-sea/maritime-history/worst-maritime-accidents-the-tricolor-cargo-ship-accident/. Accessed 7 January 2015

McCallum E, Grahame NS (1993) The Braer storm - 10 January 1993 Weather 48:103-107 doi:10.1002/j.1477-8696.1993.tb05855.x

Odell L, Knippertz P, Pickering S, Parkes B, Roberts A (2013) The Braer storm revisited Weather 68:105-111 doi:10.1002/wea.2097

Paté-Cornell ME (1993) Learning from the Piper Alpha accident: A portmortem analysis of technological and organisational factors Risk Analysis, 13:215-232

Risk Management Solutions Inc. (2003) 1953 U.K. Floods: 50 year retrospective. Rogers N (2011) Climate change on the Severn estuary.

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Ruocco AC, Nicholls RJ, Haigh ID, Wadey MP (2011) Reconstructing coastal flood occurrence combining sea level and media sources: a case study of the Solent, UK since 1935 Natural Hazards 59:1773-1796 doi:10.1007/s11069-011-9868-7

Smith L (2007) Chaos: A very short introduction. 1st edn. Oxford University Press, Steers JA, Stoddart DR, Bayliss-Smith TP, Spencer T, Durbridge PM (1979) The storm surge of 11 January

1978 on the East Coast of England The Geographical Journal 145:192-205The Guardian (2013) Piper Alpha disaster: how 167 oil rig workers died.

http://www.theguardian.com/business/2013/jul/04/piper-alpha-disaster-167-oil-rig. Accessed 27 February 2015

Trade Winds News (2005) 'Tricolor' battle lines take shape. http://www.tradewindsnews.com/weekly/w2005-07-08/212297/tricolor-battle-lines-take-shape. Accessed 7 January 2015

Vinnem J-E (2013) Offshore Risk Assessment: Volume 1 - Principles, modellling and applications of QRA studies vol 1. Springer Science and Business Media,

Wadey MP (2013) Understanding defence failures and coastal flood events: a case study approach. University of Southampton

Wolf J (2007) Modelling of waves and set-up for the storm of 11-12 January 2005. Proudman Oceanographic Laboratory,

Zong Y, Tooley MJ (2003) A historical record of coastal floods in Britain: frequencies and associated storm tracks Natural Hazards 29:13-36

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